efl teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices regarding learner autonomy an exploratory study at a vietnamese university in the mekong delta

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAININGHUE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES LE THANH NGUYET ANH EFL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES REGARDING LEARNER AUTONOMY: AN

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HUE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

LE THANH NGUYET ANH

EFL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES REGARDING LEARNER AUTONOMY:

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY AT A VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY IN THE MEKONG DELTA

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THESIS IN THEORY AND

METHODOLOGY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

HUE, 2019

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HUE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

LE THANH NGUYET ANH

EFL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES REGARDING LEARNER AUTONOMY:

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY AT A VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY IN THE MEKONG DELTA

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THESIS IN THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

TEACHINGCODE: 9 14 01 11

SUPERVISORS:

BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO

ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ

LÊ THANH NGUYỆT ANH

NGHIÊN CỨU THĂM DÒ Ý KIẾN TỪ GIẢNG VIÊN VÀ SINH VIÊN TIẾNG ANH VỀ NHẬN THỨC VÀ THỰC HIỆN DẠY HỌC TỰ CHỦ ĐỐI VỚI SINH VIÊN CHUYÊN NGÀNH TIẾNG ANH TẠI MỘT TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Ở

ĐỒNG BẰNG SÔNG CỬU LONG

LUẬN ÁN TIẾN SĨ

LÝ LUẬN VÀ PHƯƠNG PHÁP DẠY HỌC BỘ MÔN TIẾNG ANH

HUẾ, NĂM 2019

BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO

ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ

LÊ THANH NGUYỆT ANH

NGHIÊN CỨU THĂM DÒ Ý KIẾN TỪ GIẢNG VIÊN VÀ SINH VIÊN TIẾNG ANH VỀ NHẬN THỨC VÀ THỰC HIỆN DẠY HỌC TỰ CHỦ ĐỐI VỚI SINH VIÊN CHUYÊN NGÀNH TIẾNG ANH TẠI MỘT TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Ở

ĐỒNG BẰNG SÔNG CỬU LONG

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this doctoral dissertation and that

I have not used any sources other than those listed in the bibliography and identified

I have learnt, and experienced to become an autonomous learner throughout

my PhD course I believe that this precious experience will help me with myteaching process Without my supervisors‟, lecturers‟, colleagues‟, students‟,friends‟ and family‟s help, encouragements, and suggestions, the present thesiswould not have succeeded

First of all, I would like to express my deeply sincere gratitude to my twosupervisors: Dr Trương Bạch Lê and Assoc Prof Dr Đỗ Minh Hùng for their earlysuggestion of the topic, invaluable guidance, support and sincere advice throughout

my PhD journey Both of them have supplied a large amount of their expertknowledge to me and helped me to change track completely to finish my thesis

I am also heavy in debt to the staff of Hue University of Foreign Languages:Assoc Prof Dr Trần Văn Phước, Dr Bảo Khâm, Assoc Prof Dr Phạm Thị HồngNhung, Assoc Prof Dr Trương Viên, Assoc Prof Dr Lê Phạm Hoài Hương, Dr.Tôn Nữ Như Hương who provided me with critical, useful feedback to help meconduct my thesis better I would also like to thank Assoc Prof Dr Lê Văn Canhfor his early advice and suggestion of the title

I also gratefully acknowledge my colleagues as well as my students in theFaculty of Foreign Language Education at Dong Thap University, who assisted,understood, and supported me through my thesis

Finally, I would like to thank my Mum, my husband, my brothers‟ family,and my friends for their love, encouragement, and being with me along my PhDcourse

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

ABSTRACT x

Chapter One INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the research 1

1.2 Aims of the research 7

1.3 Research questions 7

1.4 Research significance 7

1.5 Organization of the thesis 8

Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 Learner autonomy 9

2.1.1 Definitions of learner autonomy 9

2.1.2 Roles of learner autonomy 9

2.1.2.1 Learner autonomy in Asian EFL higher education 10

2.1.2.2 Learner autonomy in Vietnamese EFL higher education 11

2.1.3 Learner autonomy in foreign language education 12

2.1.3.1 Learner autonomy as ability 12

2.1.3.2 Learner autonomy as responsibility 13

2.1.3.3 Learner autonomy as cognitive processes 15

2.1.3.4 Learner autonomy in lifelong learning 16

2.1.3.5 Learner autonomy as cultural challenge 16

2.1.3.6 Learner autonomy in this study 20

2.1.4 Aspects of learner autonomy 20

2.1.4.1 Technical aspect of learner autonomy 21

2.1.4.2 Psychological aspect of learner autonomy 21

2.1.4.3 Political aspect of learner autonomy 22

2.1.4.4 Sociocultural aspect of learner autonomy 23

2.2 Perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 24

2.2.1 Perceptions 24

2.2.2 Practices 26

2.2.3 Relationship between perception and practice of learner autonomy 30

2.3 Assessment as learning in learner autonomy 31

2.3.1 Assessment as learning as an indispensable segment of LA 31

2.3.2 Teachers‟ role 33

2.3.3 Learners‟ role 34

2.4 Previous studies on EFL teachers‟ and students‟ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 35

2.5 Summary 41

Chapter Three RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 43

3.1 Research approach: Mixed methods research 43

3.2 Research participants 46

3.2.1 Teacher participants 46

3.2.2 Student participants 46

3.3 Data collection methods 47

3.3.1 Interviews 48

3.3.1.1 In-depth interviews 49

3.3.1.2 Group interview 50

3.3.1.3 Interview for teachers 51

3.3.1.4 Interview for students 52

3.3.2 Questionnaire 52

3.4 Research procedure 57

3.4.1 Pilot study 57

3.4.2 Main study 57

3.4.3 Coding questionnaire and interview data 59

3.5 Data analysis 59

3.5.1 Qualitative data analysis 59

3.5.1.1 Transcribing data 59

3.5.1.2 Translating data 60

3.5.1.3 Data analysis and reconcilement 60

3.5.2 Quantitative data analysis 61

3.6 Research reliability and validity 61

3.7 Ethical considerations 62

3.8 Summary 63

Chapter Four FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 64

4.1 Teachers‟ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 64

4.1.1 Teachers‟ perceptions of the concept of learner autonomy 64

4.1.2 Teachers‟ perceptions of the role of learner autonomy 66

4.1.3 Teachers‟ self-report of practices to promote learner autonomy among learners 68

4.1.3.1 Teachers‟ stories of organizing learner autonomy activities 69

4.1.3.2 Teachers‟ achievements of organization and instruction of students‟ LA activities 73

4.1.3.3 Teachers‟ difficulties of organization and instruction of students‟ LA activities 73

4.1.3.4 Teachers‟ assessment of their students‟ LA ability 74

4.1.3.5 Teachers‟ self-assessment about their organization and instruction of students‟ LA activities 75

4.2 Students‟ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 76

4.2.1 Students‟ perceptions of the concept of learner autonomy 77

4.2.2 Students‟ perceptions of the role of learner autonomy 80

4.2.3 Students‟ self-report of practices of learner autonomy 84

4.2.3.1 Students‟ special LA stories 84

4.2.3.2 Students‟ achievements of practicing LA activities 90

4.2.3.3 Students‟ difficulties of practicing LA activities 91

4.2.3.4 Setting goals 92

4.2.3.5 Study plan 93

4.2.3.6 Learner autonomy activities 93

4.2.3.7 Time management 95

4.2.3.8 Learning resources 95

4.2.3.9 Metacognition in learning language 96

4.2.3.10 Students‟ self-assessment of learner autonomy 98

4.3 Relationships between teachers‟ and students‟ perceptions and practices 100

4.3.1 Relationship between teachers‟ perceptions and practices 100

4.3.2 Relationship between students‟ perceptions and practices 101

4.3.3 Relationship between teachers‟ and students‟ perceptions 103

4.3.4 Relationship between teachers‟ and students‟ practices 104

4.4 Discussion 105

4.4.1 Teachers‟ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 105

4.4.1.1 Teachers‟ perceptions of learner autonomy 105

4.4.1.2 Teachers‟ practices of learner autonomy 106

4.4.2 Students‟ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 109

4.4.2.1 Students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy 109

4.4.3 Relationships between teachers‟ and students‟ perceptions and practices 115 4.4.3.1 Relationship between teachers‟ perceptions and practices 115

4.4.3.2 Relationship between students‟ perceptions and practices 117

4.4.3.3 Relationship between teachers‟ and students‟ perceptions 118

4.4.3.4 Relationship between teachers‟ and students‟ practices 119

4.4.3.5 The influential factors in the relationships between teachers‟ and students‟ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 119

4.5 Summary 124

Chapter Five CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS 126

5.1 Summary 126

5.2 Contributions of the study 127

5.2.1 Theoretical contributions 127

5.2.2 Methodological contributions 128

5.2.3 Pedagogical contributions and implications for the future of TESOL in Vietnam 130

5.3 Limitations 131

5.4 Further research 132

5.5 Conclusion 132

PUBLICATIONS INTEGRATED IN THE THESIS 1

REFERENCES 1

APPENDICES 1

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EFL : English as foreign language

MOET : Ministry of Education and Training

DTU : Dong Thap University

SPSS : Statistical package for the social science

TESOL : Teaching English to students of other languages

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Research questions and instruments 47

Table 3.2: Summary of teacher interview clusters 51

Table 3.3: Summary of student interview clusters 52

Table 3.4: Summary of questionnaire clusters 57

Table 3.5: Summary of Cronbach‟s Alpha Coefficients 62

Table 4.1: Students‟perceptions of ability and cognition 78

Table 4.2: Students‟ perceptions of responsibility 79

Table 4.3: Students‟ perceptionsof role of learner autonomy 83

Table 4.4: Students‟ practicesof setting goals 92

Table 4.5: Students‟ practicesof planning study 93

Table 4.6: Students‟ practicesof LA activities 93

Table 4.7: Students‟ practicesof time and life management 95

Table 4.8: Students‟ practicesof materials and resources 95

Table 4.9: Students‟ practicesof metacognition in language learning 96

Table 4.10: Students‟ practicesof self-assessment 99

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: The interaction of perception, cognition, and action 30Figure 3.1: Exploratory design procedure in this study 45Figure 4.1: Integrated students‟ perceptions and practices regarding LA 102

Learner autonomy is one of the central themes in language education in the

21st century In life-long learning societies, autonomous learning plays an importantrole not only in university life but also extends beyond university ExploringEnglish-as-foreign-language (EFL) teachers‟ and EFL students‟ perceptions andpractices of LA is necessary, especially in local contexts It became more specialwhen the study was conducted in a rural area in Mekong Delta because there wasvery little research on EFL autonomous learning there

In the present exploratory study, a mixedmethod approach was employedwith 20 EFL teachers and 60 EFL students through in-depth interviews and groupinterviews respectively, and with 285 EFL students at a university in Mekong Delta

by means of a questionnaire survey Data of the study were collected through twostages, including qualitative data in the first stage and quantitative data in thesecond stage

The findings disclosed that most of the teachers and students had positiveunderstandings in related aspects and levels of learner autonomy as well as its role

in English language study at higher education For teachers, in practice, they madesignificant attempts to cultivate students‟ autonomy However, they faced certainproblems shared by EFL teachers elsewhere For students, they gainedachievements through learner autonomy activities and related problems were found.Besides, the relationships between teachers‟ and students‟ perceptions and practices

of learner autonomy were investigated Thereby, it implies that since learnerautonomy is a long process, students should patiently keep on cultivating it byvirtue of both their own sufficient ongoing efforts and instructor supports when inneed The findings of this study also indicated the relationships between perceptionsand practices of learner autonomy among the teachers and the students as well Theresults of the study will provide more insights of this realm for EFL teachers,policy-makers, and administrators to make plans in order to foster EFL students‟

LA ability to meet the socio-economic needs

Chapter One INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents background and focus of the study The aims of the study,research questions, research significance, and organization of the thesis are introduced

1.1 Background of the research

Recently, the importance of autonomy in second language learning has beenintensively concerned Autonomy plays an important role in language educationbecause in any educational contexts, learners are autonomous when they establishtheir own learning goals and have responsibility for planning, managing andevaluating particular learning activities and the learning process overall Thepractice of learner autonomy (henceforth LA) not only depends upon, but alsodevelops and expands the learner‟s ability for detachment, critical reflection,decision making, and independent action (Little, 1991) Yet, LA is originated fromEuropean education (Benson, 2006) and whether it is suitable for Asian learningstyle (Pennycook, 1997) is both Western educators‟ and Asian educators‟ concern.Therefore, how Vietnamese university students can be encouraged to increase theirautonomous practices is a challenge to the Vietnamese Ministry of Education andTraining (MOET) as well as educators

In the context of the informative technological development these days and thechanging situation of ELT in the 21st century, autonomy is considered as a crucial goal

in teaching and learning process Therefore, the Vietnamese MOET has supported theLaw of Higher Education to promote the quality of the higher educational systemapproaching international standards in the 21st century Recently, the VietnameseMOET has tried to integrate and develop LA in the credit education system A number

of new policies have been issued In Article 40, the Vietnamese Education Law(National Assembly of Vietnam, 2005, p.13) mentions the requirements on contentsand methods of education in higher education, in which LA plays a crucial role:

“Training methods in higher education must be brought into play to foster thelearners‟ability to be active learners, to study and to research by themselves, and tofoster their practical abilities, self-motivation, creative thinking, and ambition” Hence,teaching and learning method in higher education needs to be

fulfilled with three aims: (1) fostering students to learn autonomously, self-research,(2) helping students to increase their creative thinking, (3) training practical ability,attending scientific research and application Meanwhile, the government indicates

that Vietnamese education system should be innovated totally to enrich students‟creativity, autonomous learning, and lifelong learning

Additionally, accompanying the Decision No.1400/QĐ-TTg, 30 September

2008 issued by the Prime Minister (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2008) in “TheNational Foreign Language Project 2020”, teaching and learning foreign languages

in National educational system in 2008 – 2020 period have been innovated to meetthe requirements of industrialization – modernization and fast emerging economicconditions of the country in the market-oriented socialism so that up to 2020 theVietnamese young, who graduate from colleges or universities, will have hadenough foreign language ability to use it independently, communicate it confidently,learn, and work in the international integration based on multilingual andmulticultural settings Furthermore, accompanying the official document number2196/BGDĐT-GDĐH, 22 April 2010 issued by the Vice Minister (VietnameseMOET, 2010) in instruction of constructing and announcing Outcome standards,one of the program outcome standards for learners after graduating from university

is that they must own their updating knowledge ability, creation at work, lifelonglearning, and professional development Meanwhile, Vietnamese teachers with thetraditional role are to transmit knowledge to students; they would like to teach allthings in the classroom However, in the rapid technological information era thesedays, students can find knowledge by a click on the Internet Hence, teachers‟ rolesshould change to instruct students to shape their perceptions of a certain type ofautonomous learning of language acquisition, help them discover their autonomouslearning ability, and offer them opportunities to make decisions about their learning

Besides, the National Strategy for Human Resource Development, 2011–2020(Decision No.579/QĐ-TTg, 19 April by Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2011),emphasises skills for Vietnamese human resource such as foreign language

competence, especially English What is more, in the developmental educationpolicy in 2011 – 2020 period, accompanying the Decision No 711/QĐ-TTg, 13June 2012 issued by the Prime Minister (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2012), theVietnamese government has determined to go on innovating teaching methods andassessment, training students with the aim of developing their activeness, creativity,and LA ability In addition, accompanying the Resolution No.29/NQ-TW, 4November 2013 issued by General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam(Central Executive Committee, 2013), the duty of Vietnamese education to innovateeducation and training basically and comprehensively is to develop learners‟creative ability, learner autonomy, and lifelong learning Since 2015, Vietnam hasbeen a member of the ASEAN and ASEAN Economic Community However, one

of the challenges of Vietnamese students and Vietnamese young human resource istheir weak foreign language competence (Nguyễn Đức Thịnh, 2015) In short,teaching and learning foreign languages, especially English, and fosteringVietnamese students‟ LA ability have become a primary concern for theVietnamese government and the MOET

For Mekong Delta, the Decision No.1033/QĐ-TTg, 30 June 2011 issued bythe Prime Minister on developing education, training, and vocational training inMekong Delta in the period 2011 – 2015 brought hopes for a breakthrough inenhancing the labors‟ education and quality (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2011).However, five years after this Decision had been in effect, the quality of educationand training in Mekong Delta was still lower than that in other regions in Vietnam(Đỗ Nam, Tân Thành, & Phùng Dũng, 2017) Mekong Delta consists of 13provinces and the majority of local people live on growing rice, fruit, andaquaculture Notwithstanding gaining a number of remarkable achievements ofagriculture, this area has been a “depression” in Vietnamese education, especially inteaching and learning English According to Lê Văn (2017), foreign languagecompetence is Vietnamese students‟ weakness, which is one of the conclusions ofthe report for analyzing Vietnamese education at the Educational Forum 2017 Inthis report, only 13.55% of Mekong Delta students at schools gained the standard

level of competence in English This report confirmed that students‟ weakcompetence in English was the big barrier when they attended colleges oruniversities, or participated in labor market in the context of Vietnam For certainreasons, traditional teaching and learning English, or teacher-centered approach, inMekong Delta still somehow exists although educational reforms of Englishlanguage education in Vietnam have been conducted for over ten years In the rapidtechnological information era these days, students can easily use a wide variety oftechnological devices for English learning (Hoàng Nguyễn Thu Trang, 2017) As aconsequence, teacher role should change so as to help students to foster their LAability effectively Meanwhile, like many other countries in the world in general andother universities in Vietnam in particular, Mekong Delta‟s higher education hasapplied a credit system in recent years Under this system, students are required torely more on themselves in learning rather than on their instructors in the classes.The problem that appears here is how students are able to study independently ofteachers given that they did not experience this during previous education.

Although there has been a lot of research about LA conducted around the world

in many ways and a variety of studies of EFL teachers‟ perceptions and practicestowards learner autonomy in Western nations, Asian countries, and Vietnam such asBorg (2006), Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012b), Keuk and Heng (2016), Haji-Othman andWood (2016), Tapinta (2016), Alhaysony (2016), Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016), and Doganand Mirici (2017) as well as EFL students‟ perceptions and practices of LA in Asiancontexts generally and in Vietnam particularly (i.e Balcikanli, 2010; Chan, Spratt, &Humphreys, 2002; Đặng Tấn Tín, 2012; Joshi, 2011; Lê Xuân Quỳnh, 2013; Talley,2014), their results have yet to be comprehensively generalized and final conclusionshave yet to be made Up to now, there have been one thesis of LA (Trịnh Quốc Lập,2005) and an article about this field (Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016) conducted in Cần ThơUniversity, in Mekong Delta, Vietnam Trịnh Quốc Lập (2005) explored LA with atasked-based approach in a writing course for EFL students at Cần Thơ Universitywhile Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016) investigated EFL teachers‟ beliefs and practices of LA

in six universities – three in the central area and

three in the South of Vietnam It needs to note that Cần Thơ city has been the mostdeveloped city in Mekong Delta in Vietnam and Cần Thơ University is the biggestuniversity in the South of Vietnam Therefore, further LA research in otherprovinces in the South of Vietnam, especially in the poor and rural provinces, needs

to be carried out because according to Smith and Ushida (2009), LA capacity should

be localized and dealt with in particular social settings In this vein, teachers andstudents in different socio-cultural settings may conceptualize LA and implement it

in their teaching and learning practices differently

The present study was carried out at the Faculty of Foreign LanguageEducation at a public university in the Mekong Delta, South of Vietnam Theuniversity was upgraded to multidisciplinary university status in 2003 The strength

of the university is to educate teacher students The university is considered ayoung, active university with a mission to train high-quality human resources ofmulti-careers, especially in educational science and pedagogies, conduct scientificresearch, and provide community services to enhance the socio-economicdevelopment of the Mekong Delta The University hopes to be a qualified andprestigious training center in the Mekong Delta and one of the universitieseducating high-quality teachers in Vietnam In addition, the Faculty of ForeignLanguage Education, where the researcher has worked, consists of twenty-twolecturers and has a duty to train English major teacher students and non-teacherstudents Like the students of the other faculties, EFL students are educated in acredit-based training system Under this system, for two periods of a subject inclassroom, university students must prepare that lesson at home for four periods.Additionally, accompanying the Decision No.805/QĐ-ĐHĐT, 28 October 2016issued by the university Rector (The University, 2016) on issuing the Regulation forstudents, students have to learn autonomously (at Article 4)

Since the Decision No.2080/QĐ-TTg, 22 December 2017 was issued by thePrime Minister on strengthening teaching and learning foreign languages inNational educational system for the period 2017 – 2025 (Vietnamese PrimeMinister, 2017), foreign-language autonomous learning has been developed

However, most of English major students at Foreign Language Education Faculty atthe University obtained their weaker background in English than others in the bigcities like Cần Thơ City or Hồ Chí Minh City For EFL students in this faculty,especially the freshmen, they were not used to studying in a university environmentbecause it was quite different from the learning styles during the previous stages.However, the current curriculum of English major at the University does not includeany course like “LA skills in learning English at higher education” and there has notbeen any handbook of learning English major autonomously Thus, they are facedwith difficulties to adapt themselves to the needs of the university learningenvironment because to comprehend knowledge at higher education totally, studentshad to make significant efforts in learning, save a lot of time for learningautonomously, and adopt their own effective learning methods In this case, Thomasand Ben (2008) indicate that there is a wide and growing opportunity gap betweenurban and rural and between a wealthy elite and the great majority who remain poor.For this reason, a large number of students in rural or remote or island areas havenot had enough conditions to study English.

Importance of research on LA in teaching and learning English at this

university

The context of this study is that Mekong Delta tertiary education in generaland this university in particular have made an effort to be able to keep up with otherbig universities in other regions in Vietnam According to Dương Thị Hoàng Oanh(2011), autonomous skills are needed to give students necessary transferable skillsfor facing the real social situation after university Also, she claims that autonomy isvery seldom and ineffectively practiced, and there is very little research in Vietnaminto its concept and practice Actually, up to the time this study starting to beconducted in 2014, there had not yet been any research related to LA for bothteachers and students carried out in this faculty, although this university had run fornearly 15 years Hence, further research needs conducting in this field in such ruralareas as in the Mekong Delta, South of Vietnam, especially in this university to findout some solutions to improve EFL learners‟ LA ability in a local context This

study, thus, explored how teachers and students understood the learner-autonomyconcept and how they applied it in teaching and learning process in a university inMekong Delta, South of Vietnam, where little research about LA among EFLteachers and students had been done The present study made an attempt to explorethis as well as to provide more insights into LA in the views of Vietnamese-speaking EFL teachers and students, who were considered the insiders of their own

LA developing process

1.2 Aims of the research

The present study sets out with three main aims First, it aims to understandhow Vietnamese EFL teachers perceive LA and implement it in their teachingpractice Second, it explores students‟ understanding of LA and the ways they learnEnglish autonomously Lastly, it investigates the relationship between the EFLteachers‟ and the EFL students‟ perceptions and practices of LA

1.3 Research questions

With the aims stated above, the following research questions are addressed inrelation to EFL teachers and students in a Vietnamese university in the Mekong Delta:

among their learners?

3 What are the relationships between EFL teachers‟ and EFL students‟

perceptions and practices of LA?

1.4 Research significance

This study aimed to achieve some significance in LA field First of all, thepresent study makes a contribution to understanding teachers‟ and students‟perspectives and practices of LA in EFL learning environment in a rural area inMekong Delta, South of Vietnam Thus, the current study adds more knowledgesuch as lifelong learning and cultural challenge to LA literature review Besides, thepresent research provides an opportunity for EFL teachers, policy-makers,administrators, and the larger community to obtain insight into this situation tomake plans to promote EFL students‟ LA ability Moreover, the current research

contributed a mixed-method study with an exploratory approach, including in-depthinterview for teachers and group interview for students, and questionnaire to exploremore about learner autonomy in Mekong Delta context.

1.5 Organization of the thesis

The thesis is held into five main chapters In Chapter One, the author wouldlike to describe the important part of autonomy in language learning in tertiaryeducation and the reason why this study was carried out Chapter Two discussestheories of autonomy with basic knowledge background so that the author uses them

to discuss many solutions in later chapters The research design as well asmethodology to fulfill this thesis is presented clearly in Chapter Three After that,data were analyzed, and shown in findings, and then the results found werediscussed effectively in Chapter Four Some suggestions and further research weregiven in Chapter Five

Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter addresses a synthesized description of learner autonomy inforeign/second language learning It begins with presenting the definition of LA andthe role of learner autonomy in higher education is discussed Next, a summary offive definitions, and four aspects linking to LA are introduced Teachers‟ andstudents‟ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy are then addressed Finally,both teachers‟ and students‟ assessment of LA are presented These are a base ofexploring process of EFL teachers‟ and students‟ perceptions of LA and how theyimplement it in their teaching and learning

2.1 Learner autonomy

This section defines LA and the role of LA in teaching and learning language

in higher education Then, detailed discussions about the role of LA in Asian EFLtertiary education as well as in Vietnamese one are presented

2.1.1 Definitions of learner autonomy

Learner autonomy was primitively defined as the “ability to take charge ofone‟s own learning” by Holec (1981, p.3) and up to now this definition has beencited in LA literature often Holec (1981) also states that LA ability is not inborn,but learners can obtain it by practicing it in formal education Hence, later LA hasbeen believed and defined in practice in such a variety of ways that Little (1991)calls it as a “buzz word” Generally, researchers have defined it as “learners‟capacity in learning” (Benson, 2001; Dam, 1995; Dickinson, 1994; Holec, 1981,1985; Little, 1991; Littlewood, 1996), “responsibility in learning” (Benson &Voller, 1997; Borg & Al-Busaidi, 2012b; Dam, 1995; Holec, 1981; Little, 1991;Littlewood, 1999), and “cognitive attitude in learning” (Dickinson, 1995; Little,

2000, 2004; Wenden, 1991) A more discussion of different versions of LA comefrom different definitions of LA is presented in 2.1.3 The next step is presenting theroles of LA in learning language in higher education

2.1.2 Roles of learner autonomy

In the context of the rapid technological development today and the changingsituation of teaching methods in the 21st century, LA is considered to be a crucial

role in teaching and learning process LA in language learning is not new, but in thelast three decades it has still been an interesting topic and had an extremelypowerful effect on language teaching and learning (Benson, 2006; Blidi, 2017) Inlanguage learning, LA has been a major objective, especially in higher education(Sinclair, 2000) In Norman‟s view (1994), LA should become an aim of education.These days, the important duty of education is to instruct students how to achieveknowledge by themselves, and how to maintain their interest in learning Moreover,

LA can make learners gain their creation and independence in high levels.Improving learners‟ autonomous learning ability should be considered as one of themost vital duties that lecturers as well as educators try their best to conduct It goeswithout doubt that to improve students‟ ability to learn autonomously becomesevery teacher‟s duty Borg and Al-Busaidi‟s findings (2012a) show that in terms ofimpacts of LA on second/foreign language learning, 93.4% of teachers agree that

LA contributes to language learners‟ success remarkably According to Bajrami(2015, p.149), LA promises “the positive outcomes at the university level, such asflexibility, adaptation, self-initiative, and self-direction” One more major reason forcontinuing exploring and developing LA at tertiary education is for the purpose oflife-long learning for both teachers and students For example, in politics, lifelonglearning is emphasized as “an investment in human capital” (Blidi, 2017, p.7) Inother words, students should be fostered “a set of targeted skills and competencies”

to meet the requirements of the present economy, culture, and job market (ibid.) It

is important for research educators, policy-makers, administrators, and teachers toenhance suitable and necessary skills for students in lifelong learning In brief, LAplays an important role of instructing university students

2.1.2.1 Learner autonomy in Asian EFL higher education

Recently, a large number of studies about the benefits of LA and theimportance of fostering LA in foreign/second language education in Asian contextshave been conducted This shows the positive role of LA in this field in Asianuniversity settings, especially in the context of LA considered to have originatedfrom Western countries and so far to have been used in Asia with a crucial role to

help students become active and autonomous learners For example, Dafei (2007)proves that learners‟ English competence has a close-knit relationship with their LAability In other words, when learners have good LA capacity, they will learnlanguage better and vice versa In Balcikanli‟s study (2010), when students havechances to decide their learning process, they show their positive attitudes and thismakes their learning more and more focused and purposeful To agree with the keyrole of LA, Cakici‟s findings (2017) show that LA is highly valued by participants,and they are willing to take more responsibilities for and make decisions about theirown language learning Generally, the value of LA has been appreciated by theresearchers as well as informants.

2.1.2.2 Learner autonomy in Vietnamese EFL higher education

These days, LA has appeared in Vietnamese MOET‟s educative strategies,and in Vietnamese Education Law, as mentioned in section 1.1 Mentioning the role

of LA in higher education, Trịnh Quốc Lập (2005, p.17) shows that one of the goals

of English Language Teachers training programs in Vietnamese universities is LAdevelopment That means the programs aim to develop English major students‟personal and autonomous learning skills, which they will go on using after theirgraduation from university Therefore, by exercising autonomy learnt within theeducational context, a person will have ample opportunities to practise autonomy byexposing himself to learning tasks (Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Lệ, 2009, p.11)

In addition, Đặng Tấn Tín (2012, pp.26-27) indicates that LA “directlycontributes to both processes and outcomes of learning activities”, helps “students

to face the challenge of technical difficulties”, and “is especially important forknowledge construction and sustainable learning in today‟s globalized world”.Besides, Lê Xuân Quỳnh (2013) considers the role of LA in three aspects includingideology, psychology, and economy Dương Mỹ Thẩm and Seepho (2014) assert theincreasing important role of LA in both academic study and teaching practices in the

21st century by pointing out that students are taught not only knowledge but also thepractices of LA In short, LA is also important in learning English in Vietnam

2.1.3 Learner autonomy in foreign language education

Over the last three decades, the term “learner autonomy” has been one of theprimary concerns in second/foreign language learning literature Clarifying LAattributes is essential to EFL teachers and learners in their teaching/learningprocesses Given a variety of adopted views about the concept of LA, researchershave not yet reached a consensus on the definitions of this term As a result, a largenumber of definitions have been introduced up to now as presented in 2.1.1.Recently, Alhaysony (2016, p.46) reviews different definitions of LA defined bymany language researchers and concludes that most of them have focused onlearners‟ ability, capacity, responsibility, control, demonstration, attitude,willingness, mode of learning In the present study, three key terms of LA such asability, responsibility, cognition are echoed, and then two more other definitions of

LA – lifelong learning and cultural challenge – are explored

2.1.3.1 Learner autonomy as ability

Holec (1981, p.3), one of the pioneers in this field provides a definition of LA

as “ability to take charge of one‟s own learning” – one that is popularly cited bylanguage researchers around the world Thus, LA is the ability to proceed tolearning independently and consciously Additionally, Holec (1985, p.180) defines

LA as “a matter of acquiring those capacities which are necessary to carry out aself-directed learning programme” Meanwhile, others use the concept “capacity”instead of “ability” for LA in their studies (Benson, 2006) For example, Little(1991, p.4) likens autonomy to “a capacity for detachment, critical reflection,decision-making, and independent action” It can be seen that Little (ibid.)emphasizes learners‟ cognitive abilities to detach themselves, analyze and makedecisions on their own, followed by being able to act or perform independently Inmore details, Dickinson (1994) makes these LA cognitive abilities of languagelearners clearer through being able to recognize the objectives of what they learn inthe classroom, plan their own learning goals, choose a suitable type of learningstrategies, and manage and evaluate their implementation of learning strategies.Moreover, Dam (1995, p.1) confirms the concept again when defining LA as “a

capacity and willingness to act independently and in co-operation with others, as asocially responsible person” Littlewood (1996) agrees with others when he

indicates two main attributes to LA are ability and willingness He explains learners‟ autonomous learning ability is based on their “knowledge about the alternatives from which choices have to be made and the necessary skills for

carrying out whatever choices seem most appropriate” (Littlewood, 1996, p.428),while learners‟ willingness is based on their motivation and their confidence Hestrongly confirms that a learner who wants to be successful in practiceautonomously must combine ability, willingness, knowledge, and skills together

Benson (2001) also supports Holec‟s view (1981, p.2) when defining LA as “thecapacity to take control over one‟s learning” Although the former replaces the term

“ability” of Holec (ibid.) with “capacity” and “take charge of” with “take control over”,both the former and the latter (ibid.) appear to focus on learners‟ voluntaryresponsibility for learning In other words, Benson (ibid.) defines that LA is learners‟ability to take control over their own learning, which is the main factor of allconceptualizations about LA Subsequently, he (2009, p.18) continues to develop theconcept of LA as a combination of “abilities, attitudes or dispositions” Therefore, it isnecessary for students to obtain their ability of learning autonomously and for teachers

to adopt a crucial role in fostering this ability in learners

2.1.3.2 Learner autonomy as responsibility

All of the above definitions of LA imply that language learners should takeresponsibility for their learning Holec (1981, p.3) also claims that LA is - “to takecharge of one‟s learning is to have, and to hold, the responsibility for all thedecisions concerning all aspects of this learning” He emphasizes that throughtaking responsibility for their own learning, autonomous learners could manage alldecisions about their learning, namely determining objectives, clearly showingcontents and progressions, choosing methods and techniques used, observing theprocess of acquisition, and evaluating their learning Dickinson (1987, p.11) points

to LA as a “situation in which the learner is totally responsible for all of thedecisions concerned with his or her learning and the implementation of those

decisions” (as cited in Hui, 2010) According to Little‟s definition of LA (1991,p.4), autonomous learners are people who take responsibilities for their ownlearning.

Ho and Crookall (1995) suggest a model with many activities for Chineselearners taking responsibilities and for their learner autonomy ability studied andobtained They focus on learners‟ taking responsibilities for their own learningthrough certain actions such as making decisions about their learning, study plan,evaluation of their learning, monitoring, and assessment For instance, they showways to help students develop skills to make decisions, “take responsibility for thesimulation tasks” namely “goal setting”, “weekly meetings to discuss the affairs ofstate”, and “for the learning and use of necessary skills” such as “conflict resolutionskills, language skills for professional communication, and time management andcontingency planning” (Ho and Crookall, 1995, pp 6-7)

Taking LA as responsibility also means developing a set of behaviors andskills which Benson and Voller (1997, p.2) classify into five main components.Specifically, learners can be considered autonomous learners if they are able to

“study entirely on their own”, form “a set of skills which can be learned and applied

in self-directed learning”, activate their “inborn capacity which is suppressed byinstitutional education”, implement their “responsibility for their own learning”, and

“determine the direction of their learning” In addition, Littlewood (1999) maintainsthat autonomy should consist of two characteristics: 1 Learners should have a duty

to their learning process; 2 Learners have to design their learning objectives, findtheir learning styles, and assess their learning process It can be seen that learnersshould be directly responsible and active in their learning As a student paysattention to his learning, he will try his best to find out his suitable learning way forhim, plan his short-term and long-term study, and then self-evaluate what he gains

Through above researchers‟ views of LA, it seems that autonomous learners have

to take responsibility for their own learning activities To gain that, they need to haveconscious attitudes in learning which are discussed in the immediate next section

2.1.3.3 Learner autonomy as cognitive processes

One more definition of LA is supported as a cognitive process by researchers.Specifically, Wenden (1991, p.15) believes that autonomous learners are the oneswho “have acquired the learning strategies, the knowledge about learning, and theattitudes that enable them to use these skills and knowledge confidently, flexibly,appropriately and independently of a teacher” She argues that to develop LA,knowledge about learning strategies (cognition, self-management), knowledge aboutlanguage learning (metacognition), and knowledge about learner attitudes areessential Dickinson (1995, p.167) also considers LA as “an attitude towardslearning” In other words, students should be prepared to make decisions about theirown learning In White‟s study (1995, p.209), LA is thought as “an attitude on thepart of the learners towards taking control of the language learning process” Dam(1995, p.1) also gives one definition of LA: “Learner autonomy is characterized by

a readiness to take charge of one‟s own learning in the service of one‟s needs andpurposes” Little (2000, p.16) highlights the notions of individuality andindependence as being the nucleus of the concept of LA He argues that “individualcognition is embedded in processes of social interaction” In brief, learners‟cognition of LA and their attitude to LA are very important for their own learning

As mentioned above, metacognition is one of the important factors of learningattitude for autonomous students to take According to Hennessey (1999, p.3),metacognition is “awareness of one‟s own thinking, awareness of the content of one‟sconceptions, an active monitoring of one‟s cognitive processes, an attempt to regulateone‟s cognitive processes in relationship to further learning, and an application of a set

of heuristics as an effective device for helping people organize their methods of attack

on problems in general” Also, Rolheiser, Bower, and Stevahn (2000, p.32) definemetacognition as “thinking about thinking” In other words, it is considered as learners‟understanding of their thinking processes with the aim of obtaining a number of

“cognitive skills” to finish a task or gain a goal or a final product Rolheiser et al (2000,p.34) state that “students who have acquired metacognition

skills are better able to compensate for both low ability and insufficientinformation” The concept of metacognition is further supported by Harris (2003,p.4) who maintains that “metacognition is concerned with guiding the learningprocess itself and so includes strategies for planning, monitoring and evaluatingboth language use and language learning, key elements in developing autonomy”.

In short, learners‟ consciousness in autonomous learning plays an importantrole How to help students control this cognitive process is very vital to developtheir learning effects

2.1.3.4 Learner autonomy in lifelong learning

According to Thomson (1996, p.78), language learning is “a life-longendeavor” LA lays the foundation of lifelong learning Jacobs and Farrell (2001,p.5) show that LA emphasizes the process of learning and students have to “seelearning as a lifelong process” Kose (2006, p.29) mentions LA as a “lifelonglearning project” Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012b, p.3) hold that LA “preparesindividuals for lifelong learning” Azizi (2014, p.130) indicates that LA is “a matter

of lifelong process rather than a need for a particular situation or course” Inaddition, LA is learners‟ lifelong learning process after they graduate fromuniversity According to Blidi (2017), the development of lifelong learning isdeemed to strongly impact on policies of education and trends in teaching andlearning in Europe as well as in the globe because it is considered as the solution toconnect education products and the important and essential things of socialeconomy Blidi (ibid., p.6) uses the image of the bridge as a metaphor of lifelonglearning to fill “the gap between education systems and the socio-economic needs”

In short, lifelong learning is an important perspective of LA in language learning

2.1.3.5 Learner autonomy as cultural challenge

Recently, LA has been considered as a concept which affects languageteaching and learning in different settings, and culture has become an importantfactor in relation to its suitability and effectiveness Additionally, LA has beenconsidered as a cultural characteristic in Western countries versus Asian countries.Hence, Blidi (2017) indicates that it is necessary for researchers to give attention to

the impact of culture on different characteristics of LA, and suggests that cultureshould be the motivation of LA and a challenge to promote LA In this light, someresearch of LA as a cultural challenge to Asian students has been conducted up tonow Ho and Crookall (1995) show that Asian learners, including Vietnameselearners, have the same strong beliefs of social relations and relational hierarchy inthe classrooms Students must respect their teacher‟s explanation or opinion.Moreover, Littlewood‟s view (1999) about this term is that East Asian students ownreactive autonomy; meanwhile, Western ones have proactive autonomy In addition,Asian learners consider the formal and teacher-led learning method important ĐặngTấn Tín (2010) claims that influenced by the Asian culture, the common philosophy

of Vietnamese education practice is more absorbing and memorizing, but lessexperimenting and creating knowledge Besides, students‟ creativity is lessencouraged at schools Therefore, they have an intention of not taking responsibilityfor their own studying in their learning process Furthermore, Phan Thị Thanh Thảo(2012) indicates that East Asian students are used to teacher-centered method

According to Nguyễn Thanh Nga (2014), there are three main differencesbetween Western cultures and Asian cultures in academic environments First of all,the connection of teachers and students is mentioned In Western cultures, teachersand students are quite equal, and have an informal relationship The students cancomfortably question and challenge their teachers and their classmates Moreover,they are independent of learning Meanwhile, in Asian cultures, the teachers arealways respected and stayed in control of their students‟ studies The students oftenhave their passive way to learn and do not dare to put questions to their teachers.The second dissimilarity is learning styles and approaches in learning In Westerneducation, student-centered methodology is widely applied, and students areexpected to learn responsibly as well as develop their critical thinking Asianstudents, in contrast, always wait to receive knowledge or information from theirteachers The teachers have dominated both teaching and learning process Studentspay attention to surface learning and learning by heart what teachers transmit inclass The last different characteristic between Western and Asian students is

attitudes to knowledge and learning Western students think people can possesstheir own ideas and they accept others‟ ones They do not accept dishonesty orplagiarism in learning environment However, Asian students do not have the samethought as Western ones They think knowledge cannot be possessed and do notoften cite the source of ideas or information in their writing.

In Vietnam, English has been a core subject from primary schools touniversities, and educational reforms of English subject have been conducted for overten years However, they has been facing many challenges and is considered one of themost serious issues worth concerning for future development In Kennett and Knight‟swords (1999), Vietnamese students sit in rows of immobile tables and chairs, and theirlearning follows the hierarchy of first listening to the teacher, then repetition, and thencopying models Most of the time, classroom interaction is one-way, between theteacher and the individual student Students will answer the teacher‟s question whenasked Interruptions, arguments and asking for clarification are hardly observed.Additionally, the English learning environment in Vietnamese classrooms could bedescribed as a “cultural island” (Lê Văn Canh, 2000) in which the teacher is supposed

to be the provider of knowledge of the target language The focus of instruction is onthe language structure more than on its use It means that a comprehensive mastery ofgrammatical structures of the English language is an expected pre-requisite for teachers

in teaching their students Another role of the teacher supposed to assume is a feedbackgiver Whenever a student makes a mistake, the teacher is expected to interrupt thestudent at once and to correct it If the teacher does not correct the student‟s mistake, it

is seen as a shortcoming and the teacher is deemed incompetent Students‟ learningoutcomes are evaluated within a product-oriented framework, so teachers assumeanother role of an evaluator who grades students‟ performance on tests and exams, andmakes the final decisions on students‟ grade Besides, they are the indicators of success

or failure in learning As mentioned earlier, teaching and learning English areexamination-driven, which leads to another role of the teacher as a high-pass-rateguarantor As not being expected, what and how the teacher teaches are dictated by the

requirements of the examination, and are not linked to the learning needs ofindividual students In such a teaching context, students are expected to be the goodlisteners and good imitators of their teacher At the end of the semester, students areexpected to “return” (Lê Văn Canh, 2000) what they have learned in their lessons inexaminations This requires learning by rote It has been observed that teachers hold

a key role in the transmission of knowledge, and are as a learning quality guarantor.With such roles of the teachers, students are not provided with the opportunities totake an active role for their learning (Trịnh Quốc Lập, 2005) Đặng Tấn Tín (2010,p.5) claims that “being strongly considered part of the Eastern culture, teaching andlearning in Vietnam are more teacher-centered”

For students in Mekong Delta, LA seems to be one of the big challengesbecause of the following reasons Hồ Sỹ Anh (2018) indicated that only 12% ofMekong Delta people graduated from high school to university in 2014 That wasthe lowest rate in comparison with other regions in Vietnam In addition, MekongDelta people have not been caringtheir children‟s learning It is a cultural trait inthis region, which becomes a challenge for teachers and students to practice LA

Due to the above reasons, according to Palfreyman and Smith (2003), toapply LA in Asian context, the factor of learners‟ cultural background is usually adifficult thing When Curtis (2004) did a LA study at RMIT University in Vietnam,

he claimed that the first way to help students learn autonomously was to changetheir belief from learning by memory to the demonstration of comprehension.According to Blidi (2017, p.10), students have different perceptions or opinions of

LA and learning because of their different cultural backgrounds Notwithstandingstudents‟ cultural background considered as a difficult thing to promote LA, ifculture and LA are thought and redefined in the learning setting, culture can become

a mainly advanced factor to develop students‟ LA ability

Scholars give all above definitions of LA in Western and Asian context oflanguage education Research has been carried out to establish the appropriacy of

LA for Asian educational settings as Little (1999) does claim that autonomy is apopular kind of language learning and can apply in any cultures Therefore,

considering and redefining the meanings of LA in foreign language education inMekong Delta in Vietnamese setting are necessary.

2.1.3.6 Learner autonomy in this study

Reviewing elements or characteristics of LA is an attempt However, it isdifficult to determine what is the most important components of LA in languagelearning (Benson, 2006) Hence, based on above analyzed definitions of LA andsociocultural conditions in Mekong Delta in the South of Vietnam, in the current

study, LA is redefined as language learners‟ cognition, and ability to take

responsibility for their own learning by setting learning goals, planning, practising, monitoring and assessing their learning processes through teachers‟ guide and orientation, as well as their lifelong learning For teachers, interpreting students‟

background cultures with regard to the autonomous learning context helps teachersunderstand their students more clearly, and then they can consult and orientate theirstudents in autonomous learning Additionally, teachers can design a number of LAactivities for their students It is important for teachers to encourage and motivatestudents in learning For students, the autonomous students must be active andmotivated in their own learning (Nguyễn Thanh Nga, 2014) To be ready in studies,they need to understand what they should do in autonomous learning Helping andfostering LA from teachers can make them become the autonomous learners Afterthat and even after graduating from the university, they can learn autonomously.Understanding the definitions of LA is important for both teachers andstudents; however, it is important for teachers to know other aspects related to theconcept of LA to develop LA better for their students It can be seen that current

definitions of LA are not unanimously shared by researchers around the world However, the unanimous focus seems to be on the learner‟s perception, intentions

and actions of his/her own learning, which can be realized in various detailed

aspects as presented in this chapter

2.1.4 Aspects of learner autonomy

As mentioned in 2.1, LA is defined and clarified by various researchers aroundthe world Besides, it is analyzed in several aspects regularly endorsed in the

literature Benson (1997) shows his opinions about autonomy into three standardaspects in teaching language, which are technical, psychological, and political Theauthor (ibid., p.19) considers these three aspects as “ideal constructs” to explore

“relationship between autonomy in language learning and theories of knowledgeand learning” After that, Oxford (2003, p.76) adds one more aspect of socialculture These four aspects have contributed to establishing the conceptual basis of

LA commonly addressed in the language learning literature

2.1.4.1 Technical aspect of learner autonomy

According to Benson (1997, p.19), technical aspect of LA is shown as “the act

of learning a language outside the framework of an educational institution andwithout the intervention of a teacher” He emphasizes the physical situation forautonomous learners to take and develop their responsibility for their own learning

He uses positivism for this aspect because he believes that “knowledge is a more orless accurate reflection of objective reality” (Benson, 1997, p.20) The technicalversion of LA is linked to positivistic approaches to learning strategies and technicalskills which are necessary for students to control their own learning Specifically, itemphasizes the time, the place, and the way of learning, planning and organizing thestudy, and assessment of learning In view of this, it needs to equip learners withessential learning skills and techniques so as to enable them to learn a language anddeal with circumstances in learning without a teacher Some previous studies(Gardner & Miller, 1999, 2011; Morrison, 2008) were based on this aspect of LA toenhance learner autonomy in self-access learning centres Benson (2006) reviews anumber of modes of LA beyond the classroom, namely self-access centre,computer-assisted language learning, distance learning, out-of-class learning, etc.However, the technical perspective on autonomy would be hard to be movedwithout the psychology

2.1.4.2 Psychological aspect of learner autonomy

Psychological aspect relates to learners‟ attitudes and aware ability when theytake their responsibility for their own study Benson (1997, p.19) definespsychological aspect of LA as “a capacity – a construct of attitudes and abilities –

which allows learners to take more responsibility for their own learning” Thepsychological version of autonomy is connected to constructivist outlook andimplies LA as an ability with cognitive features (Benson, 2001), namely attitudesand capacities influencing learners‟ learning Additionally, it involves learners‟motivation and learning style In the vein of constructivism, learners have todiscover knowledge and then may change complicated information to become theirpossession (Slavin, 2003) This perspective emphasizes the learners‟ role inbuilding their own target language version in language learning progress According

to Oxford (2003), this psychological aspect relates to learners‟ mental andemotional characteristics in developing their LA ability The psychologicalperspective starts to be clearer as Little (2003) connects Holec‟s definition (1981)and his in order to concretize that autonomous students have full perceptions of andunderstand their courses‟ goals, approve their responsibility, actively plan study andconduct their learning activities, and usually assess their learning effects Therefore,this aspect suggests enhancing more mental factors, namely positive perceptions, aswell as abilities such as “reflection, and a readiness to be proactive in self-management and in interaction with others” (Little, 2003, p.1) for the students

2.1.4.3 Political aspect of learner autonomy

Political aspect of LA is based on critical theory, and focuses on learners‟

“control over the processes and content of learning” (Benson, 1997, p.19) Thisversion of LA is the approaches that permit learners to manage both their ownlearning and the institutional settings It seems to be learners‟ rights in learning.Also, critical theory emphasizes the social contexts and the form of LA as access,control, power, and ideology (Pennycook, 1997) which are looked for in particularlocations, circumstances, groups, institutions, and socioeconomic positions In thesame line, Oxford (2003) has the same idea as Pennycook‟s opinion (ibid., p.88)when she confirms that the political-critical view “centrally involves issues ofpower, access, and ideology” It means that autonomous students have the right tomanage their own learning circumstances, opt their learning activities, and becomefree from obligation

2.1.4.4 Sociocultural aspect of learner autonomy

Basing on Benson‟s three aspects of LA (1997), Oxford (2003) introduces onemore aspect of LA into her framework that is sociocultural perspective Thisperspective emphasizes social interaction in shaping learners‟ cognition andlanguage development Oxford (2003) bases herself on Vygotsky‟s socioculturaltheory (1978) to form this aspect of LA According to Vygotsky (1978), throughenvironmental stimulation and social interactions with learning environments,people‟s cognition has developed Vygotsky (1978, p.86) describes the Zone ofProximal Development as “the distance between the actual developmental level asdetermined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development

as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaborationwith more capable peers” In other words, learners can practise a task with teachers‟instruction or with peer cooperation instead of performing it alone Pennycook(1997, p.45) states that “promoting autonomy in language learning, therefore, needs

to take into account the cultural contexts of the language learners, to open up spacesfor those learners to deal differently with the world, to become authors of their ownwords” Palfreyman (2003, p.13) indicates that “sociocultural approaches providevaluable concepts for understanding how the behavior, attitudes and motivation ofindividuals interact with cultural meanings and social interests in particular learningsituations” Little (2004, p.19) draws on Leni Dam‟s example (1995) and has abelief that “learner autonomy involved collaboration” In addition, Little (2004, pp.21-22) claims that “Vygotsky‟s socio-cultural theory of development and learningexplained the relation between collaboration and autonomy” Thus, this aspectrelates to the interactions of the students and their environment, namely a variety ofproblems, community, and relationships

It can be seen that three above aspects of LA advocated by Benson (1997,2006) are necessary conditions The “social” perspective that Oxford (2003)suggests is the sufficient condition – the environment for educators to implement

LA This four-aspect model of LA is accepted in research and many Asian authorshave adopted it to explore EFL teachers‟ and students‟ perceptions and practices of

autonomy (Lê Xuân Quỳnh, 2013; Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Lệ, 2009; Nguyễn Thanh Nga,2014; Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016; Wang & Wang, 2016).

2.2 Perceptions and practices of learner autonomy

2.2.1 Perceptions

A number of definitions of perception in scientific research literature in theworld have been studied Perception is defined as a series of actions of awareness,organization, and analysis of input information More specifically, Angell (1906,p.122) defines perception as “the consciousness of particular material thingspresents to sense” Kanwisher (2001, p.90) indicates that the concept “perception” isconsidered as “the extraction and/or representation of perceptual information from astimulus, without any assumption that such information is necessarily experiencedconsciously” Additionally, in Chambers Dictionary, perception is defined as theprocess of recognizing “one‟s environment through physical sensation, whichdenotes an individual‟s ability to understand” Bodenhausen and Hugenberg (2009,p.2) base on social cognition to define perception as “essentially the interfacebetween the outer and inner worlds” McShane and Von Glinow (2010, p.68) clearlyshow that “perception is the process of receiving information about and makingsense of the world around us” It can be seen that perception is understanding of thereal world shaped from information through the five physical abilities People arelikely to bring meaning and significance, judgments and analyses, values, andobjectives to their actions What they do in their life depends on how theyunderstand their position in the world In other words, people‟s perception formsand determines their behavior Thus, in order to understand one‟s behavior, it needs

to understand their perceptions

In the LA field, the term “perception” is utilized to explore both EFL teachers‟

and EFL students‟ perceptions of LA in a number of studies (Al Asmari, 2013;Azizi, 2014; Đặng Tấn Tín, 2012; Dogan & Mirici, 2017; Dương Mỹ Thẩm &Seepho, 2014; Gardner, 2007; Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Harati, 2017; Joshi,2011; Wang & Wang, 2016) Based on the analysis above, in this current research

the term “perception” is, therefore, used to explore teachers‟ and students‟understanding or cognition on the concept of LA.

The concept of language teachers‟ perception is defined by Borg (2006) asteachers‟ cognition of what they consider, are familiar with, and believe Basing onBorg and Al-Busaidi‟s questionnaire (2012b), Benson‟s views (2011), and Little‟sviews (1991, 1999), Xhaferri, Waldispuhl, Xhaferri, and Eriksson-Hotz (2015) listten concepts which are used as a framework to explore beliefs about LA They aretechnical views, psychological views, social views, political views on LA, the role

of the teacher in LA, the relevance of LA to diverse cultural contexts, age and LA,language proficiency and LA, the implication of LA for teaching methodology, andthe relationship of LA to effective language learning (Xhaferri et al, 2015, p.13).Xhaferri et al (2015, p.14) also claim that these ten concepts deal with “differenttheoretical aspects of learner autonomy and cannot be seen on the same level”.Many researchers (Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Keuk & Heng, 2016; NguyễnThanh Nga, 2014; Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016; Wang & Wang, 2016) applied theseconcepts in their set of questions to investigate EFL teachers‟ perceptions or beliefs

of LA

Learners‟ perceptions of LA are an important issue for both educators andlearners themselves investigated by a number of language researchers Van Lier(1996) indicates that acting on learner‟s perceptions regarding their own learning,they can develop their strengths and improve their weaknesses in learning (as cited

in Jacobs and Farrel, 2001, p.5) White (1995, p.209) states that only when learnershave developed their “understanding of the nature of language learning, and ofhis/her role in that process”, can they gain ability to practice LA However, iflearners possess erroneous beliefs, they may have ineffective language learningstrategies, and not succeed in their language learning process

Understanding LA is an important duty for teachers and students, especiallyEFL ones to approach new standards in the new century Besides, teachers‟perceptions of the valuable and meaningful LA from their academic knowledge willhelp them develop as professional foreign language teachers Also, students‟

perceptions of LA and the importance of LA will help them succeed much in theirown learning Therefore, finding how teachers‟ and learners‟ perceptions of LAaffect their practices of LA is necessary for educators to be able to support them intheir language teaching and learning.

2.2.2 Practices

In this part, before both teachers‟ and learners‟ practices towards LA arediscussed, the definition of practice is introduced Although a large number of theprevious studies have explored teachers‟ and students‟ practices of LA recently,definition of practice has rarely been defined Normally, those studies just presentedwhat teachers and students did to promote LA in practice In this research, theconcept of practice is specified Dewey (1904) states that giving a definition ofpractice depends on one‟s purpose Dewey (ibid., p.9) indicates that practice work

is “an instrument in making real and vital theoretical instruction; the knowledge ofsubject-matter and of principles of education” Additionally, practice is defined as

“the actual application or use of an idea, belief, or method, as opposed to theoriesrelating to it” (Oxford living dictionaries online) It seems that practice givesstudents better opportunities to acquire knowledge

Teachers‟ practices of LA relate to the ways they promotetheir students doing

LA activities One of Vygotsky‟s three main themes is the Zone of ProximalDevelopment (Vygotsky, 1978), which is the distance where learners can studyautonomously and might need helping during learning process To do this, Brown(1994, p 124) claims that instructing students how to study is an important duty forteachers According to Dam (1995), teachers have an important role to play inenhancing LA Also, Sheerin (1997, p 63) points to the “paradox of independentlearning that almost all learners need to be prepared and supported on the pathtowards greater autonomy by teachers” (as cited in Benson & Huang, 2008, p 425).Besides, to persuade teachers to apply LA in teaching, Gardner and Miller (1999)emphasize three main reasons for teachers having a motivation to foster LA inteaching and learning language The first reason is that LA improves students‟characteristics Second, it can be carried out both inside and outside of the