Ethical issues in responding to climate change a comparative studies between lagos city, nigeria and hanoi city, vietnam

11 1.9.5 A framework of ethical principles and responsibilities for climate change adaptation .... COMEST, in its 2010 Report on The Ethical Implications of the Global Climate Change, r

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY

AZU ANTHONY ANWANI

ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESPONDING TO CLIMATE CHANGE: A COMPARATIVE STUDIES BETWEEN LAGOS CITY,

NIGERIA AND HANOI CITY, VIETNAM

MASTER’S THESIS

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY

AZU ANTHONY ANWANI

ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESPONDING TO CLIMATE CHANGE: A COMPARATIVE STUDIES BETWEEN LAGOS CITY, NIGERIA AND HANOI CITY, VIETNAM

MAJOR: CLIMATE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT

CODE: 8900201.02QTD

RESEARCH SUPERVISOR:

Dr NGUYEN NGOC HUY Prof ITO TETSUJI

PLEDGE

I assure that this thesis is the result of my own research and has not been published The use of other research‟s result and other documents must comply with regulations The citations and references to documents, books, research papers, and websites used in this research are all in the list of references of the thesis

AZU ANTHONY ANWANI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PLEDGE i

TABLE OF CONTENTS II LIST OF TABLES IV LIST OF FIGURE V LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS VI ACKNOWLEDGMENT VII ABSTRACT VIII CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Problem statement 3

1.3 Objectives 4

1.4 Research question 4

1.5 Hypothesis 4

1.6 Scope of the research 4

1.7 Theoretical framework 6

1.8 Research process 7

1.9 Literature review 7

1.9.1 Introduction 7

1.9.2 The conception of ethical response to climate change 8

1.9.3 Development of ethical response to climate change 9

1.9.4 The ethical implications of global climate change 11

1.9.5 A framework of ethical principles and responsibilities for climate change adaptation 15

1.9.6 Statement on issues relevant to consideration of the desirability of preparing a declaration of ethical rinciples in relation to climate change 17

1.9.7 Ethical principles for climate change: Adaptation and mitigation 21

1.9.8 Ethical response to climate change 21

1.9.9 Moral disengagement and the motivational gap in climate change 24

1.9.10 Ethics and climate change: An introduction 25

1.9.11 Relevance of the research 27

CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 31

2.1 Introduction 31

2.2 Research philosophy 31

2.3 Positivist approach 32

2.4 Quantitative research method 33

2.5 Data collection techniques 34

2.6 Questionnaire survey 35

2.7 Data sampling 36

2.8 Sample size 37

2.9 Questionnaire overview 38

2.10 Gender participation 39

2.11 Educational level of participants 40

2.12 Age distribution 41

2.13 Method of Data Analysis 42

CHAPTER 3 ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESPONDING TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN LAGOS AND HANOI 43

3.1 Introduction 43

3.2 Importing variables from Google forms (Questionnaire for Lagos) 43

3.3 Coding of the variables 44

3.4 Correlation co-efficient scatter plot 44

3.5 Highlighted correlation co-efficient 45

3.6 Discussion on the relationship and the implications 49

3.7 Importing variables from Google forms (Questionnaire for Hanoi) 51

3.8 Coding of the variables 51

3.9 Correlation co-efficient linear plot 52

3.10 Highlighted correlation co-efficient 53

3.11 Discussion on the relationship and the implications 55

3.12 Comparative analysis between the result from Lagos and Hanoi 56

CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION FOR IMPROVING ETHICAL RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN LAGOS AND IN HANOI 59

4.1 Introduction 59

4.2 Reasons for non-ethical response to climate change 59

4.3 Ways to improve awareness and right attitude towards climate change response 61

4.4 Recommendations for policy makers 63

4.5 Conclusions and recommendations 65

4.6 Limitations of the research 68

4.7 Recommendations for future study 68

REFERENCES 70

APPENDIX – A 73

APPENDIX – B 80

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Sample size 38

Table 2.2: Questionnaire survey distribution, completion and response for Lagos city, Nigeria 39

Table 2.3: Questionnaire survey distribution, completion and response for Hanoi city, Vietnam 39

Table 2.4: Educational level of participants 40

Table 2.5: Age distribution 41

Table 3.1: Correlation table 47

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Map of Nigeria indicating Lagos State 45

Figure 1.2: Map of Vietnam indicating Hanoi 45

Figure 1.3: Theoretical framework 6

Figure 1.4: Research process 7

Figure 2.1: Gender participation for Lagos city 40

Figure 2.2: Gender participation for Hanoi city 40

Figure 2.3: Educational level of participants in Lagos city 41

Figure 2.3: Educational level of participants in Hanoi city 41

Figure 3.1: Coding for Lagos questionnaire 44

Figure 3.2: Correlation co-efficient scatter plot 45

Figure 3.3: Highlighted correlation co-efficient 46

Figure 3.4: Coding of variables 52

Figure 3.5: Correlation co-efficient linear plot 53

Figure 3.6: Highlighted correlation co-efficient 54

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

COMEST The world commission on the ethics of scientific knowledge and

technology CBO Congressional budget office

GHG Greenhouse gas

IPCC Intergovernmental panel on climate change

NGO Non-governmental organization

UNESCO The United Nations educational, scientific and cultural

organization

UNFCCC United Nations framework convention on climate change

of my master thesis

My special thanks goes to my thesis advisor Prof Ito Tetsuji, who gave me useful tips on social research during my internship in Japan I really appreciate your warm support throughout my internship period in Japan

I also wish to extend my gratitude to all the staffs of Vietnam Japan University for their contribution towards my successful stay in VJU especially the directors and staff of MCCD - Dr Kotera and Ms Hoa thank you so much I say a big thanks to JICA for the scholarship that assisted me in

my Master degree journey

I cannot forget my family, AZUOKO family I am glad for the warm backup and support I treasure you all Ms Nguyen Thi Dung you are special to me thanks a lot

Above all, I am very grateful to God Almighty for his goodness and Mercy Without God the story will not be same

or proactive adaptation planning These include; Social, ecological asset and infrastructure development, Technological process optimization, Integrated natural resources management, Institutional, educational and behavioral change or reinforcement, Financial services, including risk transfer, Information systems to support early warning and proactive planning In terms of mitigation a broad range of sectoral mitigation options is available that can reduce GHG emission intensity, improve energy intensity through enhancements of technology, behavior, production and resource efficiency and enable structural changes or changes in activity (IPCC AR4)

There are several studies on climate change mitigation and adaptation which have contributed enormously to the response of this phenomenon However, there is a gap of a well-defined empirical research that is able to deal with

ethical issues in responding to climate change Hence, this study aims at identifying some salient ethical issues that need consideration for effective climate response The outcome will assist in solving the puzzle of why people respond differently to global climate change

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Climate change is a phenomenon that has received much attention almost by all works of life It is like a universal discipline in which everyone is involved As a multifaceted global challenge there are variety of descriptions

to explain the impact, response and projections of the change in our climate People‟s approach to climate change is based on their background, understanding and learnings However, there two major issues confronting our society; what constitutes „dangerous interference‟ with the climate system and how to deal with that interference Determining what is dangerous is not a matter for natural science alone; it also involves value judgements a subject matter of the theory of value, which is treated in several disciplines, including ethics, economics, and other social sciences (IPCC, 2001) This is an indication that climate change response is also a subject for ethical evaluation This kind of ethics is called the consequentialist ethics Actions are aimed at bringing about the greatest good for the greatest number of people It involves questions like: what impact is my behavior having on the world?, am I doing more good or harm by my behavior?, is my behavior making the world a better place? Ethics involves questions of justice and value Justice is concerned with equity and fairness, and, in general, with the rights to which people are entitled Value is a matter of worth, benefit, or good Value can sometimes be measured quantitatively, for instance, through a social welfare function or an index of human development (IPCC, 2001) Ethics is all about the choices we make We constantly face choices that affect the quality of our lives We are aware that the choices that we make have consequences, both for ourselves and others We are aware of the responsibility we have for our actions (Steven Mintz, 2017)

Despite much academic research and international discussion, due to the complexity and uncertainty surrounding climate change, its ethical dimension has not yet been satisfactorily clearly articulated

COMEST, in its 2010 Report on The Ethical Implications of the Global Climate Change, raised the question of “whether it is at all possible to take ethical action in response to climate change” (UNESCO,2010) due to the complexity and uncertainty of the natural processes it entails The 2013 Report renewed COMEST‟s commitment to responding to the plight of the vulnerable groups of society by emphasizing that “in view of the nature and extent of the scientific, social and human challenges of global climate change, which necessitate adoption of policies at the global level to address the pressing needs of the most vulnerable in the face of major uncertainties and exigencies of international cooperation, it is urgent to determine universal ethical principles to guide responses to such challenges (UNESCO, 2013)

UNESCO adopted a Declaration of ethical principles in relation to climate change in November 2017 in which COMEST report of 2015 served as the

basis for its formation

Recalling that the principles and provisions of the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement adopted under the Convention guide, States in the global effort against climate change, the following principles should be considered, respected and promoted within the scope of this Declaration, and in decisions taken or actions carried out in responding to climate change: (UNESCO, 2017) these principles include prevention of harm, precautionary approach, equity and justice, sustainable development, solidarity, scientific knowledge and integrity in decision-making (UNESCO, 2017)

The above listed principles are the core basis of this research In order not to leave ethical issues on the theoretical level it then becomes essential to evaluate climate change response in consideration of the ethics involved For the purpose of this research, I choose to find out some ethical issues in responding to climate change This will be done in form of evaluative analysis The project will evaluate the response to climate change on ethical scale To achieve this, I designed a question of 30 questions The survey comprises of 25 closed ended questions and 5 open ended questions These questions were divided into 3 major sections; perception, mitigation and adaptation to climate change The questionnaire contains vital questions that reveal the rate of attitudes and choices applied in our response to climate change By analyzing the responses of the survey the result will show the difference between what we are doing and what we ought to do The difference in response between the global and the local The second part will propose recommendation for a better response in Lagos and Hanoi

1.2 Problem statement

The problem that this research deals with is the lack of evaluative assessment

of climate change response to determine who response better and what counts

in climate change response The ethics of climate change ought to serve as a road map through which the vehicle of response should follow Since there is

an increase in awareness and many nations have started responding to this challenge It is then necessary that an evaluation should be conducted in consideration of the UNESCO‟s Declaration of Ethical Principles in relation

to Climate Change 2017 The evaluation in this research is in three parts;

perception, mitigation and adaption In addition, the ethical evaluation will

serve as a concrete ground for justification of every action taken in response

 A society with advanced infrastructure responds better to climate change

1.6 Scope of the research

The scope of this research covers biggest city in Nigerian Lagos city in Nigeria is the most populous city in Nigeria and the economic capital It has a population of about 21 million (Lagos population, 2020) The city has an educated population of 13milliom (World Bank Operation Project) Therefore

a reliable sample size was selected from the educated population for the ethical analysis Hanoi city, capital of Vietnam The city is situated in northern Vietnam on the western bank of the Red River, about 85 miles (140 km) inland from the South China Sea In addition to being the national

capital, Hanoi is also a province-level municipality (thanh pho), administered

by the central government (https://www.britannica.com/place/Hanoi) According to Hanoi population (2020-02-18) It has approximately 7.68 million people

Figure 1.1: Map of Nigeria indicating Lagos State (www.keywordsuggest.org)

Figure 1.2: Map of Vietnam indicating Hanoi

(http://www.vietnam-guide.com/maps)

1.7 Theoretical framework

Figure 1.3: Theoretical framework

Response to Climate Change’ and also serve as working definition for the

purpose of this research It is a concise and meaningful exposure on ethical response so as to set boundaries and emphasis on the essentials It then goes

on to review literatures on a chronological development of ethics in response

to climate change It highlights the consistent effort in formulation of ethical policy for the environment and for climate change specifically Additionally,

it reviews how this research will fills a gap and validating its significance It achieves this, by first identifying the gap and then suggesting ways to fill it

1.9.2 The conception of ethical response to climate change

Socrates was one of the foundational figures in Western philosophical thought His conception of ethics was based on the premise that all people are essentially good He thought that we would all do what's good as long as we knew the right choice, which required being self-aware Socrates saw what he called 'self-knowledge' as inherently good Other ancient philosophers, such

as Aristotle, had a somewhat similar take He felt that in order for people to make ethical or right decisions they needed to reach their potential This self-awareness would lead to ethical decision-making 'Virtue' was a key word here, which Aristotle defined as always doing the right thing to people and having this virtue would lead us to doing the right thing to others (What is Ethics in Philosophy?, 2017).

Ethics is important to every society as it plays a critical role in shaping the individuals behaviors within a society Since the dawn of human civilization, men have sought to keep human conduct in check to preserve the peace of society According to Duska, (2000) he said, where written law is used to govern official businesses and happenings, ethics act as a self-governing system to keep human self-interest and the good of society at equilibrium because the eyes of the law are not always available (Duska, 2000) However,

as with everything in life, nothing is perfect Ethics and human conduct are no exception to this rule Ethics of the old days has been polluted and are inadequate for business self-governance due to changes in the environment and cultural norms In other words, ethics in today‟s society has eroded (Ethics Is Important to Every Society 2018) because is dependent on the environment and society in which we live and our society like and evolving ecosystem therefore a constant need to review and readjust our ethical response especially to contemporary issues like climate change

1.9.3 Development of ethical response to climate change

The World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology COMEST* is an advisory body and forum of reflection that was set up by UNESCO in 1998 (UNESCO 1998) The Commission is mandated

to formulate ethical principles that could provide decision-makers with criteria that extend beyond purely economic considerations Since its inception in 1998, the functioning of COMEST has been guided by its Statutes adopted by the UNESCO Executive Board at its 154th session (UNESCO, 1998) and have since then given series of ethical principles in response to the global climate change

Mindful of the importance of science and technology for avoiding environmental damage, UNESCO‟s World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology (COMEST), as from its Third Ordinary Session, held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), in 2003, has focused on the issues of environmental ethics, with a special reference to the complex phenomenon of climate change (UNESCO, 2003) This Third Session, the first statutory session held outside Europe, was characterized by a number of scientific debates and political events, and gave the opportunity to examine the work carried out by COMEST during the last biennium It also provided

the Latin American and Caribbean Region with a privileged forum to discuss issues at stake in the earlier areas of activity of the Commission, namely: the ethics of fresh water, the ethics of outer space, the ethics of energy, the ethics

of the environment and sustainability, the ethics of scientific education, the ethics of the information society (UNESCO, 2003) The UNESCO 2003, served as the official launch of ethics on the mean stream of discussion by the United Nations This session is also a unique opportunity to discuss the framework of the ethics of science and technology for the benefit of humankind Scientists, researchers, politicians and philosophers are gathered together for the common goal of rendering the use of knowledge more democratic It was to guide the lofty appetite of countries in their quest for economic accumulation and provide for them code of conduct for their actions Hence, this reflects the precautionary approach of well informed decision making

In 2009 taking into account that the various effects of global climate change raise many ethical questions, COMEST has developed reflection about the moral basis of our responses to climate change, both on the policy level, as well as in the domain of action This work led to the adoption, at its Sixth Ordinary Session held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, from 16 to 19 June 2009,

of the Report on “The Ethical Implications of Global Climate Change”, with a view “to make ethics a core and necessary element of any debate about climate change and its challenges” The report concluded that it was urgent to determine universal ethical principles to guide responses to climate change challenges and recommended that UNESCO should develop an ethical framework of principles in relation to climate change (UNESCO, 2015) The recommendation of COMEST in 2009 was a key player that helped the 35thsession of the general conference of UNESCO in 2009 for adopting a

resolution of having a draft declaration of ethical principles in relation to climate change after due consultations This simply implies that ethical principles for climate change response gained a significant ground in UNESCO

1.9.4 The ethical implications of global climate change

In 2010, the Report of COMEST on “The Ethical Implications of Global Climate Change” was published as a book This report stated that the problem

of global climate change is such that comes with ethical dilemmas concerning the nature of collective action, decision making and of course uncertainty However, by discussing the core themes and central questions we can explore ways and find adequate means, practical, humane and ethical in responding to climate change These themes include; the link between foreknowledge and the duty to act upon it, the place of human rights in an ethics of climate change, and the role that the precautionary principle can play in addressing the risks and uncertainties that an ethics of climate change aspires to respond

to Concerns about future generations should also be added to this list, as well

as the effect on future generations of discounting in decision-making about present options The larger theme of collective and shared responsibility (UNESCO, 2010)

1.9.4.1 The link between foreknowledge and the duty to act on it

UNESCO, 2010 also has it that, this is like a knowledge of the consequences

of our action There is need to estimate the effect of our action and then ensure we produce the best effect we can ever think of Foreknowledge is therefore a particular brand of knowledge concerning the impact of collective human action on the global climate system which also pays close attention to the unwanted repercussions of specific actions on this system The theme vividly presents some duties that ought to be considered; the duty to actively

pursue knowledge of the impact of human action on the global climate system, as well as the impact of climate change on human activities, in particular those of people most vulnerable to climate change; – the duty to share that knowledge when it is available; – the duty to act appropriately and

in a timely fashion when that knowledge is available (UNESCO, 2010) Although, the recognition of these duties also raises some questions of who is responsible to generate the knowledge, what is the best process for generating this knowledge? and how best can it be disseminated? The above mentioned discourse will go further and ask whether the questions that guide climate scientists themselves in their research adequately reflect the needs of those most vulnerable to the effects of climate change In other words, UNESCO

2010 stated that climate science must find a means of making itself accessible and relevant to those who have immediate and short-term knowledge needs and are imminently threatened by climate change It is the duty of older generations to teach younger generation about climate change and adequate means of responding to it More importantly, National governments and the international scientific community also have a responsibility to train future generations of climate scientists who will be equipped to deal with ever-changing and contingent climate complexities while being simultaneously aware of the interaction between the natural, social, cultural, political, economic and ethical dimensions of global climate change (UNESCO, 2010)

1.9.4.2 Applying the precautionary principle as a basis for action in the face

of scientific uncertainty

UNESCO 2010, under this theme there is an emphasis on taking action in the face of scientific uncertainty That we are yet to see undisputed proofs from science should not make us ignore things we need to do to protect our society The report has it that; One paradigmatic means of grappling with these

dilemmas is found in the precautionary principle which, formulated in ordinary language, states that action to prevent serious harm to humans or the environment should not be postponed until rigorous scientific proof is established about the causes and effects of that harm COMEST has the view that that scientific c uncertainty in the context of risk and potential danger does not establish grounds for inaction, but rather for action, including the active pursuit of further knowledge about potential risks and dangers (UNESCO, 2010)

This is a call for local, national, regional government to put in place structures and procedures that both resilient and sensitive to the predicaments of vulnerable people in the society This will help them withstand shocks, unforeseen risk and lead them to a higher stability and sustainability

1.9.4.3 Determining the place of human rights in an ethics of climate change

The issue of human right in ethics of climate change does not have a general response to all cases rather it should be based on case by case analysis such that particular case will determine the best way to go about it But in all let ethics of climate change not be undermine in glorification of human right Arguably, it is individual human and public interests rather than rights that should be given the priority in ethical climate change discourse Thus human rights language should not be given a blanket priority in decision making about responses to climate change insofar as circumstances can arise where the immediate needs of victims of extreme weather or climate events, or of those most vulnerable to climate change trends, are more urgent than the question of rights (UNESCO, 2010)

1.9.4.4 Concerns about future generations in an ethics of climate change

In considering the implication ethical response to climate change the place of the future generation cannot be ignored This is because the global climate crisis we experience now is the effect of the emission and environmental mismanagement of the past generations Therefore it will be a disservice to endanger the future generation owing to the fact that our experience of the crisis is not good In the effort towards climate change scientists have developed some models to predict a rise in average temperatures and sea levels that may continue over a thousand years posing the larger question of sustainability Sustainable development is defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland Report of 1987) It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of 'needs', in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs (Brundtland Report of 1987) It contains within it two key concepts, according to UNESCO 2010, the concept of 'needs', in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs

1.9.4.5 Concerns about discounting

Here is the consideration of the economics involved in ethical response Most

of the things we do makes more sense when assessed with facts and figures The discount rate corresponds to the opportunity cost of capital Intuitively, it captures the notion of a “rate of return” that connects the past to the future by measuring, effectively, the capacity of a future balance sheet to cope with

costs when they occur Extension to social decision-making implies the notion

of a “social rate of return” expressing the change over time of the total economic, social, human and natural capital stock of a society (UNESCO, 2010) With respect to the long-range consequences of climate change, it is therefore ethically imperative to consider with care how to weigh future costs and benefits and to devote serious attention to assessing them as stated in UNESCO 2010 For the sake of fairness the issue of discount to future is duly considered

1.9.4.6 Obstacles to sharing and differentiating responsibilities

This is about the difficulty in carrying out the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities as in UNFCCC and clearly articulated in Kyoto protocol Despite how suitable this principle sounded at the inception It is still not efficiently implemented From an ethical point of view, it is a well-established principle that those who have the ability to prevent or alleviate harm suffered by others, and are in a position to do so without sacrificing a greater value than what is rescued, have a clear duty to act (UNESCO, 2010) However those who ought to act have some reservations like; action may cause damage to national economies Another is the argument that we have to wait for new technologies to mature And the third, displaying the classic structure of the free rider problem is the conditionality argument which dictates that “I will not act alone I will only act in concert with others, and for that matter, only if we all act together” (UNESCO, 2010)

1.9.5 A framework of ethical principles and responsibilities for climate change adaptation

Another ethical report called “A framework of ethical principles and responsibilities for climate change adaptation” adopted at the 7th Ordinary Session of COMEST in Doha, Qatar 2011 Having considered the

far‐ reaching global changes that would follow from unmitigated climate change whatever its causes, and Taking into account the uncertain and highly politicized context within which any international and national actions are taken in efforts to mitigate climate change and adapt to its effects, and Noting its mandate to advise Member States and the Director‐ General of UNESCO, COMEST proposes the following framework of ethical principles and responsibilities, which can be used by States, international organizations, NGOs, CBOs, corporations, the media, local authorities, and individuals, to aid in the formulation and implementation of adaptation policies and address the effects of climate change (UNESCO, 2011) The principles here under state the ethical basis on which responsibilities in respect of climate change may be established

1 Avoiding harming people or the environment by failing to act in response to climate change or by responding to it in an ill‐ considered way

2 Fairness in the distribution of the burdens of climate change, and the benefits of appropriately responding to it, with special reference to the position of vulnerable populations, future generations, and indigenous peoples, women, and children

3 Equitable access to vital resources, to medical, scientific and technological developments, as well as knowledge about climate change and the measures taken to adapt to it

4 The intellectual and moral solidarity of humankind in facing the shared challenges of climate change and the consequences of climate‐ related disasters

5 Environmental sustainability, understood as embracing the protection

of biodiversity and the integrity of ecosystems as the very basis of life on earth (UNESCO, 2011)

The principles listed above give rise to stakeholder responsibilities in respect

of climate change adaptation These are considerations in our response to climate change

1.9.6 Statement on issues relevant to consideration of the desirability of preparing a declaration of ethical principles in relation to climate change

In 2012, COMEST at its Extraordinary Session held at UNESCO Headquarters adopted the “Statement on issues relevant to consideration of the desirability of preparing a declaration of ethical principles in relation to climate change”, which expressed the view that, by developing universal ethical principles in relation to climate change, UNESCO would, if it saw fit, complement other efforts under way within the United Nations system and provide invaluable support to climate change responses at various levels, and

in particular to the design of appropriate equitable adaptation policies (UNESCO, 2012)

COMEST at its 8th Ordinary Session held in Bratislava, Slovakia, from 27 to

29 May 2013 adopted another ethical report titled “Background for a framework of ethical principles and responsibilities for climate change adaptation” This report is broader in scope and specifically contain

principles that serve as direct response to the enumerated challenges in articulating an ethical framework pertaining to climate change This report provides a detailed justification of its 2011 ethical framework for climate adaptation The first part of this report is on challenges in articulating an ethical framework pertaining to climate change These challenges are discussed under the following headings; Policy transversality, Justice, The

ethical status of non-human beings and the environment, Arguments against the language of universal principles

In response to the above mentioned challenges, COMEST initiates a set of ethical reflections that address these challenges

1.9.6.1 The principle of avoiding harm (Framework principle 1)

This principle emphasizes the responsibility of states to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (UNESCO, 2013) COMEST has specified it as the principle of avoiding harming people

or the environment by failing to act in response to climate change or by responding to it in an ill-considered way By this way harm caused as a result

of negligence will be avoided Many people uses scientific uncertainty as a basis for their inaction but this principles encourages people to act despite the uncertainty The principle of avoiding harm gives a strong ethical motivation

to act collectively in a responsible manner and to overcome fatalism or “the business as usual” attitude (UNECO, 2013)

1.9.6.2 The principle of fairness (Framework principle 2)

According to UNESCO 2013, fairness, considered as an aspect of justice, implies treating individuals or parties equally and takes into account the claims of the less advantaged It strengthens the idea of collective responsibility based on individual capacity In as much as we demand a fair share of responsibility to everyone we should also consider our individual differences the United Nations through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (articles 22, 25) is morally engaged in promoting a conception of justice as fairness through actions and programs in helping poor countries on the path of welfare for the poorest

people (health, education, economic opportunity) Dignity and justice for each and every human being are central concerns of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights By affirming values of non-discrimination and equality, the Declaration reaffirms a commitment to universal justice and recognition of inherent human dignity (UNECO, 2013) The fact that the poorest countries have contributed less to the elevation of CO2 and the resulting climate change reveals a claim in term of justice as fairness

for help in adapting to climate change (UNECO, 2013)

1.9.6.3 The principle of equitable access (Framework principle 3)

In UNESCO 2013, this principle is related also to the issue of justice in a more narrow sense and at a practical level It is linked to 15 access to and distribution of benefits and burdens of economic activity, but also to the meaning of a decent life It highlights the importance of developing the technical and scientific basis for adapting well to climate change If one does not know that will happen in the short term (a storm, a flood) or in the medium term, due to changes in the usual patterns of rainfall, one cannot protect oneself and one‟s family, or change crops and manage the water of one‟s field, or mobilize to redirect urban-planning efforts (UNESCO, 2013) The principle of equitable access calls for actions that enhance capabilities and resilience, a term for which there is no commonly accepted definition although it is generally associated with the capacity of people to develop strategies of adaptation based on traditional or local knowledge and experience of past natural or technological catastrophes (Plodinec, 2009)

1.9.6.4 The intellectual and moral solidarity of humankind (Framework

principle 4)

UNESCO 2013 averred that this principle is especially relevant to climate change because the causes, effects and solutions to its problems lie beyond

the geographical boundaries of nation-states There is an undeniable need for solidarity that is togetherness to create a better work force in responding to that global change In terms of climate change, this principle offers a solid ethical foundation on which to base responsibilities, particularly towards affected individuals and populations, but also more broadly towards the environment (UNESCO, 2013) This principle will create a sense of mutual responsibility of all towards the vulnerable

1.9.6.5 Environmental sustainability (Framework principle 5)

This principle states a relevant fact that humanity is dependent on the environment for its long term survival Human beings are therefore in relation with the environment, modifying the habitat in using modern and traditional technologies

to change the material conditions of their living (UNECO, 2013) The principle of environmental sustainability provides a solid basis for supporting adaptations to climate change that relate human beings to their environment from a long-term perspective, thereby introducing another timescale UNESCO 2013, also accept that it stimulates new ideas, new paths of action

1.9.6.6 The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities

These responsibilities are treated as common, in that the Framework does not assign them to any specific individuals or entities – states, private enterprises, social organizations, families, etc Yet these responsibilities are clearly nonetheless differentiated, in that they will each clearly arise differently for

different agents and entities (UNESCO, 2013) It suffices to say that climate

should be treated as common problem that concerns all though response should be based on capacities

1.9.7 Ethical principles for climate change: Adaptation and mitigation

By June 2015, COMEST drafted another ethical document report “Ethical principles for climate change: Adaptation and mitigation” The present report identifies ethical principles that can address the problem of climate change beyond the issues raised by climate change adaptation, namely the ethical issues relevant for climate change mitigation This allows for a more comprehensive approach that can embrace the variety of worldviews of nature that have been noted by COMEST during the course of its consultations with various stakeholders (COMEST, 2015) To deal with the global challenge of climate change both adaptation and mitigation measures are important (IPCC, 2007), adaptation (IPCC, 2001) alone is not enough It was proposed that a more comprehensive extension of these principles and responsibilities articulated for climate change adaptation be undertaken to take into account climate change mitigation The expanded list of principles identified in relation to climate change includes: (i) Biological diversity; (ii) Cultural diversity; (iii) Interdependence of life on Earth; (iv) Intellectual and moral solidarity of humankind; (v) Global justice; (vi) Resilience; (vii) Sustainability (frugality, renewable energy, reforestation, water resources); (viii) Precautionary principle; (ix) The duty to share scientific knowledge; and (x) Integrity of scientific research

All principles identified in the two previous reports and in this report are interrelated and should all be considered in arriving at a coherent response to climate change challenges and should inform mitigation policies adapted to the diversity of contexts (COMEST, 2015)

1.9.8 Ethical response to climate change

In 2011, Dennis Patrick O‟ HARA & Alan Abelsohn wrote a journal article

titled “Ethical response to climate change” They stated that the same attitude

that allowed a significant increase in the anthropogenic GHG concentration that are causing climate change are the same attitude that are retarding an adequate ethical response to the impact that climate change is having on both human population and the rest of the planet One cannot deny this fact because climate change is a result of incessant quest for economic prosperity which led to the era of industrial revolution In this era most of the developed country moved beyond its emission limit And for this same economic reasons the mitigation of GHGs are difficult Dennis Patrick O‟ HARA et al discussed three ethical principles that will help achieve adequate ethical response to climate change (Hara and Abelsohn, 2011)

1.9.8.1 The principle of non-maleficence

This principle has its root in the Rio Declaration on Environment and development in 1992 The declaration has it that while the states may develop their own resources for their own benefit, they also had the responsibility to ensure that the activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other states or areas beyond the limits of their jurisdiction (Hara and Abelsohn, 2011) It re-emphasize not harming the environment even as we strive to be economically prosperous And each state should try and maintain their space in terms of environmental activities No state should interfere with other states so as not to cause harm beyond the state boundaries

1.9.8.2 The principle of equity and distributive justice

The both principles deal with fair distribution of the benefit and burdens of climate change within the society The principle is mostly associated with Aristotle‟s principle of formal equality which says; „treat equals equally and

unequals unequally‟ (Hara and Abelsohn, 2011) Everyone should be given according to their needs Let those with higher needs be given highly and those with less needs be given less Under this principle the authors firstly accepted the fact that the atmosphere is commonly owned by everyone And since we have common ownership, we have individual limits of emission And whoever that goes beyond the emission limit is simply causing harm to all living on earth It is then known that the developed countries have emitted more through their economic activities and urbanization thereby causing harm also to the developing who are yet to reach their emission limit In this situation for equity and the sense of distributive justice to be honored, it simply means that the developed nations should fight more toward greenhouse mitigation and also pay compensation to the developing nations

1.9.8.3 The principle of free and informed consent

Hara et al stated that this principle avers that no country may put another country or its people at grave risk without the consent of the latter, the developing countries have suffered the cost of emission of developed countries not the benefit And developing nations did not consent to being burden with theses adverse effects No permission was taken from developing countries before the excess emission This implies that the principle of free and informed consent is not efficiently respected

Dennis Patrick O‟ HARA et al., furthermore, listed what they called lethargic responses to climate change Here they discussed the lethargy of developed nations to honor their moral responsibility to reduce GHG emission on the following excuses; economic harm, lack of scientific certainty, lack of global consensus, wait for better technologies These excuses do not exonerate the developed nations from being the highest emitters of GHG and ipso facto responsible for paying for the ham they have caused

1.9.9 Moral disengagement and the motivational gap in climate change

In April 2019, W Peeters, L Diependaele & S Sterckx published an article called “Moral disengagement and the motivational gap in climate change” they asserted that there are two prominent explanations for this motivational gap in the climate ethics literature The first maintains that our conventional moral judgement system is not well equipped to identify a complex problem such as climate change as an important moral problem The second explanation refers to people‟s reluctance to change their behavior and the temptation to shirk responsibility They went further to affirm that there is a clear difference between the seriousness of climate change‟s impact and the current low willingness to adequately respond to the threat and this they called motivational gap According to W Peeters et al., they revealed the prominent explanation in the climate ethics literature maintains that the causes for the lack of motivation to tackle climate change can be traced to

the complexity of climate change and the ineptitude of our moral judgement

system to identify it as an important moral problem (Peeters et al., 2019) The reason for this is what they referred to as the mechanisms of moral disengagement The (self-) deceptive and biased reasoning embodied by mechanisms of moral disengagement in turn facilitates a reconstruction of climate change and one‟s contribution to it, allowing people to continue emitting greenhouse gases, rather than having to make fundamental lifestyle

or policy changes to reduce greenhouse gas emissions without feeling or being held accountable for the harmful effects of climate change (Peeters et al., 2019) This attitude of moral disengagement manifest moral under the following discourse; discrediting evidence of harm, advantageous comparison, diffusion of responsibility, and displacement of responsibility as recorded by Peeters et al This article conclude by suggesting ways to solve

the ethical problem of moral disengagement Firstly, the need to generally conceptualize a flourishing human life away from materialism and life of high emission Consuming less will bring down emission because high emission is the price we pay for the increased interest in materialism and consumerism

re-So, we need to define a wellbeing devoid of emphasis on materialism and consumerism In addition, W Peeters et al suggested there is need to make a fundamental lifestyle change which will directly reduce attitudes towards emission And finally, they said that moral disengagement should be addressed directly by cultivating mindfulness, promoting a better public understanding of moral disengagement, and linking actions on climate change

to positive moral emotions

1.9.10 Ethics and climate change: An introduction

Stephen M Gardiner in his journal article titled “Ethics and climate change: an introduction” declared the need for multi-disciplinary approach towards tackling issues of climate change He averred that social sciences have roles to play especially in policy formation On the basis of this, he used this article to indicate how ethical analysis can make a contribution to five central concern of climate policy: the treatment of scientific uncertainty, responsibility for past emissions, the setting of mitigation targets, and the places of adaptation and geoengineering in the policy portfolio (Gardiner, 2010)

1.9.10.1 Skepticism

Under this principle, Gardiner holds that in the public realm people are of the opinion that scientist are still uncertain about climate change This simply means that there is still lack of scientific evidence and whatever we do now is justifiable He said that scientific uncertainty is not good enough for skepticism because many important life decisions come without good probability information attached (e.g., who to marry, what career path to

follow, where to live) But this does not paralyze us there This brings us to the issue of precaution The framework convention makes the claim that

„where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing (precautionary) measures (to anticipate, prevent, or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects)‟ (UNFCCC, 1992) It suffices

to say that Gardiner argues that despite the scientific uncertainty we have the duty to act for precautionary purpose

1.9.10.2 Past emission

Two kinds of argument are prominent The first invokes historical principles

of responsibility, along the lines of the commonsense ideals of „you broke it, you fix it and „clean up your own mess (Shue, 1999) The second kind of argument appeals to fair access The thought is that the atmosphere‟s capacity

to absorb greenhouse gases without adverse effects is a limited resource that

is, or ought to be, held in common If some have used up the resource, and in doing so denied others access to it, then compensation may be owed The latecomers have been deprived of their fair shares so said Gardiner 2010 These two arguments were bluntly refuted especially by developing nations And the cold response of many developing nations to climate change is due to their feeling of injustice because developed nations have refused to accept responsibility For a change of attitude it is the necessary that those responsible for past emission accepts it

1.9.10.3 Future emission

Gardiner argued that there is no adequately stipulated method of sharing the future emission We are still in the difficult situation of the developed nations accepting their responsibility however, there is no suitable plan for future emission Most of the suggested procedures seems deficit in some aspects

Some of the allocation methods suggested are; allocation of emission trajectory to reconcile the past, present and future emission, allocation of future emission based on per capita entitlement, allocation of mitigation trying to equalize their marginal cost Finally, he concluded by stating the need for adaptation and geoengineering in the policy formulation

1.9.11 Relevance of the research

IPCC 2014 has it in assessment report 5 that effective mitigation of climate change will not be achieved if each person or country acts independently on its own This is a clear indication that for effective climate change mitigation and adaptation there is need for everybody to participate Until we understand that reducing the harsh impact of climate change is our collective responsibility we shall hardly achieve any significant feet in reducing the impact of climate change Since climate change impact is our collective responsibility, it thereby raises some essential ethical questions which need to

be addressed for efficient response to this phenomena These questions include; who should be the burden, how can this collective responsibility be shared among countries It raises issue like justice, responsibility and equity IPCC divide ethics of climate change into two; justice and value Justice is ensuring that people get what is due for their life In the other hand, value is concerned with improving the world, making it a better place (IPCC, 2014)

So the idea of ethics of climate change for IPCC is discussed under the following themes; Justice, Equity, and Responsibility & Values and Wellbeing

However, this research exposes through behavioral analysis what climate change is for us as individual and in our local residence Is it of value to us or

it is a sacrifice we give up for a greater value This is because any decision

about climate change is likely to promote some values and damage others (IPCC, 2014) The research will reveal why you act the way you do in matters

of climate change

This research fills the gap by seeking to find out the unmentioned ethical issues in responding to climate change in Lagos city Nigeria and Hanoi city Vietnam and defining means of improving the attitude of the people in both cities towards a better response through policy recommendations

It shows the similarities and difference in ethical response to climate change between two different cities very far from each other, Lagos and Hanoi

It also enumerated reasons why people respond differently to climates change issues

It has also provided the basis and reference document for future research

CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2.1 Introduction

Scientific research is an essential part of our existence It is the systematic enquiry to answer questions and provide solutions to our contemporary problems The purpose of this chapter therefore is to outline the research philosophy, the methodology and the research approach to be followed in order to achieve the aim and objectives of the study It presents a detailed account of the research philosophy, the positivist research approach, and the research methodology, data collection techniques; and a questionnaire survey adopted for this study It highlights the main merits and demerits, and the strengths and weaknesses of the research methodology; quantitative, and the data collection techniques; questionnaire survey, and provides the rationale for adopting them for the study It provides research approach followed to collect primary data, using a questionnaire survey from 355 respondents from Lagos city Nigeria and 150 from Hanoi, Vietnam and thereafter, presents the result obtained by the questionnaire survey This chapter also presents the questionnaire distribution base on gender, age and education And finally it outlines the process, procedure and the method of analysis adopted for the quantitative study

2.2 Research philosophy

Scientific research philosophy is a system of the researcher‟s thought, following which new, reliable knowledge about the research object is obtained In other words, it is the basis of the research, which involves the choice of research strategy, formulation of the problem, data collection, processing, and analysis (Zukauskaset al., 2018) Research philosophy can be defined as the development of research assumption, its knowledge, and nature