An analysis of lexical and contextual meanings in the lyrics of bob marley’s songs

THESIS AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL AND CONTEXTUAL MEANING IN THE LYRICS OF BOB MARLEY’S SONGS Phân tích nghĩa từ vựng và nghĩa văn cảnh trong bài hát của BOB MARLEY Field: English Langu

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL AND CONTEXTUAL MEANING IN THE LYRICS

OF BOB MARLEY’S SONGS

(Phân tích nghĩa từ vựng và nghĩa văn cảnh trong

bài hát của BOB MARLEY)

Field: English Language Code: 8.22.02.01

Hanoi - 2020

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL AND CONTEXTUAL MEANING IN THE LYRICS

OF BOB MARLEY’S SONGS

trong bài hát của BOB MARLEY)

NGUYEN THI NHUYN

Field: English Language

Code: 8.22.02.01

Supervisor: Dr Tran Thi Le Dung

Hanoi - 2020

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report entitled AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL AND CONTEXTUAL MEANING IN THE LYRICS OF BOB MARLEY’S SONGS submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of Master in English Language Except where the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis

Hanoi, 2020

Nguyen Thi Nhuyn

Approved by SUPERVISOR

(Signature and full name)

Date:………

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A completed thesis would not be done without any assistance Therefore, the author who conducted this research gratefully gives the acknowledgement to their support and motivation during the time of doing this research

First of all, I would like to express my endless thanks and gratefulness to my supervisor, Tran Thi Le Dung, Dr Her kindly support and continuous advice went through the process of completion of my thesis Her encouragement and comments had significantly enriched and improved my work Without her motivation and instructions, the thesis would have been impossible to be done effectively

I am extremely grateful to my parents for their love, prayers, caring, preparing

me for my future Also I convey my thanks to my brothers, sisters for their support, encouragement and care spiritually throughout my life

As last, my deep thanks come to all the lecturers of the Faculty of English who gave me a chance to carry out this thesis

in Bob Marley’s songs The researcher dedicated to give the title of this research

“An Analysis of Lexical and Contextual Meanings in the lyrics of Bob Marley’s Songs” The problem of this study is: (1) What are the lexical meanings

in the lyrics of Bob Marley’s Song? (2) What are the contextual meanings in the lyrics of Bob Marley’s Songs ? The writer takes three songs from different album This study uses a descriptive qualitative method because the writer would analysis and interpret the research object of Bob Marley’s Song Lyrics The result

of this research is as follows: (1) related to the lexical meaning, while (2) related to the contextual meaning The researcher expects that this research will be useful for the other researchers who are eager to know more about semantics Moreover, semantic is an important branch of linguistics that is interesting to be studied, especially when it is applied to literary works, such as songs or poem

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Stanza: S

Line: L

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of originality……… i

Acknowledgements……… ii

Abstract……… iii

List of abbreviations ……… iv

List of tables and figures ……… v

Table of contents………. vi

Chapter I INTRODUCTION……… 1

1.1 Rationale of the study……… 1

1.2 Aims and objectives of the study……… 3

1.2.1 Aims of the study……… 3

1.2.2 Objectives of the study……… 3

1.3 Research questions……….……… 3

1.4 Methods of the study……… 3

1.5 Scope of the study ……….… 4

1.6 Significance of the study ……… 4

1.7 Design of the study ……… 4

Chapter II LITERATURE REVIEW ……… 6

2.1 Review of previous studies……… 6

2.2 Semantic……… 8

2.3 Kinds of meaning……… 10

2.3.1 Lexical meaning……… 11

2.3.1.1 Synonymy……… 12

2.3.1.2 Antonym ……… 14

2.3.1.3 Polysemy……… 14

2.3.1.4 Hyponymy……… ……… 15

2.3.1.5 Homonym……… ……… 15

2.3.1.6 Ambiguity……….……… 15

2.3.2 Context……… 16

2.3.2 1 Authorial context……… 16

2.3.2 2 Socio-historical context……… 16

2.3.2 3 Philosophical context……… 16

2.3.2 4 Literary context……… 16

2.3.2 5 Critical context……… 16

2.3.3 Contextual meaning ……… 17

2.3.4 Grammatical meaning……… 19

2.3.5 Denotative meaning……… 20

2.3.6 Connotative meaning……… 21

2.3.7 Conceptual meaning……… 22

2.4 Word ……… 23

2.4.1 Meaning of word ……… 24

2.4.2 Class of word ……… 25

2.4.2.1 Noun ……… 25

2.4.2.2 Determiner ……… 25

2.4.2.3 Verb ……… 26

2.4.2.4 Adverb ……… 26

2.4.2.5 Adjective ……… 26

2.5 Phrases ……… 27

2.6 Song……… 28

2.7 Lyrics……… 29

2.8 Message 30

2.9 The biography of Bob Marley……… 31

2.10 Summary……… 32

Chapter III METHODOLOGY ……… 34

3.1 Research approach……… 34

3.2 Methods of the study……… 34

3.3 Data collection and data analysis ……… 34

3.3.1 Data collection ……… 34

3.3.2 Data analysis ……… 35

3.4 Summary……… 36

Chapter IV AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL AND CONTEXTUAL MEANING IN THE LYRICS OF BOB MARLEY’S SONGS …… 37

4.1 Research Findings ……… 37

4.1.1 Data presentations ……… 37

4.1.1.1 The first data ……… 37

4.1.1.2 The second data ……….… 41

4.1.1.3 The third data ……… 43

4.1.1.4 Summary ……… 47

4.2 Discussion of the data ……….……… 47

4.2.1 Lexical meaning……… 48

4.2.1.1 Synonym……… 48

4.2.1.2 Antonym……… 48

4.2.1.3 Homonym……… 49

4.2.1.4 Hyponym……… 49

4.2.1.5 Denotation……… 49

4.2.1.6 Connotation ……… 50

4.2.2 Contextual meaning……… 51

4.2.2.1 Context of situation……… 51

4.2.2.2 Context of purpose ……… 51

4.2.2.3 Mood context of speaker or listener……… 52

4.3 Summary……… 52

Chapter V CONCLUSION ……… 54

5.1 Recapitulation……… 54

5.2 Concluding remarks……… 54

5.3 Limitation of the research……… 56

5.4 Recommendation……… 56

REFERENCES……… 58

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale of the study

A language has an important function in society One can keep

communicate in their daily life by using language Language is also very important tools on establishing and preserving relationship among people Communication is the basic thing to all human communities It can be widely defined as the process with actions such as exchange information; making transaction, cooperating with others, and doing any other things that need language Using language is the majors of communication through (verbal or non verbal language) people are able to express their thought and to communicate with other or even with themselves Bloomfield (1930) said that language symbolizes a sense, a concept, an idea or a thought that is delivered in the form of sound

Apart from that, Chomsky (2000) thought that language is a means of communication between members of the public in the form of sound symbols produced by a human utterance Also, Amindudin (2011) considered that literature is one form of artistic creations using language as media presentation People can communicate through poems, prose, or songs and so on Song is a kind of musical expression in the form of oral and written form Music is really necessary for human life Some music needs good lyrics in order that the listener can enjoy it The musician uses the meaning of the word in combination and the contact in which they happen and the writer tries to arrive at what the musician intends his message to convey It’s undeniablethat music occupies a part of expressing of thinking and feeling Goddaid (1998) considered that semantic which is one of an important branch of linguists is interesting to be studied when it is applied to literary work such as the song, poem and prose Certainly semantic is the study of language meaning

According to Jackendoff (1983) linguistic semantic analyzes how language organizes and expresses meanings Kreidler (1984, p.41) said that “The dimensions

of meaning include denotation, connotation, sense relations, lexical and grammatical meaning, morphemes, homonymy, polysemy, lexical ambiguity, sentence and meaning” What is more, Frawley (1992) considered that the kind of meaning can include a lexical, grammatical and contextual meaning, referential and non-referential meaning, denotative and connotative meaning, conceptual and associative meaning and lexeme Kearns (2000) also said that semantic is a sub – discipline of linguistics

which can focus on the study of meaning Also, Goddaid (1998) thought that linguistics meaning is divided into two meanings namely lexical and contextual meaning

Semantics is a sub discipline of linguistics which focuses on the study of meaning The present study analyzes about semantic analysis especially on the lexical meaning and contextual meaning, “An Analysis of Lexical and Contextual Meanings in the Lyrics of Bob Marley’s Songs” The lexical meaning is to

be interpreted as the meaning of lexemes depending on the meaning of sentences in which they occur Lexical meaning concerned with the relationship between words and meanings Related to lexical meaning involves denotation, connotation, synonymy, antonym, hyponymy, homonymy, homophone, polysemy, and figurative language In this research, the writer chooses literary works like songs Song is any poem even there is an attention of it being set to music In this research, the researcher chooses the literary problem about song Song is a piece

of music with word that is sung or music for the voice Its means that the producing musical sounds with the voice and augments regular is speech by the uses

of both tonality and rhythm And then, sings was called a singer or vocalist Singers perform music that could be sing either with or without accompaniment by musical instruments Certainly, singers usually conveys the message either lexically

or contextually in their lyric Therefore, lyrics can be used as one form or mean of communication among the people; every song has a message to give readers understanding to the content of the song One of musicians that leaves deep impression on the researcher is Bob Marley In this research, the researcher chooses the literary problem about song It was “Bob Marley’s Song” The study was limited on lexical meanings and contextual meanings He was born in 1945 and died in 1981 He was a Jamaican singers – song writer and musician He is considered

as one the most influential musician of all time and credited with popularizing, reggae music around the world Marley has also evolved into global and inspired numerous items of merchandise

The researcher finds out that Bob Marley’s songs tell about revolution and give a lexical and contextual meaning then a message for someone who loves the songs Bob Marley usually uses reggae as his weapon of resistance to justice, racism, poverty and colonialism to imperialism The researcher is really impressed by the

Bob’s lyrics and tries to explore the meaning that contains inside his reggae music and wants to change people’s views on reggae music that is assumed as violence

More importantly, by listening to song, Vietnamese learners and teachers of English can get knowledge about semantics, literature and the background of the English songs The lyrics of song are categorized into poem or poetry Thereby we can understand more about good lyrics Lyrics of song can be described as composer’s expression to represent its feeling, thought and willingness In addition

to some extent, they can see what the lexical meaning and contextual meaning in semantics so they can apply these in learning and using English language in life

It may be not bored if English learners would take to study English by English songs What is more, the researchers who analyze the meanings of songs involved in semantic theories in the way of interpretation are still rare For these reasons, the

researcher has decided to choose the topic “An Analysis of Lexical and Contextual

Meaning in the Lyrics of Bob Marley’s Songs” for my master thesis

1.2 Aims and objectives of the study

1.2.1 Aims of the study

This study is hoped to give new information to semantic study suitably and

persuasively Besides, the thesis is done to help learners and teachers to know and understand the lexical and contextual meaning used in the songs, and the thesis will give a bit of inspiration for lectures to give the topic in teaching and learning process

1.2.2 Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study are:

-To identify the kinds of lexical meaning in the lyrics of Bob Marley’s songs

-To interpret the types of contextual meanings in the lyrics of Bob Marley’s songs

1.3 Research questions

To be completed these aims of this research work, the thesis has to answer following questions:

-What are the lexical meanings in the lyrics of Bob Marley’s songs?

-What are the contextual meanings in the lyrics of Bob Marley’s songs?

1.4 Methods of the study

- The descriptive method examines with a particular focus on information of the songs

- The qualitative method will be used to gather and analyze the lexical and contextual meaning in the lyrics of Bob Marley’s songs

1.5 Scope of the study

In this research, the researcher chooses Bob Marley’s songs to be analyzed and elaborated in detail The study is limited to lexical and contextual meanings Also, the researcher only focuses on three lyrics of Bob Marley’s songs in the different

album The titles of the song are No Women No Cry in 1975 “Live” album, One Love

in 1977 “Exoclus” album, and Redemption songs in 1980 “Uprising” album

1.6 Significance of the study

Studying this thesis, we got a lot of knowledge to understand more about the items of linguistic semantic, especially the kinds of lexical meaning found in the English translation Bob Marley’s songs With foreign language learners like me, linguistic semantic opens a new view so that we can approach foreign language easier Studying linguistic semantic to help readers and learners to reach deep comprehension on the English songs Readers not only enjoy the music, understand the lyric but also they can catch the message of the song-writer Practically, the result

of the thesis is hoped to give a contribution to the learners who are interested in this study and encourage them to know the lexical meanings of the songs which are used

in life The next researchers, perhaps, will be different result in investigating the Songs by using semantics theory The researcher also hopes that this study can be used as references for further relevant researchers

1.7 Design of the study

The thesis begins with Declaration by Author, Acknowledgements, Abstract and Table of Contents The content of the study is divided into five chapters, which are presented as follows:

Chapter I INTRODUCTION

This chapter states the rationale of the study, the aims and objectives of the study, the research question, methods of the study, the scope of the study, the significance of the study and the design of the study

Chapter II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents some necessary studies related to the study and the basic theory for the study

Chapter III METHODOLOGY

The methodology includes research design, research methods, data source,

data collection and data analysis

Chapter IV AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL AND CONTEXTUAL

MEANING IN THE LYRICS OF BOB MARLEY’S SONGS

Chapter IV presents data obtained from the data sources The data

presentation is divided into three categories which are in accordance to the number

of the songs used as the data sources of this research

Chapter V CONCLUSION

It gives the conclusion about the research

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Review of previous studies

There are some previous studies in investigating semantics “Lexical Semantics” by Cruse (1986) is one of the valuable books on this linguistic aspect in the English language In this book, Cruse (1986, p.159) considered that “The semantic relationship between a lexical item denoting a part and that denoting the corresponding whole” For this reason, Kearns (2000) explained that the semantic relationship can be identified with the sentence frame “X is part of Y” e.g finger and palm are meronyms of hand

Another thesis is “Semantic Analysis on Iwan Fals’’ Songs by Nila Kurniasari (2005) The study was limited on meanings and messages and therefore, the title of her thesis is Semantic Analysis on Iwan Fals’ Songs The problems to be discussed are: (1) What are the meanings found in Iwan Fals’ songs? (2) What are messages found in Iwan Fals’ songs? The objectives of the study are

to find out the meanings implied and the messages that exist in Iwan Fals’ songs

In this study, the researcher took ten songs, by the way all of songs in Iwan Fals’

songs in the “In Collaboration With” album The study was descriptive qualitative

In the research, the writer used some books of their works to support this thesis

Khulala (2012) wrote “A Semantic Analysis on the English Translation

of surah Almuzammil” The study aims answering two following question The first

question was what kind of meaning and message are used in the English

translation of surah Almuzammil by Yusuf Ali She used conducting descriptive

qualitative method, because the data of this study are in the form of the sentences

or word of surah Almuzammil by Yusuf Ali

Muhammad Syaiful Rizal (2010) had the thesis with the title “Lexical

Meanings Used In Five Speeches of The Most Influential Speeches In Twentieth Century” This study further conducted with the following problems: 1 What lexical meanings are used in the most influential speeches in twentieth century?

2 How are lexical meanings used in the most influential speeches in twentieth century? This research was conducted by using qualitative method To answer the point of utterances used by the speaker that is by describing what and how the lexical meanings used by the speaker After the data have been obtained, the writer took several steps to analyze the data First, the writer categorized data into five

categories in accordance with the number of the speeches uses as the data sources The data of each category were presented, analyzed and concluded After the data

of the whole categories had already been presented, analyzed and concluded,

he made tentative conclusion After consulting with the informants, the writer made final conclusion

In “Semantics” Saeed (1997, p.68) thought that “Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion in the sense that the meaning of hyponym is included in the meaning of a more general word, called super ordinate”

Illah (2008) focused one kind of meaning namely lexical meaning This study finds that generally the lyrics of Bob Marley’s song contain synonym, antonym, hyponym, denotation, connotation and mess

Kreidler (1998) who studied semantic analysis on Cranberry’s song focused

on lexical meaning generally in song She found that lexical meaning such as denotative, connotative, and figurative are more dominant For instance, “How to be killing you” as denotative killing means to make somebody or someone dies and connotative means that drugs can kill somebody softly Then, figurative language of

“like” means her eyes are like sparkle of diamond

Nugroho (2007) studied lexical meaning found on the lyrics of Metallica lyrics focused on denotative and connotative He stated that the lyrics contain positive and negative connotation Positive connotation means purr words or the sentences are constructed for daily expression like “psychotic” means mentally unbalanced Negative connotation means snarl words or the sentences are mostly written in figurative language like “psychotic” means mad or crazy

A Vietnamese researcher who regarded the use of synonyms as lexical cohesion is Nguyen Hoa (2000) in “An Introduction to Discourse Analysis” According to him, the usage synonyms or near synonyms is very frequent in English This is to avoid unnecessary repetition

Besides the works above, these are some related thesis including “Synonym Substitution in English and Vietnamese” by Le Thi Thuy Trang (2011) and “The Lexical Features of English Used in Travel Brochures in Vietnam” by Vu Thi Thu

Huong (2018) Tran Thi Le Dung (2018) had the thesis with the title “Đối chiếu từ đồng nghĩa trong Tiếng Anh và Tiếng Việt trên bình diện ngữ nghĩa và ngữ dụng”

Both of them focus on different semantic relations with specific examples However, the present study is slightly different from the previous studies as the object of this present study is the song while the previous studies are poems, novels, words, brief news and soon

Consequently, the researcher tries to clarifysome linguistic semantics to study

in my thesis in English, in which the lexical and contextual meaning are mainly

focused With the findings of my thesis named “An Analysis of Lexical and

Contextual Meaning in the Lyrics of Bob Marley’s Songs”, I hope that my study

will be of some help for the teaching and learning English of Vietnamese teachers and learners

2.2 Semantic

Semantic is the study of how person responds to words and other symbols

In addition, the term semantic is mentioned as one of linguistic branches, which is crucial part of overall linguistic competence

Linguistic semantics is the topic of this book, but we need to limit to ourselves to the expression of meanings in a single language, English The researcher thinks that semantic was a part of linguistics On the other word, semantic was one of the branched of linguistics studying about the meaning of language According to Charles (1998, p.3), “Semantic is the systematic study of meaning and linguistic semantic is the study of how languages organize and express meanings” Its means that, meaning in linguistic semantic was very needed for

us to limit ourselves to the expression of meanings in a single language Charles (1998 ) said that there were three disciplines were concerned with the systematic study of meaning, in itself: psychology, philosophy and linguistics It means that, psychologist were interest in how individual humans learn, how they retain, recall or loss information Philosophies of language were concerned with how we know, how any particular fact that we know or accept as true was related to other possible facts And then, the last systematic study of meaning is about linguistic, linguistics want to understand how language works

Akmajian Deneners and Mernish (1981, p.225) stated that “Semantic is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language, while in logic semantic

is language” Also Kriedler (1998, p.3) considered that “Semantic is the systematic

study of how languages organize and express meanings” Meaning in linguistic semantic is really necessary for us to limit ourselves to the expression of meanings in

a single language

Cruse (1986) thought that semantic is the study of meanings of words and other parts of language, the general study or signs of symbols and what they stand for Also, Mukhlis (2004) stated that semantic is the study of meaning which stands

at the very center of the linguistic guest to understand the nature of language and human language abilities It is obvious that semantic has an important role in understanding and comprehending a language especially for English since semantic does not only concern the study of meaning, but also the relationship between language and culture What is more, Lyons (1984) believed that semantic is a study

of meaning The term of meaning in the semantic theory can be described from the mind of speaker to the mind of the hearer by embodying them, as it was, in the form

of one language or anther Lyons also stated that the word meaning may not have the same range of application as any single word in other language For example, there are contexts in which “meaning” can be translated into French with signification

or sense, and the context of meaning (signification or sense) does not match with

“bedeutung and sinn” in German

Unlike Lyons, Evans (1984, p.19) stated that meaning is related to the form of expressions which conveys the meaning, but it is difficult to know the certain relationship between them, as what they say: “Certain sounds arranged in particular ways become word, and words arranged in particular ways become sentence The form of sentences is argued that some aspects of the meaning of these sentences determine their form In any aspects or even the speaker of language intuitively associates meaning with particular language forms No one knows the exact nature of the relationship between forms and meaning” The meaning of the word is fully reflected by its context The meaning of the word is constituted by its context The meaning of the word is constituted by its contextual relations Hence, a distinction between of participation as well as modes

of participation is made In order to accomplish this distinction any part of a sentence that bears a meaning and combines with the meaning of other constituents

With the many types of meaning put for word by linguists, the researcher is interested in analyzing the lexical meaning and contextual meaning of the words in a

song lyrics By knowing the lexical meaning and contextual meaning of the word in the song lyrics, it will be easy to understand the overall meaning of the song

Semantic is appropriate to investigate and analyze the contextual meaning in the lyrics of Bob Marley’s songs because semantic can deal with the meaning of the songs to convey their intended meaning of Bob Marley’s songs

2.3 Kinds of meaning

The study of linguistic meanings of morphemes, word, phrases, and sentence is called semantics Semantic is considered with aspect of meaning in language Dealing with the meaning, it could be categorized into some reference According to Charles (1998), the dimensions of meaning include reference and denotation, connotation, sense relations, lexical and grammatical meaning, morphemes, homonymy, polysemy, lexical ambiguity, sentence and meaning

According to Pateda (2001), kind of meaning include a cognitive meaning, ideational

meaning, denotational meaning, promotional meaning, while Evans (2009) thought that kind of meaning include emotive meaning, cognitive meaning, descriptive meaning, referential meaning, pictorial meaning, dictionary meaning, fringe meaning, core meaning According to Kreidler (1998), kind of meaning include

of grammatical meaning and lexical meaning According to Boomfield (1930), there were narrowed meaning and widened meaning

According to Chaer (2007), kinds of meaning include a lexical,

grammatical and contextual meaning, referential and non-referential meaning, denotative and connotative meaning, conceptual and associative meaning, and lexeme Pateda (2001) said that kinds of meaning include a theoretical of referential

or correspondence, theoretical of contextual, the theory of mentalism or conceptual, and theoretical formalism

The study of linguistics meaning of morphemes, word, phrases and sentence is called semantics Semantic concerns aspect of meaning in language, work

in semantic deals with the description of word meaning in language Lyons (1984, p.136) stated that “There are many types of meaning such as lexical meaning, philosophical meaning, contextual meaning, grammatical meaning, sentence meaning, descriptive meaning, expressive meaning and social meaning”

Also, according to Kreidlers (1998, p.41), “The dimensions of meaning include reference, denotation, connotation, sense relations, lexical, and grammatical meaning morphemes, homonymy, polysemy, lexical ambiguity, sentence and meaning.”

All of the kind of meaning with the different reference, the researcher takes

a focus in lexical meaning, contextual meaning, grammatical meaning, denotative meaning, connotative meaning and conceptual meaning in this study

2.3.1 Lexical meaning

Lexical meaning is the smallest meaning unit in the meaning system of language that could be distinguished from other similar units A lexeme is an abstract unit It can occur in many different forms of actual spoken or written sentences It is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected According to Flawley (1992) said that lexical meaning is the meaning of the word when the word is seen in isolation, either in form or shape lexeme affixes whose meaning more or less fixed, as can be read in a particular language dictionary

Lexical meaning is also smallest meaning unit in the meaning system of language that could be distinguished from other similar units A lexeme is an abstract unit It can be occurring in many different forms of actual spoken or wrote sentences, and regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected

Lexical meaning refers to the real meaning, meaning that proper with our sense

of observation, or granted meaning It has been known that a language has amount

of lexical system by which the semantic with structure could be based its meaning

on paradigmatic and systematical The researcher said that lexical meaning could

be defined as a meaning which has a characteristic of lexicon, lexeme and word

It also has a meaning as it reference, meaning which is result of our observation through our sense, or the reality in our life Not all lexeme were word-lexeme or lexeme whose forms are words forms Many of them would be phrasal lexeme whose forms were phrases

Therefore, many people who say that the lexical meaning is the meaning

in the dictionary or that of the lexeme meaning even without any contexts For example, “horses” have similar lexical meaning ordinary a quadruped ridden This example, the lexical meaning is the exact meaning or meanings that accord with

the observation of our senses In the dictionary, usually contains only lexical meaning possessed by the word described

The meaning of words on lexical meaning is a part of linguistic knowledge and it is therefore a part of the grammar The term lexical meaning, which is used in semantics is interpreted as the meaning of lexeme whether it is word lexeme or paraphrase lexeme

Lexical meaning is usually considered as being the meaning of word Lyons (1984, p.140) stated that “Lexical meaning is a meaning described in the lexicon or dictionary” Lexical meanings are the meaning of a word or sentence which upon the meaning of its constituent lexemes Also, Chaer (2007) thought that lexical meaning

is an adjunction form derived from the form of a noun lexicon (vocabulary) The unit

of the lexicon is a meaningful unit of language If we compare the lexicon with vocabulary or vocabulary then we can equate lexeme with word Thus lexical meaning can be interpreted a lexicon, lexeme or a word “A lexical word or meaning

is the meaning that corresponds to its referent meaning that is in accordance with the result of observation of the sense or meaning that is truly real in our lives , in other words, picture of a concept as the word symbolizes” (Chaer, 2007, p.63) Lexical meaning can also be consider as the meaning contained in a dictionary Chaer (2007) considered that lexical meaning is owned or existed in lexeme even without any

context For examples, the phrase “The mouse got killed the cat” contains the word

mouse that has the lexical meaning of a rodent that can cause typhus The word mouse

in the sentence above refers to the animal mouse and not to other We can see these mice in dirty places and usually roam inside the house especially in hidden places If you are not aware, these mice can damage foods and cause diseases when eaten by humans

According to Trenskaner (2006), the lexical patters or semantic fields are

identified as synonymy, antonym, polysemy, hyponym, connotation, homonym, denotation

2.3.1.1 Synonymy

Synonymy simply describes a lexical item that is in some sense similar in

meaning with a preceding one It is not a straight forward repetition of the sense of it Palmer (1986) defined the concept as a lexical relationship of close relatedness in meaning According to Smith (2006), synonymy refers to a situation whereby two or

more forms are associated with the same meaning the critical point is that in some of the songs in the collections selected for this study, there are instances of both partial and complete synonymy In “Redemption Song”, for instance, the following lexical items illustrate the operation of synonymy

Old pirates = Merchant ships

These words also refer to a criminal who plunder at sea and attacks merchant vessels In this song, Bob Marley describes someone in a sea pirate The critical point

is that, these words have similarity of meaning and they are used by the musician in tracking the readers through the message of the song Also, Kreidler (1998, p.97) said that “Synonyms are typically single lexemes of the same weight” Hence, synonym is a semantic relation that states the similarity of meaning between the unit

of speech with other speech unit’

Bloomfield (1930, p.89-p.91) stated that there are five ways to identify synonyms:

1) Some sets of synonyms belong to different dialects of the language For instance, the term ”fall” is used in the United States In some western countries they use ”autumn”

2) There is similar situation, but a more problematic one, with the words that are used in different styles, for examples ” a nasty smell” might be, in the appropriate setting, “an obnoxious effluvium” and “an horrible stink”

3) Some words may be said to differ in their emotive or evaluative meanings The remainder of their meaning, their “cognitive” meaning, remains the same Some semanticists have made a great play with the emotive difference between “politician” and “statesman”, “liberty” and “freedom”

4) Some words are colloquially restricted, they occur only in conjunction with other words, for instance, the word “rancid” occurs with ”bacon” or “butter”, “added” with “eggs”

5) Many words are close in meaning or that their meanings are overlap For instance mature” the possible synonyms are “adult”, “ripe”, and “perfect”

2.3.1.2 Antonym

Antonym describes lexical items which are opposite in meaning These words, according to Smith (2006), antonym may be defined as two (rarely more) words of the same language belonging to the same part of speech with contradictor meaning Unlike synonymy, antonyms do not differ in style, emotional coloring or distribution For example, in “Redemption Song”, Bob Marley uses the word “sold” and “took” the two antonymous lexemes which describe this contradictory action are

“sold” meaning to provide services and “took” meaning to get into one’s hands Crystal (1987) said that antonyms are divided into two kinds: gradable and non-gradable antonyms Gradable antonyms include the pair "big-small", "tall-short" can be used in comparative constructions "bigger than- smaller than", "taller than-shorter than" The meaning of adjectives in gradable pairs is related to the object they modify The words do not provide an absolute scale, for instance "a small elephant"

is much bigger than "a large mouse", fast is faster when applied to an aero plane than

to a car The negative of one word is not necessarily imply the other, for instance someone who is not big is not necessary small

A non-gradable antonyms which is also called complementary pairs such as

"alive-dead", "present-absent", "awake-asleep" is not usually used in comparative constructions The negative of one word does imply to the other For instance, “the most beautiful student in this class is absent” means that the student is not present In

English, there are a number of ways to form antonyms We can add the prefix un:

likely/unlikely, able/unable, fortunate/unfortunate

2.3.1.3 Polysemy

According to Metlinger (1994) and Chaer (2007), polysemy is the existence of

several connected meanings within a word as the result of the development or changes

of the original meaning For example, the word “mouth” means a part of human body

or any opening Hence, a word or utterance unit called polysemy if the word has more than one meaning

Pateda (2001) said that polysemy is a word which has two (or more) related meanings Polysemy refers to cases where a lexeme has more than one meaning For example, “chip” can mean a piece of wood, food, or electronic circuit So people see

no problem in saying that the word “chip” has several different meanings in English (Crystal, 1987, p.106) The relatedness of meaning accompanying identical form is technically known as polysemy, which can be defined as one form (written or spoken)

having multiple meaning which are all related by extension For example the word

“head” is used to refer to 1) the object of the top of your body, 2) on the top of a glass

of beer, 3) on the top of a company or department, or foot (of person, of bed of mountain)

2.3.1.4 Hyponymy

The term “hyponymy” derives from Greek, and it is a combination between

hypt + nymy which means “under+ name” Hyponymy refers to the hierarchical

relationship between the meaning of lexemes, in which the meaning of one lexeme is included in (under) the meaning of another lexeme) This happens most obviously in

scientific classifications such as in Biology For example, the meaning of “panther”

is included within that of cat (as the name of the cat family) In its sense of “domestic

cat” the word “cat” is itself a hyponymy of the general word cat

Halliday (1994, p.574) stated that “Hyponymy is a kind of elaborating relationship in which a lexical items represents a class of a thing It is simply a relation

of meaning inclusion, in which the meanings of certain lexical items are included in are lexical item” Chaer (2007) considered that hyponym is a semantic relation between a figure of speech whose meaning is included in the meaning and the utterances form For example there is a word said between “birds” and “pigeons” Meaning of the word “pigeon” is included in the meaning of the word “bird” We could say that the “dove” is a bird, but “bird” could be a bird of paradise or the name

of the other birds

2.3.1.5 Homonym

Kreidler (1998, p.52) thought that “The homonym is two lexemes and the same form but the meaning is very different” What is more, Bloomfield (1930) said that homonym are words which are the same in sound and spelling or at least in one

of those aspect but different in their meaning For example, buy – by, knight – night

2.3.1.6 Ambiguity

Ambiguity is often said to be double or ambiguous meaning Chaer (2007)

stated that the symptoms may be due to the multiplicity of meaning different grammatical interpretation Different grammatical interpretations are common in wrote a language, due to the surpassed mentally elements of wrote language could not be described accurately For example, "new history book" can be interpreted as

“the history of the newly published book" or "history book that contains the history

or even the narrator in a novel or the speaker in a poem, or that the events or experiences he or she describes actually happened and the author is just reporting what he or she has witnessed Authorial context connects a particular work to the author’s life

2.3.2 2 Socio-historical context

Literary works often respond in some way to the society in which they were written, and most often (though not always) that response takes the form of criticism Think about how this particular work depicts society

2.3.2 3 Philosophical context

To consider philosophical context, determine which philosophical trends the author admires, and which he or she is rejecting How does the work demonstrate this? Critical sources that explain the relationship between the work and philosophy are important here, but once you find out which philosopher(s) influenced the work, you also need to find at least one work that explains the philosopher’s ideas, whether

it is written by the philosopher or by someone else (but this person should not be writing about the literary work)

2.3.2.4 Literary context

To whatever else literary works respond, they also respond to other literary works Authors respond to other authors positively, negatively, or both

2.3.2.5 Critical context

Once any work is published, it begins to attract criticism — if it is noticed at all That is, critics begin to write about it, expressing what they admire and what they dislike about it

2.3.3 Contextual meaning

Contextual meaning is the meaning according to the context According to

Chaer (2007, p.290), “Contextual meaning is the meaning of a lexeme or word inside

a context” A contextual definition is also a definition in which the term is used by embedding it in a larger expression containing its explanation According to Amindudin (2001) said that if we regard language as “expressive” or

“communicative”, we imply that it is an instrument of inner mental states And as

we know so little of inner mental states, even by the most careful introspection the language problem, become more mysterious the more we try to explain it by referring

it to inner mental happenings which are not observable By regarding word as acts, events, habits, we limit our inquiry to what is objective in the group life of our fellows

In the view of Amindudin (2001), it could inherit the context of thinking about the situation in the analysis of meaning Theory contextual has the meaning of a word tied to the cultural and ecological environment to use that particular language This theory also indicates that a word or symbol utterances have no meaning if it

regardless of context According to Chaer (2007) contextual meaning is the meaning

of a lexeme or word inside a context However, the contextual meaning could be regarded to the situation, where the time, the language usage environment

The language and context are two inseparable phenomena is a fact that has been long standing and established According to Leech (1981) pointed out that context serves to itemize those aspects of the situation which have a bearing on the form used It is usually an important aspect of language use While, Lyons (1984, p.143) said that “Contextual meaning is the meaning of words according to the situations in which they are used”, Crystal(1991) considered that kind of contextual meaning is a linguistic meaning in context

Also, Pateda (2001) expressed his opinion about contextual meaning as follow:

First of all, context of organs includes gender, position of the speaker, the age

of the speaker or the listener social- economic background speaker or the listener For example, if we speak to the child about the politics, a child won’t understand “Golka

to honor Aburizal with new leading potion for willingness to step down”

Second, context of situation consists of bad situation or good situation For

example, we won’t speak to offend someone who is grieving because it can be wounded to their families’ feeling “He who died had a debt to me”

Third, context of purpose is used to ask or expect something People will find

the words of the meaning of asking “Could you give me a book?” Context of time

is the time when people do something, such as the time will eat or go to sleep and so

on

Also, context of speaker or listener can influence the word and orator informal

context in conversation will force a people to find the word which is appropriate with the context of conversation For example, in a meeting, we must use formal

language If we will refuse an opinion from someone, we shall not say “your opinion

is rejected” It is informal and impolite language, because it can hurt who gives

opinion

It is undeniable that mood of speaker or listener can influence the word and

the meaning of that word too For example, mood irritated would allow the words appear meaningful irritated or impolite word

Certainly, context of time can mention the time of activities people do in life,

such as time people go to sleep or eat When a person comes to our house in the night, certainly we feel disturbed The upset feeling can be used by the word we use

Context of place can talk about the words and the meaning which are used by

people For example place in the market, in cinema, and etc Based on the examples, people usually use the words which have meaning related to the information

Object context will influence the word used that focus to something For

example, we will talk about economic Certainly, we use the words that have meaning or related to economic Besides, linguistics context does meet the rules of the language used by both sides The things are associated with the rules of language which is concerned will affecting the meaning too Linguistic context is the things which are associated with the rules of language and concerned with the meaning too

Finally, it is context of language In this context, both of the speaker and

listener must understand the language used, because it will influence the whole meaning Contextual meaning is the meaning of a lexeme or word inside a context Context is a situation that occurs depends on whether phrase or sentence appears A

contextual definition is also a definition in which the term is used by embedding it

in a larger expression containing its explanation

2.3.4 Grammatical meaning

Grammatical meaning is the meaning conveyed in a sentence by word order

and other grammatical signals Also called structural meaning Linguists distinguish grammatical meaning from lexical meaning (or denotation) that is, the dictionary

meaning of an individual word Walter ( 2013, p.37) notes that "A word expressing the same idea can fulfill different syntactic functions” The grammatical difference

between the throw in to throw a ball and that in a good throw has long been attributed

to a difference of meaning not of the lexical type described in dictionaries, but of the more abstract, formal type described in grammars

Words grouped together randomly have little meaning on their own, unless it occurs accidentally For example, each of the following words has lexical meaning at the word level, as is shown in a dictionary, but they convey no grammatical

meaning as a group:

a [without grammatical meaning] Lights the leap him before the downhill purple However when a special order is given to these words, grammatical meaning is created because of the relationships they have to one another

b [with grammatical meaning] "The purple lights leap down the hill before him." (Bernard, 2006)

"Different forms of the same lexeme will generally, though not necessarily, differ in meaning: they will share the same lexical meaning (or meanings) but differ

in respect of their grammatical meaning, in that one is the singular form (of a noun

of a particular subclass) and the other is the plural form (of a noun of a particular subclass); and the difference between singular and plural forms, or to take another example the difference between the past, present and future forms of verbs, is semantically relevant: it affects sentence-meaning The meaning of a sentence is determined partly by the meaning of the words (i.e., lexemes) of which it is composed and partly by its grammatical meaning." (Lyons, 1996, p.27)

Also, grammatical meaning is the meaning of the phrase that is enclosed This means the grammatical meaning of each language is limited and could not

be changed or replaced in a long time’s Grammatical meaning of a language could

be interpreted It is fixed in accordance with the language user community

Grammatical meaning also could be regarded as a structural or functional

meaning, or internal meaning According to Pateda (2001, p.103) grammatical

meaning is the meaning that arises as a result of the functioning of words in a sentence It mean that, every language has a grammatical system and different language have somewhat different grammatical system

2.3.5 Denotative meaning

Denotative meaning is the meaning of what it was According to Lyons (1996, p.207), “Denotation is the relationship that holds between that lexeme and persons, things, place, properties, processes and activities external to the language system” In other word, It is the ability of a word or expression to identify all the objects covered by a word A lexeme, in general, denoted a class of entities in the word A denotation identifies the central aspects of the word meaning The denotative meaning of a word is the explicit, literal meaning that is stated in a dictionary and which is accepted at a given time by all the people who use the word Denotation, however, is not always that straightforward The more denotations

a word has, the greater the possibility for confusion when the word is used Most dictionaries, for example, provide more than one meaning for the same word

“Strike”, for instance, has at least three denotative meanings: workers go “on strike”

to negotiate better working conditions But we also “strike” a match or “strike” up the band Truth is, you will find varied meanings for the word “strike” in a dictionary

To complicate matters, no two dictionaries will have the same meaning for abstract concepts such as “love” or “justice”

Besides, the meanings that words trigger in people’s minds may change over time If you had described someone as “gay” in the 1960s, everyone would have understood that you meant happy or cheerful In the millennium, today, “gay” is most often used as a synonym for “homosexual” So, if you describe someone as “gay” when you mean happy or cheerful, you run the risk of creating communication gap Our language opens in new window system is open to expansion and alteration Words may lose old meanings and evolve new ones, sometimes as often as every year

For example, the lexeme “shirt” denotes a class of pieces of clothing worn

on the upper part of the body; the lexeme “study” denotes all the students in the word; the lexeme “happy” denotes the property of being happy Thus, the denotation of a

word or expression is invariant and utterance - independent

2.3.6 Connotative meaning

According to Charles (1998), connotation means a word may convey certain effective, evaluative, stylistic or intensifying associations Connotation arises as words become associated with certain characteristic of the items to which they refer For example, cheap and inexpensive may have the same denotation but the connotation of “shoddiness” which is normally carried by cheap does not occur in inexpensive Thus, people may prefer to use inexpensive to cheap in certain contexts Connotative meaning is open- ended in the same way as one’s knowledge and beliefs about universe This kind of meaning, may fall into stylistic (formal, colloquial….) emotive or affective, evaluative (approval or disapproval) and intensifying (expressive and emphatic)

Also, Pateda (2001, p.105) stated that “Connotative have boundaries, which are used in report language, the language of science, language magazines or textbook” Therefore, the use of connotative must be done carefully because the use

of connotation can lead to the power of rhetoric and leads to certain drawbacks Unlike denotative meaning, connotative meaning is much more subjective, personal, and contextual by nature It refers to the emotions and evaluations that an individual associates with a word It also may be influenced by an individual’s personal experience with a word and its referent Thus, if the person you are speaking with does not share the connotative meaning you have for a word, it becomes even more likely that a semantic barrier opens in new window will ensue

To put it in other words, our connotative meanings differ according to our feelings for the object, matter, or concept we are talking about Research has proven that gender, for example, influences connotative meanings A study investigated male and female responses to sex-related words in an attempt to identify differences in response Not surprisingly, it was found that women tend to respond much less favorably than men to words such as “wife swapping”, “husband swapping”, “whore” and “prostitute” (Kreidler, 1998)

While denotation may affect meaning, an awareness of connotative meanings

is essential if we are to avoid misunderstandings in our communication encounters

We need to be aware, for instance, that a particular word may evoke a positive connotation in one person, but a negative connotation in another Consider the word

“communism” According to a dictionary, its denotative meaning is a theory or system of social organization based on holding common property However, for some people the word “communism” has the negative connotation of revolutionary threat and upheaval, whereas for others, the idea of common and shared property has a positive connotation

It is only from the context that we determine which meaning is to be assigned

to a particular word Because of different social, economic, cultural and educational backgrounds, people interpret even the context differently The result is miscommunication

A word can have as many connotations as there are people using it; in effect, connotative meanings are limitless To understand just how limitless, take some time

to explore the meanings that commonly used words such as college, sex, tests, and athletes have for you and other people

2.3.7 Conceptual meaning

Conceptual meaning is the literal or core sense of a word There is nothing

read into the term, no subtext; it's just the straightforward, literal, dictionary definition

of the word The term is also called denotation or cognitive meaning Contrast the

word with connotation, affective meaning, and figurative meaning, which go beyond the dictionary to add subtext to a word when it's used

In writing and conversation, it's good to know the difference between the literal, conceptual meaning of a word and all the connotations it has before you use

it, to dispel misunderstandings or any offense before you accidentally put it out there especially if a word is loaded with negatives or stereotypes about a group of people According to Pateda (2001), conceptual meaning means logical, cognitive or denotative content It is based on two structural principles, which are contractiveness and constituent structures We understand that the concept of the word by reuniting all of the ways in which the word is form and can be defined and in the manner in which the word is used for a specific meaning An example of conceptual meaning would be the word “cat” then we think of the word, images, words, thoughts, and

memories immediately become activated to provide us with the concept behind the three-letter word c/a/t Hence, these thoughts and memories are the concepts under which we understand the meaning of the word

mammal covered in fur has whisker

not a dog, hot a cow meows

has claws

2.4 Word

According to Pateda (2001, p.113),“Word is a linguistic moment together in

sentences conveys a message in a communication, form of word in various forms”

A word is a sign; that is, it stands for or represents something else We call the “thing”

it represents the referent The referent can be anything It can be an object such as a

table or chair, perhaps an idea, or even a feeling or need

Words are mere symbols and by themselves constitute no meaning They are letter combinations or spoken sounds that were arbitrarily selected at some point to stand for the things or referents about which we speak In other words, they are the written representations of sounds that people have agreed will stand for something else

In light of this mutual consent, we could make any sound stand for anything It

is this agreement that distinguishes a word from a random sound and gives it a

meaning For example, the sounds made by the letters “d o g” constitute a word

because English speaking people have agreed that they will stand for a particular

domestic animal However, the sounds made by the letters “r o g” do not constitute

a word in English because they do not stand for anything

If enough people agreed, we could create new signs—new words—to use in

place of the ones that predominate our usage The word water is not drinkable The word dog does not bark The word love is not lovable The word snow is not colder

than the word coffee, any more than the word coffee is hotter than the word pepper Meanings for words do not reside in their signs—their letters or their

sounds—but rather in the minds of those who use them Words, therefore, are not

reality; they merely represent reality

Also, in language, word is the smallest free form that may be uttered in

isolation with semantic or pragmatic content or with literal or practical meaning This contra with a morpheme, which was the smallest unit of meaning but would not necessarily stand on its own A word may consist of a single morpheme

2.4.1 Meaning of word

To explain how words came to have meaning, we will set the scene by introducing a trio of language codes: the semantic code, the syntactic code, and the pragmatic code The semantic code is the agreement to use the same symbols to communicate Syntactic code refers to the conventions that guide word use; the agreement to use the same rules regarding word use

Pragmatic code is the agreement to consider the context of an interaction, the interdependent nature of the relationship, and the goal of the exchange in deciphering meaning

Words are used to help create meaning in our communication We can use words to comfort, inspire, and make others laugh We can also easily use words to annoy, alienate, and make them grieve Words help us to gain interpersonal closeness and to ensure that others keep their distance Depending on the choices we make, words can clarify or confuse, make meaning apparent or obscure, and cause us literally to miss meaning, humbling us and contributing to our feeling that none of us speaks the same language

However, important as words are in describing objects and ideas, they have

no meaning in themselves; rather meanings reside in people and not in words There

is no reason, for example, why a dog should not have been called a “rog” (or for that matter, a cat), other than that people who speak English have assigned that meaning

to the sign “dog” Amindudin (1962) observed it so well and express that, “the meaning of a verbal message is not stamped on the face of the words” Because meanings exist in people rather than in words, they can differ As you and I have our meanings, same way do other people have theirs Even a simple word like “cat” might

suggest meanings ranging from a common alley cat to a lion or leopard To be able

to understand each other, we must understand the realities represented by our words, and ensure our meanings correspond If not, language becomes a barrier to effective communication opens in new window, rather than an aid

2.4.2 Class of word

In the song to be studied in this research, there are words that have different word categories, for example, adjectives categories, nouns, verbs and others By knowing the differences in word categories it will be easier to determine the contextual meanings and lexical meanings of each song that will be examined Pateda (2001) distinguished the class of words, over four classes namely noun, verb, adverb and adjective

Also, Thomas (1993) put forward the word category into 5 parts, namely noun, determiner, verb, adverb and adjective The researcher began by grouping word more or less on the basis of our instincts about English It use a combination of three criteria for determining the word class of a word, the meaning of the word, the form or shape of the word, the position or environment of the word in a sentence

2.4.2.1 Noun

Noun is class of lexical words marked by their appearance following certain noun-determining function words, such as the, my, some, two, by their use of two inflection, -es and –s by certain deviational suffixes A noun is a word which was used to denote a person Noun, explained by Thomas (1993, p.5), “Noun is often described as being the name of something including people and places” Noun is seen

in concrete objects such as tables and chairs but also abstract things such as love and sincerity or the names of days

For example: The girl likes the dog and the apple

Girl, dog and apple are the noun

2.4.2.2 Determiner

Thomas (1993) considered that determiner or article is a small group of words and they are to some extent the things that the noun can refer to Which includes

determiners are a, an, the, this, that

For example: This girl eats the apple; the boy is carrying a book

This word this, the and a are determines

2.4.2.3 Verb

Thomas (1993) said that verb is a class of lexical word by their use of four

inflection, -s, -ed, and –ing, by their appearance in verb phrases with certain

auxiliaries, such as can, must, is, has, please, about (to), keep (on), by small group

of deviational affixes, such as (-en) and (-ate)

A group of words could not be described as a sentence or a clause unless at least one of the words was a verb In some ways, the writer could describe it as the most important part of speech because it was the action word that told the listener

or reader what was happening in the sentence

According to Thomas (1993 ), verb is a word which describes an action

For example : The girl eats the apple; the girl buys the apple

Eats and buys are verbs

2.4.2.4 Adverb

According to Thomas (1993, p.24), “Adverb is class of lexical word identified by their ability to appear in utterance-final position following a noun

or nouns functioning as complement” Adverb may be classified in eight groups

or form-classes on the basis of their morphemic structure The class of adverbs is very wide ranging in form and used to add comments to many of the other word classes Adverb adds information to manner, time or place; in other word, they answer the question “how, why, when, where”

For example: Ken snores loudly; the baby cried continually

Loudly and continually are adverbs

2.4.2.5 Adjective

Thomas (1993, p.32) thought that “Adjective are class of lexical words identified by their ability to fill the position between noun-determiner and noun and the position after a linking verb and qualifier such as very, rather and quite”

An adjective gave the reader or speaker extra information about a noun or delimits it in some way Adjective can modify a noun The object works to more narrowly define the meaning of the attributes or characteristics to it The dog or the girl has adjectives fat and thin if combined into one sentence

For example: The fat dog chased the thin girl

Fat and thin are adjectives

From some of the opinions it can be concluded that noun is a word that describes the noun of something, person or place Determiner is a group of words that clarify nouns Verb describes what we do or commonly call a verb Adjective is a word used

to describe noun or commonly called an adjection For us to understand the meaning

of each word, we must know the word category whether the word includes noun, verb, determiner, adverb or adjective because word that have different categories can also have different meanings

2.5 Phrases

A phrases is a group of words that stand together as a single unit, typically as part of a clause or sentence A phrase does not certain a subject and verb and, consequently, cannot convey a complete thought

For example: He asked for my autograph (This phrase acts like a noun It’s

object of the preposition for) There are some kinds of phrases First of all, noun phrases are groups of words that function like a noun Typically, they act as subjects,

objects or prepositional objects in a sentence

First of all, a noun phrase is a phrase that plays the role of a noun The head

word in a noun phrase would be a noun or a pronoun It can also work in a sentence

as adjectives, participles, infinitives and prepositional or absolute phrases The modifier can come before or after the noun If it comes before the noun it’s likely to

be an article, possessive noun, possessive pronoun, adjective or participle Modifiers that come after the noun include prepositional phrase, adjective clauses, participle phrases and infinitives For example:

(Noun phrase as a subject)

At the zoo, I saw a stripped zebra

(Noun phrase as an object to the verb “saw”)

Secondly, an objective phrase is a group of works that describe a noun or

pronoun in a sentence The adjective phrase can be placed before or after, the noun

or pronoun in the sentence The adjective in an adjective phrase can appear at the start, and or in the middle of the phrase For example: The movie was not too terrible

Apart from that, a verb phrase is the position of a sentence that contains both

the verb and either a direct or indirect object (the verbs’ dependents) A verb phrase can be the phrase of the clause or the sentence A verb phrase can also be a phrase that functions as an adverb or adjective and contains a verb and its complements, objects or modifiers Also, verbs are words that demonstrate an action, like sing, dance, smell, talk, and eat They serve as a link between the subject of the verb and information about that subject The information is usually descriptive In order to show activities that could be done, active verbs were used, while linking verbs describe conditions For example: She was walking quickly to the mall

Finally, an adverb phrase is simply a group of two or more words that function

as an adverb in a sentence Just as an adverb can modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, an adverb phrase of more than one word can further describe a verb, adverb

an adjective Adverb phrase typically answer was done, as you’ll see in the adverb phrase examples below

I parked the car right here

(The sentence contains the adverb phrase “right here”, which emphasizes where the car was parked and employs a phrase instead of a single adverb)

2.6 Song

A song is a musical composition intended to be vocally performed by the human voice This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetition and variation of sections Written words created specifically for music

or for which music is specifically created, are called lyrics If a pre-existing poem is set to composed music in classical music it is an art song Songs that are sung on repeated pitches without distinct contours and patterns that rise and fall are called chants Songs in a simple style that are learned informally "by ear" are often referred to as folk songs Songs that are composed for professional singers who sell their recordings or live shows to the mass market are called popular songs These songs, which have broad appeal, are often composed by professional songwriters, composers and lyricists Art songs are composed by trained classical composers for concert or recital performances Songs are performed live and recorded on audio or video (or, in some cases, a song may be performed live and simultaneously recorded)

Songs may also appear in plays, musical theatre, stage shows of any form, and within operas, films, and TV shows

A song may be for a solo singer, a lead singer supported by background singers,

a duet, trio, or larger ensemble involving more voices singing in harmony, although the term is generally not used for large classical music vocal forms including opera and oratorio, which use terms such as aria and recitative instead.[1] A song can be sung without accompaniment by instrumentalists (a cappella) or accompanied by instruments In popular music, a singer may perform with an acoustic guitarist, pianist, organist, accordionist, or a backing band In jazz, a singer may perform with

a single pianist, a small combo (such as a trio or quartet), or with a big band A Classical singer may perform with a single pianist, a small ensemble, or an orchestra

In jazz and blues, singers often learn songs "by ear" and they may improvise some melody lines In Classical music, melodies are written by composers in sheet music format, so singers learn to read music

Songs with more than one voice to a part singing in polyphony or harmony are considered choral works Songs can be broadly divided into many different forms and types, depending on the criteria used Through semantic widening, a broader sense of the word "song" may refer to instrumentals, such as Mendelssohn's 19th

century Songs Without Words pieces for solo pia

At the most basic, a song is a short piece of music, usually with words It combines melody and vocals, although some composes have written instrumental pieces, or musical works without words, that mimic the quality of a singing voice Song usually have a meter or beat Song composers often interpreter a poem and translate the mood atmosphere and imaginary into music Stressed tones or melodic climaxes emphasize important words The voice shares this interpretative task with the piano or guitars Hence, the power of a song is in how a melody and lyric work together to produce an emotion in regards to a particular smaller

2.7 Lyrics

The words of song are called lyrics Lyrics can include a series of verses, the long sections of the song that tell the story, and a refrain a short phrase repeated at the end of every verse Lyrics are distinct from other creative forms of writing precisely because of their relationship to the music through which the words are delivered The emotion of poetry, for instance, is tied up to the words themselves, the

sound they make when plainly spoken, and their relationship to one another The emotion of a lyrics is bound to the music, so much so that it is easy to misjudge the quality of a lyrics without hearing accompanying melody Generally speaking, lyrics reference topics and melodies reference feelings According to Amindudin ( 2011), lyrics are divided into the stanzas and direct expressing the poet’s own thought and sentimental There is a close relation with words The musician uses the meanings of the words in combination and context in which they occur

Evans (2009) stated that a lyric is any fairly short poem, consisting of the utterance by a single speaker who expresses a state of mind on a process of perception, thought, and feeling Furthermore, he states that in the original Greek, lyrics signified a song rendered to the accompaniment of lyric He also added that in some current usages, lyrics still retains the sense of a poem written to be set to music, for instance, he exemplifies, and the hymn is a lyric of a religious subject that is intended to be sung Logically, every poem can be performed as song It also depends

on the composer to arrange the musical expression

Message in literary works is not shown explicitly by the author but the reader can find it after having a complete understanding of the works On the other hand,

in written form, the author writes his idea in which the reader finds the message directly from the work Usually, the message is at the end of story

It might be sadness, happiness, good, bad, motivation or even failure Talking about message, it sometimes cannot be separated from communication Communication is related to verbal and non-verbal It means that the author's thoughts on messages may be in spoken or written language