An analysis of the metaphor in anne bradstreet’s poems

THESIS AN ANALYSIS OF THE METAPHOR IN ANNE BRADSTREET’S POEMS Phân tích yếu tố ẩn dụ trong thơ của Anne Bradstreet HOANG THI HONG NHUNG Field: English Language Code: 8.22.02.01... T

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

AN ANALYSIS OF THE METAPHOR IN

ANNE BRADSTREET’S POEMS

(Phân tích yếu tố ẩn dụ trong thơ của

Anne Bradstreet)

HOANG THI HONG NHUNG

Field: English Language Code: 8.22.02.01

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

AN ANALYSIS OF THE METAPHOR IN

ANNE BRADSTREET’S POEMS

(Phân tích yếu tố ẩn dụ trong thơ của

Anne Bradstreet)

HOANG THI HONG NHUNG

Field: English Language

Code: 8.22.02.01 Supervisor: Dr Tran Thi Le Dung

Hanoi - 2020

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CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report entitled AN ANALYSIS OF THE METAPHOR IN ANNE BRADSTREET’S POEMS submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master

in English Language Except where the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis

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ACKNOWLEDMENTS

A completed thesis would not be done without any assistance Therefore, the author who conducted this research gratefully gives the acknowledgement to their support and motivation during the time of doing this research

First of all, from bottom of my heart, I would like to express my endless thanks and gratefulness to my supervisor, Mrs Tran Thi Le Dung, Dr Her kindly support and continuous advice went through the process of completion of my thesis Her encouragement and comments had significantly enriched and improved my work Without her motivation and instructions, the thesis would have been impossible to be done effectively

My special thanks approve to my parents for their endless love, care and motivations for the whole of my life I also would like to explain my thanks to my siblings, brothers, sisters for their support and care all the time

As last, my deep thanks come to all the lecturers at the Faculty of English who gave me a chance to carry out this thesis

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ABSTRACT

The aims of this research are to analyze metaphor and the implicit meaning

of metaphor in the poems Moreover, the writer identifies word or phrases in the sentence according to the type of metaphor to make it easier and understand the implied meaning which contained in word or phrase in the poems In analyzing the data, the researcher used metaphor theory that was introduced by Larson Based

on the theory, the metaphor was divided into 4 types: there were anthropomorphic metaphor, animal metaphor, metaphor from concrete to abstract and synesthetic metaphor In analyzing the meaning of metaphor, the researcher used Larson theory Based on Larson, meaning divided into two kinds, explicit and implicit meaning In this research, the researcher only analyzed the implicit meaning of metaphor This research was library research because all of the research was done

in library This research design was descriptive qualitative because the researcher applied the data in the terms words, phrases and sentences The researcher applied documentation technique to collect the data This meant that in this research the document mostly used The primary data of this research was sentences that contain of metaphor in the poems of Anne Bradstreet In this research the researcher applied genetic stylistic approach to analyze the data because the researcher analyzed language styles focused on metaphorical expression Among those metaphorical expression, in this case were anthropomorphic metaphor, metaphor from concrete to abstract and synesthetic metaphor, the researcher concluded that the author mostly used implicit meaning of metaphor in her poem

Key: language, metaphor, Larson, Anne Bradstreet, anthropomorphic, synesthetic, concrete to abstract

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 3 The metaphor’s meaning used in the first poem 37 Table 4 The metaphor’s meaning used in the second poem 39

Table 6 The metaphor’s meaning used in two poems 45

1.2 Aims and objectives of the study 4

1.6 Significance of the study 5

1.7 Structure of the study 5

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 7

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2.5.1 The Essence of stylistic 13

2.5.2 The definition of figurative language 14

2.5.3 Kinds of figurative language 15

3.3 Data collection and data analysis 25

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4.1.1 To My Dear and Loving Husband 28

4.1.2 A Letter to Her Husband Absent upon Public Employment 32

4.2 The kinds of metaphor of the selected poems 34

4.2.1 To My Dear and Loving Husband 35

4.2.2 A Letter to Her Husband Absent upon Public Employment 36

4.3 The meaning of metaphor of the selected poems 37

4.3.1 To My Dear and Loving Husband 37

4.3.2 A Letter to Her Husband Absent upon Public Employment 39

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale for the study

Language is an important aspect of human life since language is used to communicate with each other According to Leech and Short (2007), a language is a vehicle communication whereby one person conveys message to another for a range

of different purposes, such as informing, ordering, persuading and reassuring Without language human civilization would have remained impossibility

Rousseau and John (1966) said that language can be divided into two groups: ordinary language and literary language Ordinary language refers to the words and phrases we use in day to day communication and conversation It is meant to be easily understood, and it generally does not utilize complex vocabulary Unlike ordinary language, literary language is the language used by the poets, writers and scholars; it

is more artistic from than ordinary language Tonner and Whittestome (2003) said that literature is an art form, like painting sculpture, music, drama and the dance Most people assume literature is an important part of education

Literature can introduce student’s ability to foster critical, reading, build valuable skills and expand student’s worldviews Literature is divided into three major types These types are poems, prose and drama From those genres, the researcher can choose the poem as the object analysis, not just because the poem is always a part of educational material in English language class, but also the poem is the important thing for student’s reading and writing skills The poem also opens venues for student’s speaking and listening skills

According to Kennedy and Dana (2005) considered that poem is piece of writing arranged in lines, usually with regular rhythm and often with a pattern of rhymes Poem is the expression of heart voice and strong feeling that is written in beautiful staza or and expressed with style and motion suitable with the content so that it is performed and listened beautifully

Poetry is one of the oldest forms of literature According to Aristoteles (1902) and Tomlinson (1999), poetry is the expression of ideas and feelings through a rhythmical composition of imaginative and beautiful words selected for their sonorous effects Poetry can be studied from its structure and its elements, given that the poem is a structured composed of various elements and means of allegory This

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is because the essence as works of art that always happen the tension between convention and innovation Perrin (1969) thought that poetry is always changing according to the evolution of taste and aesthetic concept or charge What is more, Richard (1995) considered that poem is a branch of literature that uses works as a media for delivery to produce the illusion and imagination; it is combination of words

in attractive form which can contain deep meaning

Certainly, readers can be given the opportunity to take part in the sensations experienced by the poem through the words in the own way, which makes the readers become wiser after reading poems Those issues are the reflection of the ordinary life which the ordinary person is concerned, so we believe that poem has been regarded as one of important thing in human’s existence

Actually, all poems usually can use figurative language According to Tonner and Whittestome (2003), figurative language is a language to describe the comparison, equation and imagery What is more, it is simply a way to add color and depth to what is otherwise a blank statement on reflect of thinking about event that serves their own interest The types of figurative language are simile, metaphor, personification, allegory, metonymy and so on

Ullmann (1972) said that metaphor is slow closely intertwined with the very texture of human speech that we have already encountered it in various guises: as a major factor in motivation as a short of synonym and polysemy, as a meaning of filling gap in vocabulary and several other roles Charteris (2004) believed that metaphor is an implied simile metaphor also compares two different things but it does not like simile, state one thing is like another or acts another for granted and procedures as if the two things were one Metaphors are figures of speech used to compare two things indirectly without showing the words that indicate the similarity They are short and solid figures of speech, which consist of two ideas The first idea is the reality which is assumed to be an object and the other one

is the comparison of the reality For example: Argument is war Although the literal meaning of argument is not a war, in this metaphorical concept it is assumed that having argument with other people is considered as a war It is because each side will always attack the weak points of the opponents Nonetheless, for decades, metaphors have been viewed as just poetic or literary language Most people think metaphors as a device of poetic imagination They

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think that they can get along without metaphors On the contrary, they often use metaphors in their daily life not just in terms of language but also how they think and act In fact, how people think and act every day is basically a matter of metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) It is said in a study about love metaphors, whether consciously or not people often express their feeling metaphorically

(Pasaribu, 2013) For example, love doesn’t know logic Love is considered to be

irrational In literary works, using metaphors is an interesting way to deliver

a meaning It is considered as the art of language due to its variety of diction and the unique style

Metaphors are often used by writers to make the language more beautiful and live Metaphors offer us means of enriching the language that we use (Sandstrom, 2006) One of the literary works that uses metaphors is poems Moreover, poems are also considered as language of emotion They deliver what human actually feels such as sad, anger, fear and love Therefore, poems are often used to express our love towards someone

There are a lot of love poems composed by famous poets One of the famous poets is Anne Bradstreet Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672), one of the genius poets who used metaphor in her works Anne Bradstreet used figurative language in her poem Anne Bradstreet was especially a fond of poetry that’s come from Puritan family She began to write herself and used figurative language in her poems To wind out the motion into the poems, Anne Bradstreet makes readers feel her motion following the way that: each reader has different feelings when they read and analyze poems by using a lots of kinds metaphor in her work Apart from that, we can see how metaphor is used flexibly

Therefore, the researcher is interested in how she metaphorically describes love through her poems The researcher is also interested in what kind of concept of love shown in her poems Thereby, the concept of love shown in the poem is analyzed and understood by using metaphors in Larson’s theory (1998) and Kövesces’s theory (1986)

Although metaphors are related with literary works, metaphors are actually in the field of cognitive linguistics, which is a branch of linguistics Apart from that, we can see how metaphor is used flexibly As a result, we can apply these in learning, teaching and using English language in life It may be not bored if learners like to

1.2 Aims and objectives of the study

1.2.1 Aims of the study

- This study aims at helping Vietnamese learners and teachers to know the metaphor of the poem and use as references in teaching and learning English

1.2.2 Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study are:

- to find out the kinds of metaphor in two poems “To My Dear and Loving Husband” and “A Letter to Her Husband Absent upon Public Employment” by Anne

1.4 Methods of the study

- The descriptive method examines with a particular focus on information of poems

- The qualitative method is used to gather and analyze the kinds of metaphor

of the selected poems and the meaning of metaphor (kinds of metaphor) of the selected poems

1.5 Scope of the study

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In this research, the researcher limits the two poems to be analysed those are:

“To My Dear and Loving Husband” and “A letter to Her Husband Absent upon Public Employment” by Anne Bradstreet The researcher uses structuralism theory to

analyze What is more, this study is limited to the kinds of metaphor and the metaphor’s meaning in two poems of Anne Bradstreet Certainly, the researcher only focuses on four kinds of metaphor:

(1) Anthropomorphic metaphor,

(2) Animal metaphor,

(3) Metaphor from concrete to abstract,

(4) Synesthetic metaphor

1.6 Significance of the study

After completing all research activities, this study is expected to give significances presented as follow:

1.6.1 Theoretical significance

In the end of this research, the researcher hopes that this thesis can contribute

to the knowledge of developing a good insight into better understanding of metaphor

Practically, the findings of this study are expected to give guidance and informative feedback to the students to comprehend the meaning of metaphors in poems; they could be applied in translating to make the target reader easily and clearly understand the figurative context

The findings of the study are expected to give readers some positive reference

in the linguistic study of literature

The study is expected to be used as references in conducting further studies about figurative language in different poems by different poets

1.7 Design of the study

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The thesis begins with Declaration by Author, Acknowledgements, Table of Contents and Abstract The content of the study is divided into five chapters, which are presented as follows:

Chapter I: INTRODUCTION

This chapter states the rational of the study, the aims of the study, the research question, the scope, the significance of the study and the organization of the study

Chapter II: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents some necessary studies related to the study and the basic theory for the study

Chapter III: METHODOLOGY

The methodology includes research design, research methods, data source, data collection and data analysis

Chapter IV: THE METAPHOR IN ANNE BRADSTREET’S POEMS

Chapter IV can introduce the poem presentation, find out the types of metaphor and the meaning of the selected poems

Chapter V: CONCLUSION

It gives the conclusion and suggestions

figures The appearance of Lakoff and Johnson’s “Metaphors We Live by” in 1980

also marked an important development of metaphor In this work, they found that metaphor is in everyday life, not only in language but also in thought and action It is used in poetry, art, teaching and so on, together with the developing of social life Metaphor changed little by little It was not only language but also concerned with ideal and then the thought, act

Littlemore and Graham (2006) also demonstrated how metaphor is used in the rest of Bachman’s competencies In doing so, they provide convincing evidence for the pervasiveness of metaphor in English and the importance of metaphoric competence They explain illocutionary competence as the understanding of the messages conveyed with words, including the use of ideational, manipulative, heuristic and imaginative functions For example, metaphors can be used persuasively in descriptions or arguments The ability for learners to identify and objectively or critically assess these constructions is important (Littlemore & Graham), particularly in academic study They explain textual competence as the

“ability to understand and produce well organized and cohesive text in both written and spoken contexts” (p.282), noting that metaphors can be used to summarize and end conversation or text, change topics, and structure arguments Littlemore and Graham describe grammatical competence as a learner’s ability to accurately use the second language grammatical system and point out that some content treated as grammar is actually metaphoric in nature An example is provided where the preposition ‘beyond’ is shown in its literal sense, followed by three instances of metaphorical use: ‘beyond our means’, ‘beyond my understanding’, and ‘beyond me’ (p.285) Finally, Littlemore and Graham (2006) demonstrated the role of metaphoric thinking in strategic competence for both the compensation strategies and interactional strategies used by interlocutors to make up for gaps in second language knowledge

Various studies identify the role of metaphor in supporting other forms of knowledge Lennan (1994) suggested that because of certain properties of metaphor, namely its central role in language structure, the way in which it facilitates concept

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development, and the manner in which it cognitively links physical objects and abstract concepts, it can help in learning grammar and vocabulary In a paper reporting her research into metaphor in academic lectures, Littlemore (2001) suggested that metaphors are used in an evaluative capacity, citing examples She also said that metaphors are used to identify and discuss new concepts at the post-secondary level because this type of vocabulary allows the speaker to “stretch the established boundaries of word meaning” (Clark, 1981, 1982, as cited in Littlemore,

2001, p.225) More recently, Arthur (2010) pointed to a number of studies that demonstrate metaphor comprehension’s role in learning phrasal verbs, idioms and vocabulary

Also, the thesis entitled "An Analysis of Metaphor in the Jakarta Post Newspaper" made by Afrizal Niswandi from University of Sumatra Utara (2011) In

his research, he analyzed the kinds of metaphor, the meaning of each metaphor, and the dominance of metaphor types found in the newspaper The object of this thesis

is metaphor in the article title of The Jakarta Post The subject of prior research

is a newspaper This research uses Semantic theory and the method which is used in this research is a library and qualitative research method The result of his analysis is that The Jakarta Post uses several metaphors, He finds 24 cases of metaphor that consist of 11 hyperbole cases, 2 metonymy cases, 5 synecdoche cases, and 6 composite cases Another research is conducted by Pasaribu (2013) in her

research - A Cognitive Linguistic Analysis of Indonesian Love Metaphor In her

research, she analyzed Indonesian love emotion expressed metaphorically and investigated the source domain projected upon the target domain of love

According to Ngamjitwongsakul (2005), love metaphors allow us to comprehend love in terms of more clearly delineated concepts In the study of love metaphors in modern Thai songs, Ngamjitwongsakul found twenty-two concepts that songwriters use to conceptualize love He also found that the abstract concept of love can generally be understood in terms of image schema in which love is described in reference to physical objects and spatial relations The study proceeds to reveal ontological and epistemic correspondences in modern Thai songs

What is more, the journal was done by Kamaliah (2013), Linguistics major

at English Language and Literature Study Program, Indonesia University of

Education Bandung The title of this research is Conceptual Metaphor in Mylo Xyloto Album by Coldplay The aim of this research is to find out that the

dominant conceptual metaphor used in the song lyrics The qualitative method

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especially a case study is used The result of this study is conceptual metaphor

used in the Mylo Xyloto, dominantly about life, changes, and love

Metaphor is also discussed in bank slogans by Bui Thi Phuong Trang (2011)

in “An investigation on metaphor used in English slogans by some banks in the world” The slogans are classified into types and sub- types of metaphors

Tran Thi Thanh Thao (2011) conducted a study in the semantics of metaphors

of Love in English and Vietnamese songs The findings of this study were that we can use our senses to perceive love Moreover, there are eight typical metaphorical images of love used in English and Vietnamese love songs namely: love is a concrete object, a living creature, a natural phenomenon, a journey, a three-dimensional scenario, a game, a war and heaven Tran Thi Thanh Thao (ibid.) deals with the metaphors of love used in English and Vietnamese songs while the current study examines love metaphors used in Dholuo popular music The current study’s intention is to find out whether the audiences of the Dholuo popular music also use other senses to perceive love

Besides, metaphor is used in songs by Chau Ngoc Thach Anh (2018) in “A study on conceptual metaphor of dream in English and Vietnamese songs” within the

approach of contrastive analysis using qualitative method of data analysis, this study investigated songs under the light of conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff and Johnson, 2003)

On the other hand, the present study is slightly different from previous studies

as the object of this present study is the poem while the previous studies are songs, novels, works, brief news and so on More importantly, the researcher only focuses

on 4 kinds of metaphor of the selected poems:

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Literature is considered as the expression of beautiful thought Ideas in beautiful language will be interesting for some readers if they have high sensitivity and imagination Literature is writing of particular kind involving a particular use

of words, writing that works in particular way, makes different (usually more exacting) Literature is human expression about the life experience in language form Literature is concerned with all aspect of human life and the universe in their entirety, surely every work of literatures is about something, and the more of a person reads, the better stocked will his mind be with knowledge According to Kennedy (1983), literature is the criterion is either aesthetic worth alone or aesthetic worth in combination with the general intellectual distinction According

to Jones (1968), literature is simply another way we can experience the world around us through our imagination Literature, in its broadest sense, includes all written materials On the other hand, Gill (1995) said that literature is a creative activity and an art Meanwhile Bailey (1965, p 239), defines literature as an art form, like painting, sculpture, music, drama, and the dance Literature is distinguished from other art forms by the medium in which it works: language

In so far as speech forms occur in other arts sung words in music, speaking as well

as It’s undeniable that literature is a literary work which there is a beautiful art that comes from human life Literary work is the result of the expression of feelings and describes imagination of the authors Certainly literature is an important part of education English literature can introduce students’ ability to foster critical reading, build valuable skills and expand student’s worldviews Apart from that, literature is

a description of human experience that has personal and social dimensions at once and the knowledge of humanity that is equal with the shape of life and itself The importance of literature is considered as a means of sharing experiences in the search for and finds the truth of humanity

2.3 Poem

2.3.1 Definition of poem

Poem is as universal as language and almost as ancient The most primitive

people have used it, and the most civilized have cultivated it because it has given pleasure People have read it, listened to it, or recited it because they liked it and give them enjoyment Poem might be defined as a kind of language that says more and says it more intensely than ordinary language It means that poem certain language is

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not ordinary language that people use every day Meanwhile, Perk and Martin (1984) defined poem as the spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling.It takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility The certain language used in the poems due to the beauty This is necessary because when the poems written in ordinary language, it will make no strong impression to the readers In the real life, death, pain and suffering are not pleasurable, but in poems, they may be For good readers, they will

be enjoyable when transmitted through the medium of art Poem can be recognized only by response made to it by a good reader; someone who has acquired some sensitive to poem, but there is a catch here, in reading the poem To know more about

it, there are some ways such as;

1 Read a poem more than once

Reading twice may be necessary simply to let you get your bearings,

a poem is not like newspaper, to be hastily read and cast into the wastebasket

2 Keep the dictionary by your side and use it

3 Read so as to hear the sounds of the words in your mind

4 Always pay carefully attention to what the poem saying

2.3.2 Elements of poem

2.3.2.1 Imagery

According Perrin (1969) and Thomas (1993), imagery may be defined as the representation through language of sense experience.The word image perhaps often suggests a mental picture, something seen in the mind’s eye - and visual imagery is the kind of imagery that occurs most frequently in poetry But an image may also represent a sound (auditory imagery); a smell (olfactory imagery); a taste (gustatory imagery); touch, such as hardness, softness wetness, or heat and cold (tactile imagery); an internal sensations, such as hunger, thirst, fatigue, or nausea (organic imagery); or movement or tension in the muscles or joints (kinesthetic imagery) If

we wished to be scientific, we could extend this list further, for psychologists no longer confined themselves to five or even six senses, but for purposes of discussing poetry the preceding classification should ordinarily be sufficient

2.3.2.2 Rhythm

The term rhythm refers to any wavelike recurrence of motion or sound In speech

it is the natural rise and fall of language All language is to some degree rhythmical, for all language involves some kind of alternation between accented and unaccented

Also, Tomlinson (1999, p.38) thought that “Poetry is the expression of ideas and feelings through a rhythmical composition of imagination and beautiful worlds selected for their sonorous effects” According to Hillyer (1961), there are 8 kinds of poems, they are: “ballad, ode, elegy, pastoral, sonnet, dramatic monologue, satire and free verse”

Ballad is a song that tells a story It usually consists of four line iambic tetrameter and rhymes

Ode is the most formal, ceremonious and complex by organized form of lyric poetry It is frequently vehicle for public utterance on state occasion, such as a ruler’s birthday, accession and funeral

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Elegy means lament It is formal in tone and diction It usually contains the commemoration of the death of the actual person or the poet’s contemplation of the tragic aspects of life Elegy is also written to express feeling of sorrow or loss

Pastoral is a type of poetry which describes rural life It often deals with the love of shepherd and shepherdesses

Sonnet is a fourteen-line poem The rhyme has been widely varied

Satire is a type of ridicule and criticism it can be erected against many different object universal human vices of follies, social evils

Dramatic monologue expresses the thought and feelings which are uppermost

in the mind It is a study of character mental states or moral crisis, made from inside

Free verse is the poem written in irregular lines and without regular metre

2.4 Structuralism

According to Richard (1995), structure is concepts including both content and form which are organized for the aesthetic purpose The work of art is, then, considered a whole system of signs or structure of signs, serving a specific aesthetic purpose

Structuralism is theory approaches of literary texts that emphasize the whole

of relation between the various elements of text The elements only get the meaning

in the relations, either relations association or relation of opposition

Structuralism is the explanation of texts or events in their own terms, hot in relation to external causes In this study researcher will analysis about the intrinsic element of poems Richard (1995, p.4) considered that “The intrinsic aspects are imagery, tone and figurative language” In fact, the intrinsic aspects are important rules in analyzing poetry because the writer will understand the real meaning intrinsic element in the poem also helps the reader to understand the theme of that poem

2.5 Figurative language

2.5.1 The Essence of Stylistic

Style is everything that deviates from normal use Deviations are aiming for aesthetics This aesthetics have appeared in literature, because literature is closed to aesthetic elements Style of language in literature is different from everyday people conversation Therefore, language style of literature is interesting to be researched, especially from stylistic aspect Stylistic is the science of the use of language in literature Leechand Mick (2007) stated that style is the pronunciation of the language

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in literary works, or how an author reveals something that will be presented According to Peck and Martin (1984), stylistic is the study of language style and stylistic is the science of linguistics that focuses on variations in language use, often giving special attention to the most basic use of language and complex in the literature Thus, stylistic uses linguistic aspects to assess literary work

Stylistic analysis is used to find a common aesthetic goal that appears in a literary work of the whole element Thus, the stylistic analysis can be directed to discuss the contents Stylistic research based on the assumption that literature has a great task.In addition, the arrangements of the sentences also indicate the variation and harmony to give a sense of aesthetics and not just certain shades of meaning That

is why the issue of literary style in the end also closely related to the problem of style

in language itself

2.5.2 Definition of figurative language

Figurative language has important role in literature Figurative language is the primary tool for poems to describe or confirm a thought or opinion Particularly, figurative language is a tool that is used to express thoughts, feeling and ideas of the readers or audience It’s undeniable that language style in a literary work is different from language style in daily conversation Literary work uses many figurative languages Language style in literary work is a special variety that is used to embellish

by the poems Style of language in this case, is an art which is influenced by conscience Through the figurative language, the poems reveal their ideas It can be said that figurative language is the wrapper idea that will make the literary text smooth

Bradshaw (2002) stated that figurative language or figure of speech is combination of words whose meaning cannot be determined by examination of the meanings of the words that make it up, or figurative language uses a number of words

to represent a single object, person or concept

Tonner and Whittestome (2003) said that style of language is a matter of choosing and using words in accordance with the contents of which would be submitted Style of language is also matter of how to construct sentences effectively, aesthetically and can give a concrete picture in the reader’s mind Disclosure language in the literature reflects the author’s attitude, characters and feelings that can be used to influence that attitudes and Dewi feelings of the readers Therefore,

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the form of disclosure language must be effective and able to support the idea exactly that has aesthetic aspect as a masterpiece Language has impression of aesthetics and carry the meaning simultaneously Without aesthetics of language, literature becomes bland Hence, flexibility of working out the language will create a unique aesthetic

of literary work In other words language is a special which for literary expressions According to Jones (1968) and Kennedy (1983), figurative language is the use of language style by the poet to describe issue and express feelings and thoughts

in writing poetry Figurative language of poetry is causing a lot meaning Figurative language produces the imagination in poetry so that it becomes clear Also, Beckson and Ganz (1975) considered that figurative language is language which makes us of certain devices called figure of speech, most of which are techniques for comparing dissimilar characters and feelings that can be used to influence the attitudes and feelings of the readers Therefore, the form of disclosure language must be effective and able to support the idea exactly that has aesthetic aspect as a masterpiece Language has the impression of aesthetics and carry the meaning simultaneously Without aesthetics of language, literature becomes bland Hence, the authors; flexibility of working out the language will create a unique aesthetics of literary work

In other words, language is a special vehicle for literary expression Literary language

is the special language It is because the language has been engineered and smeared

in such a way It later emerged from the polished style appear nice language style Thus the use of language style should be fully based on the author Not just a coincidence that the style was created by the author for the privilege of his work Therefore, it can be said if the author is smart in cultivating language, rich, and proficient in using stylistics the literary work will be more dazzling and more weight From some opinion above, it can be concluded that definition of figurative language or figure of speech is a typical way of expressing thoughts and feelings in written form or orally Stylistic reliability of this, lies in selecting words that are not directly declare its true meaning Selecting effective and aesthetic words is a key element in a style of language And it is greatly influenced by the author So that the style of language in a literary work will be different with the style of language in other literary works because each author has their own style of language in creating aesthetic art of language in their literary work

2.5.3 Kinds of Figurative Language

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In this research, the researcher discusses the figurative language based on Perrine’s perception According to Perrin (1969) and Dewi (2002), figurative language consists of 8 kinds, they are irony, hyperbole, metaphor, metonymy, litotes, simile, personification and oxymoron What follows are explanation about the

figurative language based on Perrine’s perception:

Irony means to say something that the meaning is the opposite of what is being spoken, for example when your friend is wearing shoes into your bed, you may say,

“that is very good” Of course you do not really mean that wearing shoes to bed is a good habit and you do not really mean that it is allowed in your house to use shoes to show that you forbid it

Hyperbole is a very large exaggeration For example, “your eyes are as bright

as stars” Of course “your eyes” here does not really mean is shining like star, but it just to show that the “eye” here is different and brighter than the other

Metaphor is a mapping between two different things We need to remember that metaphor does not use words like and as For example, “he is a lion” This sentence is not mean that “he” is a wild animal with sharp teeth and paw, rather to show that he is great, or can be brave like a lion

Metonymy is to show a part of single domain stands for the entire domain For example, “let the hands go to dinner” Actually it is not only the hands that go to dinner, but the whole body for it is impossible to leave some or part of our body

Litotes is saying less than is actually the case For example, “there is a little problem around here” Actually it could be not a little problem but a big problem

Simile is a comparison between two objects by using the words like or as A simile is not just an ordinary comparison So if you say, “my car is like your car”, of course it is not a simile A simile must compare two basic things that are found to be alike in one respect For example, “she has a voice like a thunder” Of course the speaker does not mean to say that “she” has a voice like thunder” The meaning of this sentence is to show that her voice is very hard, powerful

Personification is giving inhuman thing human qualities So it seems that an inanimate thing is alive Look at this example, “the pen walks slowly” Of course pen can not walk like human do, but here it to show writing slowly on a paper of something else

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Oxymoron is fusing together two contradictory words, ideas or concepts Look

at this example, “silent voices” This is a contradictory idea between silent and voice, for silent means no voices at all

2.6 Metaphor

2.6.1 Preceding theories of metaphor

According to Galperin (1981, p.139), the issue of metaphor already emerged in

the old ages: “From the times of ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric, the term has been known to denote the transference of meaning from one word to another” To represent this similar idea, professor Jäkel (1997, p.9) noted that: “For about three hundred years now, various, mostly European philosophers and linguists have been anticipating the central tenets and findings of the cognitive theory of metaphor” Furthermore, Jäkel (1997) emphasized that theory had the closest link with the contemporary Lakoff’s and Johnson’s cognitive–conceptual definition of metaphor Consequently, to cite Kant (1790, p.59) as referred to by Jäkel (1997, p.13) Kant’s theory of metaphor is explained in the following way: “the transfer of reflection on some object of intuition to a completely different concept, maybe one to which no intuition can ever correspond directly” Approaching further, according to professor

of English Literature Punter (2007, p.11): “<…> the first thinker to elaborate a theory

of metaphor” In accordance with the philosopher Ricoeur (2004), for centuries, various scholars who have treated the phenomenon of metaphor – including Aristotle – have suggested that metaphors are basically expressions of the similarity between two concepts In the same way, Lakoff (1992) also indicates that in classical theories metaphor stood outside everyday ordinary language Therefore, to cite Lakoff (1992, p.1): “The word metaphor was defined as a novel or poetic linguistic expression where one or more words for a concept are used outside of its normal conventional meaning to express a similar concept” In the same manner, to use Galperin’s description (1981, p.140): “The idea that metaphor is based on similarity or affinity

of two (corresponding) objects or notions is, as I understand it, erroneous” On account of this, Galperin (1981) assumes that due to one general property of two objects, they are no considered alike In this way, Galperin (1981, p.140) criticizes the theory of similarity in the following way: “<…> animals and human beings move, breathe, eat, etc but if one of these features, i.e movement, breathing, in pointed to

in animals and at the same time in human beings, the two objects will not necessarily cause the notion of affinity” Along the same lines, in the book The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor written by Lakoff (1992, p.1) it is stated as follows: “In classical theories of language, metaphor was seen as a matter of language not thought” In addition, Lakoff (ibid) has drawn his attention to the following definition: “<…> the

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classical theory turns out to be false” Consequently, recent researchers in the studies

of cognitive linguistics have argued assuredly against this ‘similarity theory’ of metaphor (Ricoeur 2004) Having analyzed the preceding theories of metaphors in accordance with the observations of Galperin (1981), Jäkel (1997), Lakoff (1992), Ricoeur (2004) and Punter (2007) we can draw the conclusion that in classical theories metaphors usually have been shown as existing only in language, but not within human thought processes Moreover, it was claimed that metaphor was considered similar just because two metaphorical concepts had one common peculiarity

2.6.2 Definition of metaphor

In recent years, contemporary linguists, cognitive scientists and philosophers present the definition of ‘metaphor’ differently from old theories As a result, various descriptions are applied to depict the same metaphor (Lakoff, 1992) Thus, cognitive linguists and scientists Lakoff and Turner (1989, p.25) in their book More than Cool Reason relate metaphor with the human mind processes and provide the following delineation: “Metaphor is a matter of thought – all kinds of thought: thought about emotion, about society, about human character, about language, and about the nature

of life and death” In the same way, the book of Punter (2007) reveals that, metaphors are widely used not only in literature, but also in everyday language and speech Furthermore, it is interesting to note that modern professor of rhetoric and technical communication, Baake (2003, p.68) pointed out the definition of metaphor as follows: “Metaphor functions by allowing two concepts to interact in the human mind, creating knowledge that transcends that which is held in the individual concepts” On this account, as maintained by Baake (2003), metaphor plays an essential role in a mysterious person knowledge process

Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated, but it has been shared by some common characteristics It is implied analogy in which a word or phrase is applied to

a person, object, idea or concept to which it is literally or semantically inapplicable The word metaphor was derived from Greek word In the broadest sense, metaphor represents a type of figurative language, or that which is not literal Kövesces (2010) explains that traditional thinking about metaphor can be summarized by a number of properties, including being used for artistic and rhetorical purposes, being consciously and deliberately used by those with the creative talent to do so, and being optional or unnecessary in the sense that it is used only for special effects, and not in everyday communication

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On the other hand, Lakoff and Johnson (1980, p.5) defined metaphor as

“understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” They suggest that although metaphor is typically thought of as a way to embellish language in poetry and rhetorical writing, it is much more than that: “metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action Matthews and Goatly (1997) defined that metaphor is a name or descriptive term, and it is figure of speech

in which a word or phrase is taken out of its usual setting and placed with another word to suggest a likeness It is made from vivid by transferring to it the name or attributes of some other objects

Also, according to Goatly (1997), metaphor occurs when a unit discourse is used to refer unconventionally to an object, process or concept or colligates in an unconventional way And other this unconventional act of reference or colligation is understood on the basic of the conventional reference on colligation of the unit and the actual unconventional reference Whilde Keraft (1992, p.139) considered that

“metaphor is analogy that compared two things directly but briefly form”, Aristoteles (1902) discussed metaphor primarily in two works The poetics with an emphasis on tragedy and rhetoric with the composition of persuasive speeches metaphor does not only appear as nouns, but also as verbs and adjectives In the expression “the police drug up enough evidence to send him to prison, the metaphorical phrase is a verb

“drug up” The verb phrase “dig up” literal means to “to take something cut of ground, but metaphorically means to investigate and collect the evidence carefully”

According to Aristoteles (1902), metaphor is essential for philosophy as a means of persuasion, in order to gain influence in the political sphere For Aristoteles, metaphor also played a key role in theatrical art and tragic poetry, where it is widely used to express and describe human emotions and actions Thus, metaphor is useful for philosophy as it makes one’s speech clearer and brings into it elegance and style

Metaphor is the corner-stone of meaning and thought A remarkable appeal of metaphor is that it makes an ideal vivid It is slightly difficult to grasp the thread of

an abstract thought When the idea is describes in a concrete way, it comes to life Through metaphor, the poems can convey extensive ideas by using a small number

of words For example, in the expression “life is a journey” The poem uses the word

“journey as an analogy to life A human sets out at birth, travels through various regions and arrives at the destination of death This example proves the power of metaphor of how to convey an extensive idea by using only a few words In

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general, according to Larson (1998), metaphor has four parts First of all, it is the topic The topic is the thing really being talked about The topic is the thing really being talked about It is usually the topic of the first proposition and non figurative Secondly, image is what is being compared with It is the topic of the second preposition and figurative The third part is the point of similarity It is found in the comments of both of the prepositions which has the image as topic A final part is non figurative equivalent When the proposition containing the topic is events preposition, the comment is the non figurative equivalent The researcher only pays attention to the metaphor in the imagery This theory is introduced by Larson (1998) The four general kinds of metaphor are anthropomorphic metaphor, animal metaphor, metaphor from concrete to abstract and synesthetic metaphor:

2.6.2.1 Anthropomorphic metaphor

Anthropomorphic metaphor is a natural phenomenon An entire organization might be described through an anthropomorphic metaphor if its various members were thought of as body parts For example, the brains of the organization would be its leader, the muscle would be a tough henchman; and the eyes and ears would be the organization’s spy network

2.6.2.2 Animal metaphor

Animal metaphor is used to explain a condition or the reality in the nature based

on the experience using of language The metaphor by the animal’s elements is common to use for a plant Metaphor is bases on the animal’s would Lakoff and Johnson (1980) considered that we use constructions for motion in physical space to express changes in state-space as when he say “human have risen above animals” For example: My boss is a dragon My aunt Jane is house - faced and body

2.6.2.3 Metaphor from concrete to abstract

Metaphor from concrete to abstract is the metaphor that can be informed by experience The experience is transferred from abstract For example: We use vertical spatial terms to talk about positive and negative emotional valence (example: She was feeling up) or talk about relationships in terms of physical journeys (example: They are at a crossroads)

2.6.2.4 Synesthetic metaphor

Synesthetic metaphor is the metaphor which is created by the transfer of response For example: I could hear a funny rustling and clicking

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It is undeniable that metaphor is used in poetry to explain and educate emotions, feelings and relationship of other elements which can not be described in ordinary language To find out the kind of metaphor and the meaning, the researcher needs some theories to accelerate include literature, poetry, structuralism, figurative, language and metaphor The references are really essential for the researcher to study

to find out the kinds of metaphor and the meanings of metaphor

2.7 Biography of Anne Bradstreet

Anne was born in Northampton, England, 1612, the daughter of Thomas Dudley, a steward of the Earl of Lincoln, and Dorothy Yorke Due to her family's position, she grew up in cultured circumstances and was a well-educated woman for her time, being tutored in history, several languages, and literature At the age of sixteen she married Simon Bradstreet Both Anne's father and husband were later to serve as governors of the Massachusetts Bay Colony Anne and Simon, along with

Anne's parents, emigrated to America aboard the Arbella as part of the Winthrop

Fleet of Puritan emigrants in 1630 She first felt American soil on June 14, 1630 at what is now Pioneer Village (Salem, Massachusetts) with Simon, her parents, and other voyagers as part of the Puritan migration to New England (1620–1640) Due to the illness and starvation of Gov John Endecott and other residents of the village, their stay was very brief Most moved immediately south along the coast

to Charlestown, Massachusetts for another short stay before moving south along the Charles River to found "the City on the Hill," Boston, Massachusetts

The Bradstreet family soon moved again, this time to what is now Cambridge, Massachusetts In 1632, Anne had her first child, Samuel, in Newe Towne, as it was then called Despite poor health, she had eight children and achieved

a comfortable social standing Having previously been afflicted with smallpox as a teenager in England, Anne would once again fall prey to illness as paralysis overtook her joints in later years In the early 1640s, Simon once again pressed his wife, pregnant with her sixth child, to move for the sixth time, from Ipswich, Massachusetts to Andover Parish North Andover is that original town founded in

1646 by the Stevens, Osgood, Johnson, Farnum, Barker, and Bradstreet families among others Anne and her family resided in the Old Center of North Andover, Massachusetts They never lived in what is now known as "Andover" to the south

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Both Anne's father and her husband were instrumental in the founding of Harvard in 1636 Two of her sons were graduates, Samuel (Class of 1653) and Simon (Class of 1660) In October 1997, the Harvard community dedicated a gate in memory

of her as America's first published poet (see last paragraph below) The Bradstreet Gate is located next to Canady Hall, the newest dormitory in Harvard Yard In 1650,

Rev John Woodbridge had The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America composed

by "A Gentlewoman from Those Parts" published in London, making Anne the first female poet ever published in both England and the New World On July 10, 1666, their North Andover family home burned in a fire that left the Bradstreet homeless and with few personal belongings By then, Anne's health was slowly failing She suffered from tuberculosis and had to deal with the loss of cherished relatives But her will remained strong and as a reflection of her religious devotion and knowledge

of Biblical scriptures, she found peace in the firm belief that her daughter-in-law Mercy and her grandchildren were in heaven

Anne Bradstreet died on September 16, 1672 in North Andover, Massachusetts at the age of 60 of tuberculosis The precise location of her grave is uncertain but many historians believe her body is in the Old Burying Ground at Academy Road and Osgood Street in North Andover In 1676, four years after the death of Anne, Simon Bradstreet married for a second time to a lady also named Anne (Gardiner)

In 1697 Simon died and was buried in Salem This area of the Merrimack Valley is today described as "The Valley of the Poets." A marker in the North Andover cemetery commemorates the 350th anniversary (2000) of the publishing

of The Tenth Muse in London in 1650 That site and the Bradstreet Gate at Harvard,

the memorial and pamphlets inside the Ipswich Public Library in Ipswich, MA, as well as the Bradstreet Kindergarten in North Andover may be the only places in America honoring her memory As of 2015, the Bradstreet Kindergarten was torn down in North Andover In the fall of 2018, The Anne Bradstreet Early Childhood Center was opened near Massachusetts Avenue in North Andover Housing both

preschool and kindergarten

2.8 Summary

Chapter two briefly presents some main parts The first part is previous studies

In this part, the researcher introduced the main points of view of some linguistic

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theoretical background that is also classified based on those authorities namely Peter (2002), Aristoteles (1902), Ullmann (1972), Barnhart (1995), Parera (2004), Jones (1968), Tomlinson (1999) Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Lennan (1994), Littlemore and Graham (2006) It is different with the points of view of metaphor in the past (which is defined by Augustine firstly, and then to have been understood by other famous researchers in long times ago) Metaphor is used in everyday language of life not just in poetry politics, or literature as we have ever thought In addition, this chapter wants to deal with the main points of elements of poem, form of poem Also, Richard (1995) said that structure is concepts including both content and form which are organized for the aesthetic, and the intrinsic aspects are important rules in analyzing poetry because the writer will understand the real meaning intrinsic element in the poem also helps the reader to understand the theme of that poem More importantly, figurative language has important role in literature Figurative language

is the primary tool for poems to describe or confirm a thought or opinion Particularly, figurative language is a tool that is used to express thoughts, feeling and ideas of the readers or audience There are 8 kinds: they are irony, hyperbole, metaphor,

metonymy, litotes, simile, personification and oxymoron It is undeniable that

metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated, but it has been shared by some common characteristics In this thesis, the researcher follows the Larson’s theory In general, according to Larson (1998), metaphor has four parts such as anthropomorphic metaphor, animal metaphor, metaphor from concrete to abstract and synesthetic metaphor, the final part in this chapter is the biography of Anne Bradstreet To sum up what has been discussed in this chapter will serve as the theoretical foundation for the analysis of metaphor used in Anne Bradstreet’s poems

in the next chapter

a language it is by morphology, syntaxes, and semantics The meaning of genetic stylistic is an individually language style look language style as a typical personal expression

Kennedy (2005) stated that stylistic approach should achieve the level of meaning of literary work, denotative and connotative meaning Stylistic connotative

is divided into two types, rhetoric style and figurative style Rhetoric style involves euphemism, paradox, tautology, polysindeto, ect, and figurative style has no many types such as allegory, personification, simile, metaphor, sarcasm, ect

Based on the statements above, it can be concluded that genetic stylistic approach applied for this study because this research analyzed language focused on metaphorical expression Tomlinson (2002) considered that the steps of stylistic study such as: determine the unit of analysis and analysis aspects of language The meaning

of determine the unit of analysis is analyze sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, ect Analysis aspects of language such as manipulation of the sound mix to achieve aesthetic aspect, analysis of diction which is in the field of literature and supporting meaning and language aesthetic, analysis of the sentences are emphasized on using various sentences in every condition, and analysis the meaning of metaphor as a part

of figurative languages

In this research, the researcher described metaphorical expression and find out the implicit meaning of those metaphorical expression The research did not describe numerical but describe the data in this research The researcher analyzes the sentences which are emphasized on using metaphorical expression in every condition and analyzes the meaning of that metaphorical expression through generic stylistic approach

The researcher uses structural approach to analyze metaphor in “To My Dear and Loving Husband” and “A Letter to Her Husband Absent upon Public

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Employment” by Anne Bradstreet According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980, p.61),

“Structural metaphors provide the richest source of such elaboration Structural metaphors allow us to do much more than just orient concepts refer to them, quantify them, etc This means that we structure one concept by others highly structure and clearly delineated concept by systematic correlations within our experience” In this research, the researcher focuses on metaphor which can explain some kinds and meaning in the two- mentioned poems

3.2 Methods of the study

This research was qualitative method Dörnyei (2007, p.24) considered that

“Qualitative research is an inquiry that the data collection progress result in ended, non-numerical date, and analyzed primarily by non-statistical method” The qualitative method was the method or relevant approach such as structural approach

open-3.3 Data collection and data analysis

3.3.1 Data collection

In this research, the researcher uses documentation techniques in collecting the date This method is attempted to trace the source of information in the form of document which are relevant to the object of the research The data of this study is three poems written by Anne Bradstreet to analyze metaphorical expression such as anthropomorphic metaphor, animal metaphor, metaphor from concrete to abstract and synaestetic metaphor The instrument of this study is the writer The writer spends time reading and understanding the selected poems of Anne Bradstreet

3.3.2 Data analysis

In this research, the researcher applies content analysis that focuses on analyzing metaphorical expression The document used in this research is two poems

written by Anna Bradstreet

Huberman (1994) stated that content analysis is divided into two types, latent content and communication content The meaning of latent content is content in the document and manuscripts, while communication content is the message as effect of communication In the one hand, analysis toward communication content will create sense In the literature, content analysis can be used to analyze the writing style of an author

The meaning in content analysis usually is symbolic meaning Hence, the duty

of content analysis is for revealing the hidden symbolic meaning in the literary work