Foreignization and domestication of culture specific items in two vietnamese translations of the english novel the wind in the willows

Next, foreignization is moreprevailing than domestication to treat 171 culture-specific items in both of the translations.Intratextual gloss and linguistic non-cultural translation are t

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF

POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

VƯƠNG THU HẰNG

FOREIGNIZATION AND DOMESTICATION OF SPECIFIC ITEMS IN TWO VIETNAMESE TRANSLATIONS OF THE

CULTURE-ENGLISH NOVEL “THE WIND IN THE WILLOWS”

(Ngoại lai hóa và bản địa hóa các yếu tố đặc thù văn hóa trong hai bản dịch Anh-Việt “Gió qua rặng liễu” và “Gió đùa

trong liễu”)

M.A MAJOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Linguistics Code: 8220201.01

HÀ NỘI - 2020

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF

POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

VƯƠNG THU HẰNG

FOREIGNIZATION AND DOMESTICATION OF SPECIFIC ITEMS IN TWO VIETNAMESE TRANSLATIONS OF THE

CULTURE-ENGLISH NOVEL “THE WIND IN THE WILLOWS”

(Ngoại lai hóa và bản địa hóa các yếu tố đặc thù văn hóa trong hai bản dịch Anh-Việt “Gió qua rặng liễu” và “Gió đùa

trong liễu”)

M.A MAJOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Linguistics Code: 8220201.01

Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr Lê Hùng Tiến

HÀ NỘI - 2020

I hereby state that the major programme thesis entitled “Foreignization and Domestication of Culture-specific Items in Two Vietnamese Translations of the English Novel “The Wind in the Willows”” has been conducted and submitted in partial

of fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts at the Faculty ofPostgraduate Studies, University of Languages and International Studies, VietnamNational University, Hanoi I confirm that this submission is my own work and has notbeen submitted for any other degree, and all the references to other works mentioned inthe paper have been cited properly, to the best of my knowledge and belief

Vương Thu Hằng

Hà Nội, June 2020

Next, I feel profoundly grateful to my supervisor, Assoc Prof Dr Lê Hùng Tiến,for his enthusiastic support and encouragement that helped me surmount difficulties.Without his valuable contributive advice, this study could not have been completed.

Besides, my heartfelt thanks are given to my classmates from class QH2016D1for standing by my side and urging me on throughout the research period I genuinelyappreciate their support and constant encouragement

Also, I am much obliged to other fellow friends of mine Thanks to theirpositive suggestions and encouragement, I could possibly gain great inspirations Theirprovision of rare and precious reference materials was real help to me

Ultimately, I am deeply indebted to my husband and my whole family for theirwholehearted support Thanks to them, I could maintain high motivation and study infavorable conditions

This research investigates the translation strategies and procedures applied to treatculture-specific items appearing in “The wind in the willows” by Kenneth Grahame in itsVietnamese translations “Gió qua rặng liễu” by Nguyên Tâm (2006) and “Gió đùa trongliễu” by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh (2017) To fulfil this aim, the mixed method is adopted inthis study The qualitative method and quantitative calculations are used to process 171culture-specific items identified from the 12 chapters of the source text and theirtranslations in the target texts Based on the taxonomy of culture-specific itemssynthesized from different works, especially Espindola (2005) and the taxonomy ofdomesticating and foreignizing procedures following Aixelá (2016), the study comparesand contrasts the culture-specific items in the source text with those in the target texts andbetween the target texts themselves and describes the phenomenon of translation practiceswith culture-specific items As a result, among 14 types of culture-specific items, food anddrink, toponyms and ecology are the largest groups Next, foreignization is moreprevailing than domestication to treat 171 culture-specific items in both of the translations.Intratextual gloss and linguistic (non-cultural) translation are the most dominantforeignizing procedures, and deletion and absolute universalization are the most dominantdomesticating procedures The procedures used to treat each type of culture-specific itemsare also identified Most of food and drink items are foreignized through linguistic (non-cultural) translation and intratextual gloss Toponyms are frequently foreignized throughrepetition and extratextual gloss Ecological items are mainly foreignized throughlinguistic (non-cultural) translation

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND ABBREVIATIONS vi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Statement of the problem and rationale for the study 1

1.2 Aims and objectives of the study 4

1.3 Scope of the study 4

1.4 Organization 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Culture-specific items 7

2.1.1 Definition of culture-specific items 7

2.1.2 Categorization of culture-specific items 8

2.1.2.1 Klingberg (1986) 8

2.1.2.2 Newmark (1988) 11

2.1.2.3 Stempleski and Tomalin (1993) 14

2.1.2.4 Aixelá (1996) 15

2.1.2.5 Davies (2003) 16

2.1.2.6 Other theoretical frameworks of CSIs in the 21st century 17

2.1.2.7 Taxonomy of culture-specific items adopted in this research 19

2.2 Domestication and foreignization 21

2.2.1 Concepts of domestication and foreignization 21

2.2.2 Local procedures of domestication and foreignization of CSIs 23

2.2.2.1 Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) 23

2.2.2.2 Aixelá (1996) 25

2.2.2.3 Hervey and Higgins (1992) 29

2.2.2.4 Bastin (in Baker, 1998) 32

2.2.2.5 Laviosa and Braithwaite (1998) 33

2.2.2.6 Harvey (2000) 36

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 40

3.1 Research method 40

3.2 Research corpus 41

3.3 Procedure of data collection 42

3.4 Procedure of data analysis 44

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 47

Answer to research question 1: To what extent are the culture-specific items domesticated and foreignized in the two Vietnamese translations “Gió qua rặng liễu” by Nguyên Tâm and “Gió đùa trong liễu” by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh? 48

Answer to research question 2: Which domestication and foreignization-oriented procedures are the most dominant as the treatment of all the culture-specific items in general and for each type of culture-specific items in particular? 61

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 77

5.1 Recapitulation 77

5.2 Implications 80

5.3 Limitations 83

5.4 Suggestions for further research 84

REFERENCES 86 APPENDIX 1 I APPENDIX 2 XVII

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND ABBREVIATIONS List of abbreviations

CSIs: Culture-specific items

TT1: “Gió qua rặng liễu” translated by Nguyên Tâm (2006)

TT2: “Gió đùa trong liễu” translated by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh (2017)

List of tables

Page

Table 1.1: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Aixelá (1996) 15

Table 1.2: Taxonomies of culture-specific items in the 21st century 18

Table 1.3: Taxonomy of culture-specific items synthesized in this

Table 4.1: Frequency and percentage of the overall strategies of

domestication and foreignization applied in “Gió qua

Table 4.2: Frequency of domestication and foreignization for each

Table 4.3: Frequency of domestication and foreignization-oriented

Table 4.4: Frequency of foreignization and domestication-oriented

List of figures

Page

Figure 1.1: Newmark’s taxonomy of culture-specific items (1988) 12

Figure 1.2: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Stempleski and

Figure 1.3: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Davies (2003) 17

Figure 2.1: Aixelá’s taxonomy of domestication and

Figure 2.2: Hervey and Higgins’s taxonomy of foreignization and

Figure 2.3: Taxonomy of domestication and foreignization-oriented

procedures adopted in this research based on the

Figure 4.1: Percentage of the types of culture-specific items collected

Figure 4.2: Percentage of foreignization and domestication-oriented

Figure 4.3: Percentage of foreignization and domestication-oriented

Figure 4.4: Percentage of foreignization and domestication-oriented

procedures applied to treat CSIs about food and drink 71

Figure 4.5: Percentage of foreignization and domestication-oriented

procedures applied to treat ecological CSIs 73

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

This chapter makes the statement of the research problem and gives therationale of the study Besides, it presents the aims and objectives of the study, itssignificance and its organization

1.1 Statement of the problem and rationale for the study

In the present era of globalization and integration, translation has becomeincreasingly significant in various areas in countries across the world because it isnecessary for people to overcome the language barrier in order to successfullycommunicate with one another Translation has been defined over the past decades.Among the earliest definitions, the one proposed by Hartman and Stock (1972 - Cited inTiến & Bắc, 2008) said that translation was the substitution of a source language unit with

an equivalent target language unit Then, Larson (Cited in Tiến & Bắc, 2008) definedtranslation as a procedure of three major steps of examining SL factors, grasping theirmeaning then and reconstructing it with TL units appropriate for the target culture Itcould be seen that Larson’s definition shows more interest in the naturalness oftranslation In other words, Larson’s approach seems more TL-oriented Besides, Munday(2001) considered translation as either “the general subject field, the product (the text thathas been translated) or the process (the act of producing the translation, otherwise known

as translating)” (pp 4-5) Generally, there have been various definitions of translation, andeach emphasizes different issues in translation Among them, there have been discussionsabout whether translation should be SL-oriented or TL-oriented The task of translationhas never been easy due to many factors including complicated cultural and linguisticfactors among which are culture-specific items Concerning cultural translation, culture-specific items are embedded with very special connotation; therefore, the successfultranslation of one “cultural word” has never been an easy task To deal with culture-specific words or phrases, there are two basic strategies proposed by Venuti (1995).Controversy surrounding domestication and

foreignization has been lasting for a long time (Yang, 2010) It is partly because thismatter is related to ethic problems in translation Normally, the translator is supposed

to be faithful to the source text; therefore, culture-specific items are supposed to bemaintained as foreign as they are Attempts to make them become less strange to thetarget readership may involve an omission, an addition or a change Besides,foreignization and domestication have their own merits and demerits For example,when CSIs are foreignized, the translation may not be easy to understand; however, itbrings the target readership a chance to know the source culture Meanwhile,domestication could make it easier for the target readership to reader the translation;however, the opportunity for them to gain new knowledge about a different culturecould be missed

Internationally, there have been various studies on the same research problem.Locally, there is a research gap in existing research As for the pair of English andVietnamese, there has been a shortage of studies conducted in the same way as this

research Nguyễn Thị Hương (2011) carried out a study named “Foreignization and

domestication in Trinh Lu's Vietnamese translation of “Life of Pi" by Yann” The study

examined a collection of 33 CSIs adopting the taxonomy of CSIs proposed by Espindola(2006) and the framework of translation procedures by Kwiencinski (2001) and resulted inthe finding of the dominance of foreignization through the English-Vietnamesetranslation In 2014, Dương Thị Ngọc Anh researched on the domestication and

foreignization in the English-Vietnamese translation of “Let’s pretend this never

happened” by Jim Brenton in her bachelor thesis The study, combining different models

of CSIs and translation procedures, focused not only on CSIs but also on other aspectsincluding wordplay and syllables The result based on the analysis of 45 CSIs showed asimilarity with the finding of the afore-mentioned research by Hương (2011) thatforeignization occurred more frequently than domestication Apparently, CSIs havegradually received more attention when in the following year Lã Thị Hồng Hải (2015)and Phạm Thị Quỳnh Anh (2015) both carried out studies on them despite their different

approaches Hải (2015) laid more emphasis on CSIs together with idioms andcolloquialisms Meanwhile, Anh (2015) concentrated on proper names The formerresearch applying the theory offered by Venuti (1995) and Aixelá (1997) displayed theresult that most of the time, foreignization was adopted to treat CSIs but domesticationwas preferred by the translator to deal with idioms and colloquialisms This researchdid not focus on discussing in detail procedures as the manifestation of domesticationand foreignization The latter study centered around 109 proper names and disregardother types of CSIs The result showed little difference from the previous ones.Accordingly, foreignization appeared to be dominant Recently, the prominent studyrelated to the translation of culture-specific items conducted by Triệu Thu Hằng (2019)discusses the translation quality assessment rather than the translation strategies,particularly domestication and foreignization So far, there have been a considerablequantity of papers striving to explore the translation of CSIs, especially thedomestication and foreignization strategies international; however, nationally, inVietnam, this area has not attracted sufficient attention that it deserves A certainnumber of works have been implemented and showed a resemblance in the dominance

of foreignization over domestication in the treatment of CSIs Nonetheless, theydiscover dissimilar aspects of CSIs using various taxonomies and frameworks Inaddition, the size of their data is still modest Therefore, no valid generalization hasbeen made about the treatment of CSIs in English-Vietnamese translation This currentsituation sets a reasonable requirement for further research on this issue

This research will explore more about this phenomenon in the way ofexamining the translator’s application of domestication and foreignization intranslation, specifically translating a children’s novel as a novel written for childrenwill necessarily use either of the above strategies to deal with culture-specific items forchildren’s understanding

1.2 Aims and objectives of the study

The purpose of this research is to describe and explore the manifestation ofdomestication and foreignization in the two Vietnamese translations of the Englishchildren’s novel “The wind in the willows” by two translators Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linhand Nguyên Tâm The research does not aim to assess the quality of the translations.The major aim of the research is to identify the domestication and foreignization ofculture-specific items appears in the novel for children To compare and contrast thephenomenon in the two works done by two different translators to figure out the waythey deal with culture-specific items using the strategies, which, together with otherand further research, contributes to the enablement of the suggested approaches totranslating culture-specific items as for the type of literature for children To reach theabove goals, the study will answer the following questions:

1 To what extent are the culture-specific items domesticated and foreignized inthe two Vietnamese translations “Gió qua rặng liễu” by Nguyên Tâm and “Gió đùa trongliễu” by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh?

2 Which domestication and foreignization-oriented procedures are the mostdominant as the treatment of all the culture-specific items in general and for each type ofculture-specific items in particular?

1.3 Scope of the study

The study focuses on the field of culture-specific items and their translationstrategies of domestication and foreignization together with local procedures Its majoraims to discover the overall strategies that translators have used to tackle those culture-specific items in English-Vietnamese translation to check whether foreignization ordomestication is more prevalent The results can help discover a way to overcomepossible translation difficulties encountered by translators, especially those lackingexperience when dealing with CSIs

The subjects that are used in the research are the whole book “The wind in thewillows” written by Kenneth Grahame and their Vietnamese versions “Gió qua rặngliễu” translated by Nguyên Tâm (2006) and “Gió đùa trong liễu” translated by NguyễnThị Cẩm Linh (2017) The source text has a total of 12 chapters It retells a story ofmain characters who are animals living in the context of the Great Britain insomewhere between the Victorian and Edwardian periods It is said that even though

“The wind in the willows” is a children’s novel, it is suitable for the readers ofdifferent ages as well In the Introduction of the novel itself written by the publisherWordsworth Editions, it is stated that “this one was about animals such as could beloved equally by young and old” (Grahame, 1993, p 7) The world of the animals inthe story reflects much of the world of the British people at that time

The CSIs taken from the ST are mostly at the word or phrase level Rare casesare in full sentences This is partly because this study has adopted a less linguisticallyoriented approach, which often focuses on the analysis of syntactic, grammatical andother linguistic aspects of the CSIs, but a more culturally oriented approach based onthe chosen framework of CSI categorization adapted from different works, particularlyEspindola (2005) and the theory of domestication and foreignization-orientedprocedures proposed by Aixelá (1996) There might be a variety of CSIs in the ST butonly potential CSIs fulfilling the definitions and falling into the adopted taxonomyhave been chosen Therefore, certain units such as idioms, metaphors, wordplays and

so forth are not the focus of this study

Based on the research questions which have been raised in the previous part, thestudy concentrates on the identification of the types of CSIs and the domestication andforeignization-oriented overall strategies and local procedures to treat the whole range ofselected CSIs and each type of CSIs The manner in which and the reason why thetranslators have decided to adopt a certain procedure or follow either of the two strategiesare not the goals of this study and are considered as the suggestions for further study Thatmeans further research could be carried out to clarify how the translators

rendered the items or what steps they actually took to translate them and factors

interfering in their translation process

1.4 Organization

The study has been organized into 5 chapters as following:

Chapter 1 - Introduction consists of the statement of the research problem, the rationale

of the study, the aims and objectives of the study, its significance and organisation Chapter 2 - Literature review presents the theoretical background of the study,

including the theory about definition, types and characteristics of English specific items and the translational theory which focuses on translation definition, culture-specific term translation difficulties and strategies

culture-Chapter 3 - Methodology shows and justifies the research methods, specifically

research sampling, data collection and analysis procedures

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion presents the research findings which respectively answer to the research questions

Chapter 5 - Conclusion summarizes the key results of the study, points out its

limitations and eventually offers suggestions for further research

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the theoretical background of the study, which includes thedefinitions and categories of English culture-specific items and the translationalperspectives which emphasize the translation strategies and local procedures to treatculture-specific items, is presented In other words, the typical taxonomies of culture-specific items and translation procedures, which are oriented towards foreignizationand domestication, are displayed, analyzed and synthesized to build the theoreticalframeworks

2.1.1 Definition of culture-specific items

When discussing translation and culture in “A textbook of translation” published in

1988, Peter Newmark agrees that culture is suggestive of “the way of life and itsmanifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as itsmeans of expression.” He proposed different concepts about language, which includes

“cultural” and “universal” to help distinguish cultural manifestations In his viewpoint,

he saw no translation challenge in translating universals Translation issues would rise inprocessing cultural words “unless there is cultural overlap between the source and thetarget language (and its readership)” (p 94) Following his proposal of cultural wordsversus universal words, Peter Newmark also expressed his ideas which signifies that

dialect words are not viewed as cultural words if they represent universals rather than

those carrying cultural connotations Besides, he also touched upon the concept of

“cultural focus”, which is “when a speech community focuses its attention on a particulartopic” (p 94), leading to the development of a multitude of terminology Cultural focususually goes hand in hand with translation challenges due to cultural gap, which is alsocalled cultural distance between SL and TL Together with his definition of culturalwords, Newmark also discusses that language is not considered a component of culturebut it contains “all kinds of cultural deposits” from the grammar, ways of address to thelexis “The more specific a language becomes for natural phenomena (e.g., flora andfauna) the more it becomes embedded in cultural features, and therefore createstranslation problems” (p 95) Cultural words are detectable because they cannot betranslated directly in a literal way, which cannot transfer the meaning properly, even incase of cultural customs depicted in ordinary language Peter Newmark also points outthat cultural objects may consist of “a relatively culture-free generic term or classifier”and “various additions in different cultures” In addition, his study also presents the ideathat cultural words are “always less context-bound than ordinary language” (p 96).

According to Mustafar (2018), regarding their definition, CSIs belong to theterminology of the ST and are related to the SC It poses a difficulty to translate themdue to the differences in content, subject matter, system from the TT and TC, whichresults in the lack of translation equivalents

2.1.2 Categorization of culture-specific items

more specific, literary references refer to those about characters and incidents in

literary productions as well as titles of literary writings and other publications Inaddition, they could be loanwords from other languages but not necessarily from thesource language According to Klingberg, those languages could be either imagined orunimagined The familiarity of literary terms and the status of publication titles helpthe translator make decision on appropriate translation procedures to deal with them

Foreign language occurring in the ST should be regarded in this manner as well The

similarity and dissimilarity of the foreign language happening in the ST to the targetreadership should be major factors for the translator to opt for a translation procedure

Cultural references relevant to mythology and popular belief include

“supernatural beings, concepts, events, and customs” (Dukmak, 2012, p 70) Thereare some special cases which could occur to the cultural references of this kind Theseterms could have equivalents in the TL, or they could convey a unique sense in the SLwhich is confusing to the TL readership In another case, the words could be coined bythe ST writer Besides, cultural words belong to this type could be unknown to themajority of people in the TC They might be familiar ideas to the SL readership but notthe TL readership Eventually, cultural words of this category could originate fromanother language with a form resembling to some extent to the form of the TL terms

Culture-specific items about historical, religious and political background pose

a translation issue which is closely related to the research objectives of this study which isabout translation strategies of domestication and foreignization due to possible “differentreligious faiths and customs” and “difficulties arising from dealing with political

references” (Dukmak, 2012, p 72) Buildings, home furnishing and food are of great

attraction to readers particularly children According to Klingberg (Cited in Dukmak,

2012, p.73), “children are interested in the detailed description of food in literature” as

well as “what children eat and drink in a different culture” Customs and practice, play and games of the SC which are foreign to or different from the TC also

cause translation challenges, in which the translator possibly needs to think aboutsuitable translation strategies to treat them properly.

Regarding flora and fauna, translation issues arise when there is no name

referring to trees, flowers, bushes and creatures in the TC Besides, when the SL names ofplants and animals could make mention of multiple species in the SC The category of

personal names, titles, names of domestic animals and names of objects received great

concentration from Klingberg Personal names are subdivided into five smaller groups.The first group centers around “personal names belonging to everyday language”, which

do not bear any particular meanings such as the names “Andrew, Matthew, Priscilla andEsme” in Joan G Robinson's When Mamie Was There (1967) (Dukmak, 2012, p 75).Next, it is about “personal names belonging to everyday language, the meaning of whichhas been utilized by the author in a way not intelligible to the readers of the target text”

such as “the name “Goodenough” from The Borrowers Afield (1995) by Mary Norton” (Dukmak, 2012, p 75) The third type is comprised of “personal names not belonging to

everyday language and with a meaning essential for the understanding’, which are said not

be popular nowadays any longer and could be illustrated by “Jenny Peace, Dolly Friendly,and Lucy Sly” (Dukmak, 2012, p 75) In addition to the three previous subcategories ofpersonal names, the fourth subdivision is made up of “fictitious personal names with aspecial melodious ring” as illustrated by “Mumintrollet, Snorkarna and Snusmumriken

from The Finn Family Moomintroll (1984) by Tove Janson” (Dukmak, 2012, p 75).

Lastly, the other fifth subdivision is composed of “personal names which are loans from aprimary language” (Dukmak, 2012, p 76) The primary language mentioned here could beeither a fictitious primary language or a real one A fictious primary language means thatthe primary language might originate from a mythical nation such as the name

“Zardeenah” in The Horse and his Boy by C S Lewis (Dukmak, 2012, p 76) With regard to titles, there are familiar English titles such as “Mr., Mrs., and Miss” and also mythical titles such as “Tisroc’ as “the title of the ruler of ‘Calormen’ in The Horse and

his Boy” (Dukmak, 2012, p 76).

With reference to names of domestic animals, they are supposed to be coped with inthe same manner as personal names However, in several cases, names of domesticanimals could carry “a descriptive meaning” which might require translation orexplanation (Dukmak, 2012, p 76) For instance, ““a dog called “Scamp” and a horsecalled “Prince”” are the examples of names with descriptive meanings (Dukmak,

2012, p 76) Names of objects include names of boats and could bear a particularmeaning in them such as “The Adventure” appearing “in the English Finn FamilyMoomintroll” (Dukmak, 2012, p 77) Another major category in the framework of

cultural references by Klingberg in 1986 is geographical names As regards

geographical names such as “Thames”, “Fosse Way”, Klingberg’s viewpoint is thattheir “standard forms” could exist in the target language or not (p 77) They couldinclude “a common noun” in them In some cases, geographic names could becomeambiguous to understand for the target readership The final significant category in the

framework of cultural references proposed by Klingberg is weights and measures.

Translation matters can arise when non-metric measures such as “mile” occur in thesource texts For some languages there is no equivalents for such non-metric measures

in the target language Pertaining to currency, several foreign currencies could posetranslation challenges such as “half-crown” (p 78) Unfixed exchange rates are amatter to consider when dealing with currency translation

(artefacts) and towns, transport

CULTURAL Social culture Work and leisure

WORDS

Organisations, Political and

customs, activities, administrative,

procedures, concepts religious, artistic

Gestures and habits

Figure 1.1: Newmark’s taxonomy of culture-specific items (1988)

Firstly, as for Ecology, cultural words belonging to this type are geographical features

which “are usually value-free, politically and commercially”, according to the Newmark

(1988, p The popularity of ecological words is affected by “the importance of their

country of origin and their degree of specificity”, which could contribute to whether they

could be considered cultural words or not “The importance, and geographical and

political proximity of their countries” can increase or decrease the familiarity of cultural

local words Several ecological features can “become more or less a lexical item in the

‘importing’ TL” if they are commercially significant Furthermore, a couple of ecological

features may not be interpreted “denotatively or figuratively, in translation” in the places

where those ecological features “are irregular or unknown” (Newmark, 1988, pp 96-97)

As proposed by Newmark, “the species of flora and fauna are local and cultural, and are

12

“botanical and zoological classifications” could be considered as an international

language Next, about Material culture (artefacts), Newmark has clarified material

culture into smaller subcategories such as food, clothes, houses, transport and flora andfauna Regarding food, according to Newmark (1988), “food is for many the mostsensitive and important expression of national culture” (p 97) In English, foreign foodterms such as Italian and Greek terms, particularly French words, could appear indifferent settings including menus, cookbooks, food guides, tourist brochures, journalism.Those food terms require the translator to decide appropriate translation procedures toresolve the translation issue, which is the cultural aspects of those terms Clothes areanother potential culture-bound case In English, many words referring to women’sclothes are French At the same time there are many national costumes typical for eachcountry worldwide They may require the translator to explain for TL readers or to usegeneric nouns or some classifiers, or even replace the cultural clothes-relevant terms.Similar to food and clothes, “many language communities have a typical house which forgeneral purposes remains untranslated” (Newmark, 1988, p 98) as well as different parts

of the houses could be cultural words As for transport, there are many neologisms,vogue-words as well as anglicisms created by innovations together withcommercialization In his work, it is also noted that different carriage terms could producelocal color However, nowadays, many terms related to transport such as cars and planesare near-internationalisms, probably for the educated laymen Concerning the division of

social culture, which centers around work and leisure terms, it is essential to figure out

the denotative and connotative meaning of the terms Several expressions could posetranslation challenges, which are “the connotative difficulties of words” (Newmark, 1988,

p 98) Terms about working classes could be used for a particular purpose As forentertainment, culture-specific items include “national games with their lexical sets”,several non-team games, card-games or gambling games (Newmark, 1988, p 99) About

the category of organisations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts, Newmark

(1988) emphasizes terms reflecting the political

aspects, social features of a country This major category contains institutional terms such

as “the title of a head of state”, “the name of a parliament”, government-relevant terms,ministries, parties, a public body, national organisations, government posts, politicalconcepts Terms falling into this category could be historical institutional terms,international institutional terms, religious terms, artistic terms including “names ofbuildings, museums, theatres, opera houses” and so forth (Newmark, 1988, p 99).Newmark recommends considering transference or naturalization with descriptiondepending on the educational level of TL readership and the universality of the terms The

final group of cultural words are associated with gestures and habits Some gestures and

habits, which are “often described in non-cultural language” exist in several cultures butnot in other ones, or some occur in different cultures with different meanings (Newmark,

1988, p 103); therefore, in situations with ambiguity, the translator needs to distinguishbetween the description and the function of the gestures and habits, especially the TLreadership and settings for the most satisfactory translation

2.1.2.3 Stempleski and Tomalin (1993)

From a pedagogical approach to teaching culture, in their work named “Cultureawareness” first published in 1993, Stempleski and Tomalin reviewed “achievementculture” and “behaviour culture”, which respectively foregrounds “elements of Britishand American culture - history, geography, institutions, literature, art and music – andthe way of life” and “culturally-influenced beliefs and perceptions, especially asexpressed through language, but also through cultural behaviours” (p 6) Thecategorization adopted by Stempleski and Tomalin (1993) is manifested through thediagram below

• Beliefs,values,institutions

• Customs,habits, dress,foods, leisure

Figure 1.2: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Stempleski and Tomalin (1993)

2.1.2.4 Aixelá (1996)

In 1996, Aixelá proposed another theoretical framework of culture-specificitems, which appears to be succinct, from the translator’s perspective In Aixelá’sarrangement based on Theo Herman’s differentiation proposed in 1985, culture-

specific items are divided into two fundamental groups, which are proper nouns and common expressions.

Common expression Objects, institutions, habits, opinions restricted to culture

Table 1.1: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Aixelá (1996)

In details, proper names are classified into two categories, which are conventional names

carrying no meaning and loaded names Conventional names include “importanttoponyms, historical fictional or non-fictional names like saints, kings, etc.” (p 60)

15

Loaded names are literary ones, which “range from faintly “suggestive” to overtly

“expressive” names and nicknames” (p 59) Loaded names subsume fictional or fictional ones connected with history or culture As regards to the other group of

non-culture-specific items, common expressions incorporate “the world of objects,

institutions, habits and opinions restricted to each culture and that cannot be included

in the field of proper names” (Aixelá, 1996, p 59) According to Aixelá (1996),culture-specific items pertaining to this group are of more considerable perplexity with

“supratextual, textual or intratextual factors” (p 60)

2.1.2.5 Davies (2003)

In her commonly cited work named “A goblin or dirty nose? The treatment ofculture-specific references in translations of the Harry Potter books” published in “TheTranslator” in 2003, Eirlys E Davies proposed her distinction of culture-specific items

in an alternative approach to this translation issue, which shows a wider perspective(Dukmak, 2012) The culture-specific items in her research gathered from Harry Potterbooks were categorized into “networks of culture-specific items” (Dukmak, 2012, p.79) Davies (as cited in Dukmak 2012) did not cope with culture-specific items singlybut paid more attention to “their global effect of the whole text” (p 79)

Networks of culture specific items

Literary referencesFood, traditions, (toponyms, properand wordplay

anagrams, acronyms,sound patterns)

Figure 1.3: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Davies (2003)

The first network embodies items which are illustrative of the British features of the

setting such as “food, traditions and school customs” (p 79) Apart from references to

“realistic background” of Harry Potter books, with respect to the second network of

culture-specific items, it contains literary expressions, wordplay such as “puns (e.g

Diagon Alley, Floo powder), anagrams (e.g Erised, Tom Marvolo Riddle rearranged

into I am lord Voldemort), evocative acronyms (S.P.E.W., N.E.W.T.S.) and sound

patterns (Moaning Myrtle, Rita Skeeter)”, proper names, fictional toponyms and

non-fictional place names (Dukmak, p 83)

2.1.2.6 Other theoretical frameworks of CSIs in the 21 st century

The 21st century has witnessed continued interests in matters about

culture-specific items There have been a variety of studies, which have adopted the theories

of distinguished scholars in the previous time and proposed different models of the

categories of culture-specific items The following table shows several representative

theoretical frameworks by way of illustration

CSIs by Espindola CSIs by CSIs by

(2009)

3 Forms of entertainment 3 Forms of entertainment 3 Food and drink 3 Forms of entertainment

4 Means of transportation 4 Means of transportation 4 Measuring system 4 Means of transportation

5 Fictional character 5 Fictional character 5 Means of transportation 5 Fictional character

6 Brazilian legal system 6 Legal system 6 Dialect 6 Local institution

7 Local institution 7 Local institution 7 Date 7 Measuring system

8 Measuring system 8 Measuring system 8 Costume and clothes 8 Food and drink

9 Food and drink 9 Food and drink 9 Fictional character 9 Scholastic reference

10 Scholastic reference 10 Scholastic reference 10 Form of entertainment 10 Religious celebration

11 Religious celebration 11 Religious celebration 11 Idiom

12 Dialect 12 Dialect

Table 1.2: Taxonomies of culture-specific items in the 21 st century

As Espindola in 2005 independently and in 2006 and 2011 in collaboration with herresearch fellows undertook different research studies on the translation of subtitles in thefield of audiovisual or multimedia translation, the framework of a total of 12 types ofculture-specific items was adopted Among those culture-specific item categories,

toponyms pertain to the proper names of locations, geographical zones, or sections of the

terrestrial sphere or their natural and non-natural attributes Connected with

anthroponyms, they signify the names of average or widely-publicized people or the

nicknames given to them and names indicating regional background and enabling the

establishment of identity Another type of culture-specific items, forms of entertainment, concerns multifarious forms of recreation, which could be demonstrated by recitals, with

their offered services such as receptions, banquets and business meals One further type of

culture-specific items in this framework is means of transportation, which relate to the

modes of carrying passengers and transferring freight With respect

to fictional character, this subdivision subsumes fanciful people in literary works and tales or fictitious roles in movies What is more, legal system means indispensable or

obligatory comportment regulations in the society of human beings Among thecategories of culture-specific items in the model which Espindola first proposed in

2005, local institution is manifested as associations, federations, institutions which focus on tackling issues concerning different aspects such as politics, religions, education, administration and health Next, measuring system is an additional type

which incorporates units of “the size, weight, speed, length” and so forth (Espindola,

2005, p 20) The category of food and drink covers items belong to the source of sustenance Scholastic references are cultural items connected with schools, learning and education Concerned with religious celebration, this subdivision involves

spiritual events, holy incidents, sacred occurrences or divine gatherings and activities

The final category is dialects which Espindola adopted the definition Halliday (1978)

offered to explain As stated by Halliday, dialects signify “user-related variation,which determines speakers’ status as regards social class, age, sex, education, etc.”(Espindola, 2015, p 20) The framework proposed by Espindola appears to beinclusive and comprehensive In 2009, Firooskoohi and Zare-Behtash put forward themodel of eleven culture-specific items, eight of which resemble the types inEspindola’s frame They added date, costume and clothes and idiom and omitted legalsystem, local institution, scholastic reference and religious celebration

2.1.2.7 Taxonomy of culture-specific items adopted in this research

Based on the taxonomies of culture-specific items proposed by scholars throughtime, this research has adopted the following taxonomy of CSIs

1 Toponyms 12 Fictional characters, mythological,

2 Anthroponyms, racial groups and titles religious, literary references,

4 Forms of entertainment, instruments, traditions, habits

artistic references 13 Legal system, local institutions,

5 Means of transportation military, historical and political

6 Measuring system and currencies references, organizations

10 Scholastic references ST, dates, work, gestures,

11 Buildings and home furnishings archaisms, etc.)

Table 1.3: Taxonomy of culture-specific items synthesized in this research

The chosen taxonomy has been built on the foundation of the earlierframeworks, notably the models proffered in the 21st century by Espindola in 2005,

2006 and 2011 for their meticulousness It is the synthesis of the reviewed taxonomies.The integration of the taxonomies via the identification of their similarities anddifferences has facilitated the establishment of the adopted taxonomy with greaterparticularity and thoroughness The models do not apply the classification of CSIs into

a few large groups such as material culture and social culture as in Newmark’staxonomy in 1988 or into divisions such as products or behaviors as in Tomalin andStempleski (1993) The arrangement of CSIs into two wide groups including propernames and common expressions by Aixelá (1996) is rather over-general whencommon expressions may include miscellaneous items

The synthesized taxonomy comprised of 14 distinct categories and another kindincluding assorted subtypes which could not be classified into the other 14 well-definedcategories and which are basically not targeted items of this research such as dialects,

idioms, wordplays, dates They are not focused on as this research does not intend toanalyze the CSIs from a linguistic approach by concentrating on the linguistic featuresand origins of culture-bound idioms, proverbs, fixed expressions or wordplays.Furthermore, the majority of those items such as foreign language in the ST in thetaxonomy by Klingberg (1986) in nature would refer to a concrete object or a certainintangible concept or phenomenon belonging to one of the other 14 categories What ismore, items including dates and gestures are less expected to occur highly frequently

in the chosen source text and target texts via the researcher’s general readings forpleasure before selecting the works as the sources of data for this research Besides, asmentioned above, because this research takes an approach towards cultural items andthe treatment of those items in translation rather than linguistic features of item and the

SL, other textual items including metaphors and syntax are not taken intoconsideration in the taxonomy adopted by this research

All in all, the taxonomy with 14 categories as displayed visually in the tableabove is quite inclusive since it includes seemingly all types proposed in the reviewedtheoretical frameworks by the scholars With its high thoroughness and particularity,the taxonomy is employed as the key framework to identify and categorizing culture-specific items occurring in “The wind in the willows” by Kenneth Grahame and itstwo Vietnamese translations, “Gió qua rặng liễu” translated by Nguyên Tâm and “Gióđùa trong liễu” translated by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh

2.2 Domestication and foreignization

2.2.1 Concepts of domestication and foreignization

The translation of CSIs has caused a challenging task and controversial matters fortranslation researchers and practitioners and those who work in relevant areas Thetranslation of culture-specific items (CSIs) can present real difficulties for translators fromdifferent perspectives According to Aguilera (2008) and Toury (1980) as cited in Al-Rikaby, Mahadi, Lin and Tan (2018), “First, culture-bound terms, at the text level

such as social terms, rhetorical devices and genre-specific norms, tend to be tackledwithin the frameworks of contrastive rhetoric and contrastive pragmatics, drawing onpragmatics and discourse theories such as deixis, presuppositions, implicatures andcoherence And according to Holmes (1988) as cited in Al-Rikaby, Mahadi, Lin andTan (2018), “culture-bound terms at the lexical and semantic levels such as thoserelating to customs, traditions, attires and cuisines are often dealt with within thetaxonomies of cultural categories.” This research has laid emphasis on the CSIscollected from the British novel “The wind in the willows” at the lexical and semanticlevels and focused on the treatments for them based on the theory of domesticationand foreignization through the two Vietnamese translations.

In the field of translation, there are two major opposite trends of the translation

of CSIs One conviction is that CSIs should be remained in the translations so that thesource culture can be exposed to the target readers On the other hand, some hold theview that CSIs should be translated in a way that the target readers do not have tostruggle to understand the difference between the source culture and the target culture.The former refers to the translation strategy known as foreignization while the latterrefers to the opposite translation strategy called domestication They are two majoroptions frequently chosen to deal with culture-specific items in translation

As stated by Firoozkoohi and Zare-Behtash (2009), it was Lawrence Venuti whocoined and first used the terms “domesticating” and “foreignizing” as translation methods(p 1577) However, it was also claimed in their work that the concepts of domesticationand foreignization were previously mentioned by Schleiermarcher, who was a Germanphilosopher The concepts originated from the philosopher’s talk in 1813 Touchingtranslation strategies, one of the most fundamental and highly-concerned issues,Schleiermarcher admitted only domestication and foreignization as the sole methods atranslator could select to employ in the translation process Back to that time, as regardsdomestication, the method was described as the manner in which the translator facilitatesthe reader’s reading process by making the author’s writing more

reader-friendly In contrast, the adoption of foreignization is when the translator doesnot impinge upon the author’s side Accordingly, with respect to foreignization, thereader inevitably makes more efforts to construe what is read without the translator’sinterference which happens when domestication is employed As believed bySchleiermarcher, the method of domesticating represents “an ethnocentric reduction ofthe foreign text to target-language cultural values” while the other method offoreignizing represents “an ethnodeviant pressure on those values to register thelinguistic and cultural differences of foreign text” (as cited in Firoozkoohi & Zare-Betash, 2009, p 1577) It is also maintained that it is the translator who shoulddemonstrate preference for source culture over target culture make selection forforeignization or it could work contrariwise In addition, the degree of foreignizationand domestication depends on the translator as the decision maker In domestication,the translation complies with the usual and comprehensible forms and styles of thetarget language without foreign peculiarity for the comfort of the readership of thetarget text Meanwhile, foreignization enables the translation to maintain thedisparities between the source culture and target culture, hence the translation canreserve the oddity and break the rules and norms of the target text and culture.

2.2.2 Local procedures of domestication and foreignization of CSIs

Over the course of translation history, there have been a multitude of scholarlyattempts to approach the CSIs applying the theory of domestication and foreignization

as the treatments for those cultural references As the result, several frameworks ofmore specific procedures belonging to the two major strategies of domestication andforeignization to address and handle different categories of CSIs have been developed

2.2.2.1 Vinay and Darbelnet (1958)

First and foremost, Vinay and Darbelnet (cited in Munday, 2001) proposed the

system of two general translation strategies called “direct translation and oblique

translation” (p 56), in which direct translation refers to the literal translation and

oblique translation is synonymous with free translation The two opposite translationstrategies are divided into sub-components, which are seven translation procedures

Three translation procedures belong to the group of direct translation are borrowing, calque and literal translation Meanwhile, four procedures under the group of oblique translation are transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation In detail, borrowing is the transference of SL words to the TL text Calque is considered to be a

unique form of the borrowing procedure, in which the SL units are moved into a literaltranslation Borrowed and loan words tend to fully incorporate into the targetlanguage In several cases if their meaning changes, false friends can occur in the pair

of SL and TL According to Vinay and Darbelnet in the work by Munday (2001),

beside borrowing and calque, literal translation is the other procedure belonging to

the group of direct translation, which is equivalent to foreignization Literal translation

in their definition is “word-for-word translation”, which is the “most common betweenlanguages of the same family and culture” (p 57) When literal translation appears to

be unfeasible due to the loss or change of meaning or “structural and metalinguisticrequirements”, oblique translation, which includes the procedures demonstratingdomestication, could be applied (p 57)

Among four procedures categorized into the indirect translation strategy,

transposition involves “a change of one part of speech for another without changing

the sense” (p 57) In Vinay and Darbelnet’s view, transposition is “the most commonstructural change undertaken by translators” (Munday, 2001, p 57)

Example:

ST: He is an excellent talker.

TT: Hắn là kẻ nói năng giảo hoạt

Modulation is not oriented to structural variation but the alteration in “semantics and

point of view of the SL” (Munday, p 57) In some situations, a literal translation is stillacceptable as regards grammatical aspects; nevertheless, it may sound unidiomatic and

rather perplexing The application of modulation in translation could reduce possibleunnaturalness The sub-categories of modulation are “abstract for concrete, cause-effect, part-whole, part-another part, reversal of terms, negation of opposite, active topassive (and vice versa), space for time, rethinking of intervals and limits (in spaceand time), change of symbols (including fixed and new metaphors)” (Munday, p 58).

Example: ST: To cost an arm and a leg - TT: Đắt cắt cổ

Next, equivalence is popularly employed in the translation of idioms and proverbs, in

which the ST and TT would adopt dissimilar styles and structures to convey themessage or the sense Besides, Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) also introduced

adaptation, which is the final procedure belonging to the group of

domestication-oriented procedures, in their taxonomy of translation procedures Adaptation could beused when there is a gap between the SC and TC A culture-specific item appearing inthe ST could be altered into another reference

This taxonomy has become popular; however, still, it adopts more of a linguisticapproach For instance, transposition emphasizes on the part of speech of cultural itemsand considers the structural alteration in their translated versions The grammatical aspect

is highly stressed for this procedure Modulation is also a case in point Modulation isillustrated by perspective differences but its subtypes also include the change from passivevoice into active voice, which is still about grammatical features

2.2.2.2 Aixelá (1996)

One of the best-known and influential works centering around the two translationstrategies of domestication and foreignization is the taxonomy including elevenprocedures, which were proposed by Aixelá in 1996 In his view, his proposedcategorization scale of translation procedures to treat CSIs was methodologically useful,although there could presumably be “border cases of fuzzy or overlapping nature” (p 60).The translator could combine various translation procedures to treat identifiable CSIs inthe same TT, which seems reasonably practicable Aixelá looked at the

“conservative or substitutive nature” of the translation sub-strategies of domestication andforeignization (p 61) In other words, the group of foreignization-oriented proceduresenables the conservation of the original references in the ST Meanwhile, the group ofdomestication-oriented procedures results in the substitution of the CSIs in the ST byitems which are closer to the TC This scale proposed by Aixelá, “from a lesser to agreater degree of intercultural manipulation”, consists of conservative procedures,

illustrated by repetition, orthographic adaptation, linguistic (non-cultural) translation, extratextual gloss and intratextual gloss, and substitutive procedures, exemplified by synonymy, limited universalization, absolute universalization,

naturalization, deletion and autonomous creation (p 61) The scale is visualized by

the following figure

Absoluteuniversalization

In detail, among foreignization-oriented procedures or conservative procedures,

repetition is considered the most extreme Adopting this procedure, the translator

conserves the CSIs in the ST to a maximum, which possibly intensifies the foreignness orpeculiarity of CSIs to the TL readers The alien “linguistic form and cultural distance” ofthe CSIs may decrease the accessibility of the TT but could make the TL readers be aware

of culture differences (p 61) That the majority of toponyms, or place names, aretransferred into the TL without translation can epitomize the deployment of repetition As

for orthographic adaptation, there are sub-procedures such as “transcription and

transliteration” (p 61) According to the study, orthographic adaptation is adopted whenthe source CSIs are written in an alphabet which is disparate in comparison with the one

of the TL In this day and age, orthographic adaptation is applied in translation if there is apresence of CSIs belonging to third cultures, which means those references do notoriginally derive from the SL and obviously not from the TL either

Example: ST: Gothic - TT: Gô-tích

As regards linguistic (non-cultural) translation, the translator opts for a TL reference

whose denotation is remarkably close to the source item and through which the aspect ofthe SC is still identifiable Linguistic (non-cultural) translation is frequently adopted todeal with “units of measure and currencies” or “objects and institutions which are alien tothe receiving culture but understandable because analogous and even homologous to the

native ones” (p 62) In connection with extratextual gloss, this procedure is the

application of the aforesaid procedures together with the clarification and explanation ofthe CSIs in terms of their meaning or any possible implications in the forms of “footnote,endnote, glossary, commentary / translation in brackets, in italics” (p 62) The so-calleduntranslatable CSIs, including “quotations in third languages [ ] to offer data aboutfamous people and to explain puns” are reportedly treated in this manner (p 62) Theother sub-strategy in the category of foreignization-oriented or conservative procedures is

intratextual gloss Intratextual gloss bears a similarity to extratextual gloss in that the

translators offer a further explanation in addition to applying the above procedures, whichare repetition, orthographic adaptation and linguistic (non-cultural) translation to treatCSIs; however, the explanation is

integrated into the main TT “as an indistinct part of the text, usually so as not todisturb the reader’s attention” (p 62) The CSIs which are not fully expressed in the

ST or altered by a pronoun can become explicit by way of intratextual gloss

Example: ST: Buggin’s - TT: Hãng Buggins

Concerning domestication-oriented procedures in the framework proposed by

Aixelá in 1996, there are six procedures which are synonymy, limited universalization,absolute universalization, naturalization, deletion and autonomous creation First,

applying synonymy, the translator uses a “parallel reference to avoid repeating the

culture-specific item” (p 63) This procedure was illustrated by the translation of the CSI

“Barcadi” in the ST in English into “libation of the delicious liquor of sugar cane” in the

TT in Spanish and into a Spanish word meaning “rum” to avoid the repetition of

“Bacardi” in the TT in Spanish (p 63) Next, limited universalization is adopted when

the CSI appears to be too alien and obscure for the readers of the TT to interpret and isresultingly replaced by the translator with another CSI which still represents the SC but ismore accessible “for the sake of credibility” (p 63) This procedure was exemplified bythe English-Spanish translation of “an American football” into “a ball of rugby” or “five

grand” into “five thousand dollars” (Aixelá, 1996, p 63) Meanwhile, absolute universalization is the procedure in which the translators decide to eliminate any strange

connotations and “choose a neutral reference for their readers” instead of “a better knownCSI” as in limited universalization (p 63) By way of illustration, the English word

“corned beef”, which is a CSI of SC in the English-Spanish translation example shown byAixelá (1996), was translated into a neutral reference in Spanish which means “slices ofham”, which carries no obvious foreign connotations for Spanish readers Anotherinstance is the English word “a Chesterfield” was rendered into a neutral Spanish wordwhich simply means “a sofa” (p 63) Both limited universalization and absoluteuniversalization are the procedures which are chosen by virtue of credibility In relation to

naturalization, the CSIs are added into “the intertextual corpus felt as specific by the

target language culture” (p 63) According to Aixelá (1996), this

procedure does not prove applicable broadly in literature, apart from children’sliterature though there has been a tendency for the translators to shun the employment

of naturalization in their translation of children’s literature Naturalization should bedistinguished from linguistic (non-cultural) translation, which is a procedure belonging

to the category of foreignization in that the former involves a “cultural substitution”while through the latter the translated references still reflect the aspects of SC (p 64)

Example: ST: A dozen - TT: Một chục

Another procedure which is typical of domestication is deletion In this procedure, the

CSIs are omitted in the TL translation The employment of deletion is not widelyacknowledged by translation theorists and is normally not recommended fortranslation practitioners on account of work ethic Nonetheless, in practice, deletion isnot infrequently applied According to Aixelá (1996), what lies at the root of thechoice of deletion includes the inappropriateness of the CSIs with regard to theideology and style of the TC and TL, the excessive obscurity of the CSIs and theinapplicability of other procedures such as the foreignization-oriented procedures such

as intratextual gloss and extratextual gloss due to the inner or outer factors such as thetranslator’s personal decision or the prohibition of the publishing house The final

domestication-oriented procedure in Aixelá’s taxonomy is autonomous creation.

Aixelá assumed that autonomous creation is “a very little-used strategy in which thetranslators decide [ ] to put in some nonexistent cultural reference in the source text”(p 64) The procedure was said to be most frequently applied in the translation ofmovie titles as for English-Spanish translation

The approach to the treatment of CSIs that the taxonomy displays does notplace heavy emphasis on the linguistic characteristics of the items but it adopts atheoretical position more on culture and translation procedures

2.2.2.3 Hervey and Higgins (1992)