an investigation into english high school teachers beliefs and practices about teaching vocabulary learning strategies in can duoc district

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY NGUYEN PHUONG THAO AN INVESTIGATION INTO ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS' BELIEFS AND PRACTICES ABOUT TEACHING VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES IN CAN DUOC

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN PHUONG THAO

AN INVESTIGATION INTO ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS' BELIEFS AND PRACTICES ABOUT TEACHING VOCABULARY

LEARNING STRATEGIES IN CAN DUOC DISTRICT

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

Ho Chi Minh City, 2019

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN PHUONG THAO

AN INVESTIGATION INTO ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS' BELIEFS AND PRACTICES ABOUT TEACHING VOCABULARY

LEARNING STRATEGIES IN CAN DUOC DISTRICT

Major: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)

Code: 60 14 01 11

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

Supervisor: Nguyen Thuy Nga (PhD.)

Ho Chi Minh City, 2019

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that this thesis which entitled “An Investigation into English High

School Teachers' Beliefs and Practices about Teaching Vocabulary Learning Strategies in Can Duoc District” is my work

Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this paper does not contain material published elsewhere or extracted on whole or in part from a thesis

by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma

No other person’s work has been used without acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis

The thesis has not been submitted for any degree in any other tertiary institution

Ho Chi Minh, September 2019

NGUYEN PHUONG THAO

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would never have been able to finish this thesis if I had not been helped and supported by so many people I would love to express my greatest gratitude to them here

Firstly, my greatest appreciation goes to my beloved family for their greatest encouragement, as well as for their financial and spiritual support They have always been willing to listen to my concerns about all the hardships that I came across during

my studying They always raise me up whenever I fall I would never have achieved such a worthy reward without them

Secondly, I am so proud to express my gratitude to my supervisor Dr Nguyen

Thuy Nga who has guided me through the procedures of conducting my research Not only did she give helpful guidance towards my accomplishments, but she also paved

me the way for the solutions to all the problems that I have encountered

My sincere gratitude is also extended to the proposal committee members They kindly shed light on how to make improvements on my research by giving me valuable comments and feedback on my thesis proposal

I am thankful to all lecturers at English Department, Open University for fulfilling and broadening my knowledge during the time I studied there

I’m also grateful to all my classmates in class TESOL 10 at Open University who spent 2 years with me helping and supporting me to get through the Master course

Last but not least, I would like to thank all of my colleagues, principal, principals at Can Duoc high school for adjusting the timetable, which provided so much convenience for me to pursuit my studying

vice-ABSTRACT

This research discovered favorite vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) among EFL high school teachers in Can Duoc district in terms of their beliefs and teaching practices and investigated the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their instructional practices The participants included 35 in-service teachers teaching at 5 high schools in Can Duoc district By using a questionnaire including closed-ended and open-ended questions, the researcher applied both quantitative and qualitative methods to carry out the research In terms of teachers’ beliefs in the usefulness of VLS, the results showed that the teachers were highly aware of numerous strategies

as illustrated in their high favorite level In their teaching practices, the respondents frequently applied most of strategies that they considered useful in teaching process Nonetheless, some small gaps between awareness and practices of the respondents were till displayed In summary, although there still existed some slight negative correlations due to some contextual influence, the findings revealed that there was a remarkable positive correlation between teachers’ practices and beliefs The findings also implied that: (1) universities should have more courses on teaching VLS for pre-service and in-service teachers; (2) teachers should take part in more courses to improve their teaching; (3) learners should be more aware of the importance of vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies; (4) school administrators should engage more in educational activities to figure out the problems of teaching and learning vocabulary as well as vocabulary learning strategies to find out the effective solutions for these problems In addition, further researches on the same issue should include more instruments of collecting data such as interview and observation to ensure what the respondents reported in the questionnaire and interview corresponded with what they practised in classroom

Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF TABLES ix

ABBREVIATIONS x

CHAPTER 1 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background and Rationale of the study 1

1.2 Statement of the problem 3

1.3 Objectives of the study 4

1.4 Research questions 5

1.5 Significance of the study 5

1.6 Scope of the study 6

1.7 Thesis organization 6

CHAPTER 2 8

LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 Definitions of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) 8

2.2 Vocabulary in second language acquisition 10

2.2.1 The significance of Vocabulary Learning 10

2.2.2 Knowing a Vocabulary Item 11

2.2.3 Existing vocabulary teaching strategies 13

2.3 Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) 14

2.3.1 Some definitions of vocabulary learning strategies 14

2.3.2 Classification of VLS 15

2.3.3 VLS training 23

2.4 Teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices 25

2.4.1 Definition of teachers’ beliefs 25

2.4.2 Definition of classroom practices 26

2.4.3 The interrelationship between Teachers’ Beliefs and Classroom

Practices 26

2.5 Previous studies on teachers’ beliefs and pedagogical practices on VLS 29

2.5.1 The consistency between teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices 29

2.5.2 The inconsistency between teachers’ beliefs and practices 32

2.5.3 The summary for the studies included in the literature review 33

2.6 Research gap 35

2.7 Conceptual framework of the study 35

2.8 Summary of the chapter 36

CHAPTER 3 37

METHODOLOGY 37

3.1 Research setting 37

3.2 Participants 37

3.3 Research instrument 37

3.3.1 Questionnaire as a Tool for Collecting Data 37

3.3.2 The rationale for designing the Questionnaire 39

3.4 Research procedures 42

3.4.1 Translating the questionnaire into Vietnamese 43

3.4.2 Piloting the questionnaire 43

3.4.3 Administering the questionnaire 44

3.5 Data analysis 45

3.6 Validity and Reliability 46

3.6.1 Validity 46

3.6.2 Reliability 46

3.7 Chapter summary 47

CHAPTER 4 48

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 48

4.1 Participants’ background 48

4.2 The answer to research question 1 49

4.2.1 Self-Reported VLS based on teachers’ beliefs 49

4.2.2 Descriptive statistics on vocabulary learning strategies based on Teachers’ Beliefs 51

4.2.3 Conclusion 57

4.3 The answer to research question 2 57

4.4 The answer to research question 3 63

4.4.1 Correlation interpretation from quantitative survey on Teachers’ Beliefs and Instructional Practices 63

4.4.2 Self-Reported VLS based on teachers’ practices 67

4.4.3 Conclusion 67

4.5 Discussion 68

4.5.1 Teachers’ beliefs in VLS based on personal experience 68

4.5.2 Teachers’ practices on VLS in their pedagogical practices 70

4.5.3 The relationship between Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices of VLS 71

4.6 Summary of Chapter 4 72

CHAPTER 5 73

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 73

5.1 Conclusion of the study 73

5.2 Implications of the study 74

5.2.1 For universities and colleges 74

5.2.2 For language teachers 75

5.2.3 For school administrators and educationalists 75

5.3 Recommendations for future research 76

5.4 Summary of chapter 5 76

REFERENCES 77

APPENDIX 88

APPENDIX 1 88

APPENDIX 2 91

APPENDIX 3 100

APPENDIX 4 109

APPENDIX 5 120

APPENDIX 6 126

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Elements and processes in language teacher cognition

(Borg, 2006)……….…28 Figure 2.2 Conceptual Framework ……… … 36

beliefs………52

Table 4.5 Teachers’ preferable vocabulary learning strategies in terms of beliefs

arranged from the most useful to the least useful strategies……… ……… 54

Table 4.6 Preferable strategies of teachers’ beliefs in VLS based on classifications of

strategies……… …… 56

Table 4.7 An overview of vocabulary learning strategies in terms of teachers’

practices……… ……… 58

Table 4.8 Teachers’ preferable vocabulary learning strategies in terms of practices

arranged from the most to the least frequently used strategies……… ………… 60

Table 4.9 Preferable strategies of teachers’ instructional practices on VLS based on

ABBREVIATIONS EFL – refers to English as a Foreign Language which is the target language of

teachers and learners in this research

L1 – refers to First Language or learners and teachers’ mother tongue language,

which is Vietnamese Language in this study

L2 – refers to Second Language which is English Language as a target language for

Vietnamese EFL learners and teachers

LLS – refers to Language learning strategies employed by EFL learners and teachers

for English language acquisition

SLA – refers to Second language acquisition which means the acquisition of the

English language in the current study

TESOL – refers to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

VLS – refers to Vocabulary learning strategies employed by EFL learners and

teachers for vocabulary acquisition in English language

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1 describes the research’s background along with the statement of the problem which basically builds up the foundation for the researcher’s conceptual framework of the present research Other crucial elements namely, the study’s objectives, the research questions, the study’s significance, scope of the study, definitions of terms together with the overview of the study are also provided

1.1 Background and Rationale of the study

Language is man’s most important present because language brings progress, civilization and conveys culture Above all the languages, English emerges as the global language because it constructs a bridge across the obstacles made by the existence of so many other languages and therefore globalizes the world (Pandarangga, 2015) Regardless of its importance in the educational system of Viet Nam, in the era of renovation and with the policy of opening door to the whole world

of Viet Nam, the English language comes out indispensably in all attributes of the development of our nation and “becomes the first (and nearly the only) foreign language that is being taught and learnt in Vietnam” (Hoang, 2018) ; hence, teaching and learning English have been getting a special attention from our government through the decision N˚1400 (2008), which indicates that the Vietnamese Ministry of Education has discussed and approved of the 10-year National Plan for “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Formal Educational System in the Period of 2008-2020”

When English becomes the most frequently used foreign language, vocabulary learning emerges to be the first basic step beyond all doubts since it is one of the key elements in second language acquisition (SLA) and essential for all stages of English education (Gardner, 2013; Thornbury, 2002) According to Schmitt (2010), all stakeholders dealing with English language learning (i.e students, teachers, researchers, etc.) have come to the same conclusion that vocabulary knowledge has

a substantial contribution to SLA with plenty of evidence showing its strong

relationship with all the language skills because no matter how successfully the students can master the grammatical structures, no matter how effectively the sounds, pronunciation, and intonation of L2 are learnt, communication in L2 cannot be carried out in any successful way if there is a lack of vocabulary to convey a wide variety of meanings (Mashhadi & Jamalifar, 2015) Therefore, Alqahtani (2015) has concluded that vocabulary is an extremely crucial tool and plays a great role in acquiring another language or language communicative competence

In terms of vocabulary acquisition, many scholars have long been supporting vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) to facilitate the process of vocabulary learning and help with enhancing learners’ vocabulary knowledge (Carranza et al., 2015; Nation, 2001; Schmitt, 2000) For the use of VLS, Schmitt (2000) has noted that proficient learners make use of numerous strategies, organize their own learning and they are aware of the connection between newly and formerly learnt vocabulary items; moreover, they find strategies useful for their learning, which indicates that strategy training should be incorporated in the classrooms Nation (2001) also points out that VLS can be implemented in every stage of vocabulary learning since language learners are set free to take responsibility for their own learning process and thus, training in VLS is necessary to develop learners’ vocabulary acquisition by equipping them with sufficient understanding towards the goals of every particular strategy

There seems to be a commonly accepted fact that teachers seem to have a tendency to instruct their students the same methods they were taught (Oleson & Hora, 2014) Mashhadia and Jamalifar (2015) have implied that in the past, the majority of learners of a second language were traditionally instructed with strategies which did not focus much on vocabulary learning, teachers often left vocabulary learning to students without teaching them strategies for learning and enhancing the knowledge of vocabulary on their own (Lai, 2005).Additionally, in my own experience, throughout my second language (L2) learning from primary to tertiary level in Viet Nam, the introduction of VLS had rarely been made and explicitly

mentioned concerning how to employ them to help learners enhance the learning process In Viet Nam, Vietnamese EFL students are mainly familiar with Grammar Translation Method, a traditional teaching method, in which they are required to memorize lists of provided words of the target language along with their Vietnamese equivalents (Phan, 2018)

This is not only a problem of Vietnamese EFL learners but it can also be found

in many other Asian countries Mongkol (2008, as cited in Boonkongsaen, 2012) stated in his study that Thai EFL teachers still paid little attention to strategies in vocabulary instruction, so he strongly recommended that teachers should have supplied VLS to EFL learners so as to help them learn more effectively Yang and Dai (2011) also claimed that Chinese EFL learners mainly took advantage of rote memorization in learning new vocabulary They found that Chinese students primarily depended only on rote repetition in learning lexical items; besides, they both agreed that VLS should have been introduced to the students instead of having them stick on one certain approach of vocabulary learning

Even though the teaching and learning of vocabulary has increasingly been accepted as an area of interest for many decades within the field of SLA, the lack of effective vocabulary instruction still exists nowadays causing significant flaws in teaching process of English language in many countries including Viet Nam Thinking back on my learning experience, my teachers did not teach me vocabulary learning strategies, and to be honest I could not recall any instruction about teaching vocabulary leaning strategies in pre-service teacher training program Hence, personally I got motivated to investigate teachers’ perspective towards teaching vocabulary learning strategies with particular reference to English teachers at high schools in Can Duoc district This research’s aim is to find out the beliefs as well as teachers’ actual practices on strategies of vocabulary learning

1.2 Statement of the problem

The problems of using English among Vietnamese EFL learners have always been emphasized in all education levels (Dao, 2018; Hayeck, 2016; Powel, 2016) A

recent report of the EF English Proficiency Index 2018 found that Vietnamese learners’ English proficiency scores ranked near the bottom among the countries having moderate level of English proficiency The report implied that the ways the Vietnamese EFL learners had been taught must have influenced their English proficiency level It can be inferred that one of the most crucial factors influencing their English skills might be their lack of vocabulary knowledge and proper vocabulary instructions For that reason, VLS instruction is an urgent need that should

be paid more attention in Vietnamese education system to help improve learners’ English proficiency

Looking through the educational setting at high school level in Viet Nam, where English is considered a foreign language, VLS instruction seems to be ignored

in the classrooms VLS are not explicitly introduced by most of Vietnamese EFL teachers in general; therefore, students have fewer chances to enhance their vocabulary knowledge by themselves

In terms of studying about VLS in Vietnamese EFL contexts, a lot of researches have been conducted on learners’ employment of VLS, but no study has been conducted on Vietnamese EFL teachers Recently, the majority of the researchers in other countries have focused more on which vocabulary learning strategies the students use in every level of education namely, primary, secondary, high school and tertiary (e.g Boonkongsaen & Intaraprasert, 2014; Fan, 2003; Mayuree, 2007); hence leaving a big gap to investigate the Vietnamese EFL teachers’ beliefs and their practices of VLS in the classroom Because of the importance of VLS in helping students independently improve their vocabulary knowledge, this study is aimed at investigating the Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ beliefs and practices in teaching VLS in classrooms so that it can help not only raise teachers’ awareness in VLS but also shed the light on the problems of their practices

1.3 Objectives of the study

In this current research, the researcher focuses on investigating the following goals:

1) The beliefs of Vietnamese EFL high school teachers about VLS

2) Their practices of teaching VLS in their classes.


3) The relationship between teachers’ beliefs and practices of VLS 


With the rationale and objectives mentioned above, this study focusing on the teachers' beliefs and practices on teaching VLS at high schools in Can Duoc district

is intended to search for the answers to the following questions:

1.5 Significance of the study

The initial aim of the current research is to bring up a significant contribution

to the teaching vocabulary learning strategies process at high school level in Can Duoc district, especially to learners and teachers who are involved in this process Then, the results of this study are hoped to provide some useful information for the limited Vietnamese literature on the teachers’ beliefs and practices on vocabulary learning strategies by investigating the relationship between them

Firstly, to high schools in Can Duoc, this study raises some problematic issues

at high schools and suggests some implications for school administrators to get engaged in searching for ways to develop the educational system of their schools

Secondly, the results achieved from the research also benefit both teachers and learners in terms of adding pedagogical implications to second language

learning and teaching context Teachers’ proper awareness of VLS will be improved and they will be able to make appropriate adjustments to their practices to gain the most effectiveness of learners’ second language learning process

Lastly, since VLS instruction is essential in facilitating students’ learning process, the investigation on the beliefs as well as practices of teachers will inspire the development of effective VLS instruction This study’s findings, therefore, will contribute to L2 VLS learning and teaching, and provide some knowledgefor

English language education in Viet Nam Additionally, this research could also be a reference for future studies on VLS learning and teaching in Vietnamese context

1.6 Scope of the study

1) The focus of this study is the Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ beliefs and practices in only one district of Long An province in Viet Nam The population selected for the study might be the limitation owing to the inadequacy to represent the Vietnamese EFL high school teachers in all over Viet Nam Hence, the findings are applicable to a certain group of teachers in Can Duoc district, Long An province, Viet Nam and may not be generalized to those who are teaching in other regions 
 2) Despite the strengths of this study with the use of not only quantitative but also qualitative methods, the researcher explores Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ beliefs and practices in Can Duoc employing questionnaires with no in-deep interviews and observation in a natural setting carried out due to time constraints, therefore resulting in limited research tools used in the investigation to gain more insightful data 


1.7 Thesis organization

The study is presented with five separate chapters:

Chapter 1 states the background and rationale of the study about teachers’

beliefs and practices of VLS at high schools, statement of the problem, the study’s objectives, the three research questions, the study’s significance, scope of the study, definitions of terms and it is concluded with the overview of the research

Chapter 2 demonstrates the literature background that the researcher bases on

to carry out this study This chapter deals with the theoretical concepts of language learning strategies, vocabulary, vocabulary learning strategies, their classifications, teachers’ beliefs and practices, their relationship, the previous studies with the similar

objectives and the study framework

Chapter 3 includes the details about methodology which was employed to

conduct this study This chapter describes the research setting, the participants, research instruments, research procedure and the methods used for analyzing the data Chapter 4 analyses and interprets the data obtained about the participants’

background, their self report about VLS & vocabulary teaching practices, together with descriptive statistics and Correlation interpretation of the findings from quantitative survey on teachers’ beliefs and instructional practices A discussion on the data analyzed and interpreted in previous section will put an end to this chapter

Chapter 5 concludes the main points of the study, gives the study’s

implications and suggests recommendations for further researches on similar issue

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents the review of relevant literature to this study It starts with the definitions of Language Learning Strategies; after that, it is narrowed down

to vocabulary as well as Vocabulary Learning Strategies The theories and concepts related to teachers’ beliefs and instructional practices will be presented along with some previous studies on the same issue before providing a conceptual framework of this study from the review of literature Finally, a summary of the chapter will be presented to conclude chapter 2

2.1 Definitions of Language Learning Strategies (LLS)

Language learning strategies (LLS) are said to play a significant part in learning and teaching a second language and be one of the core elements to help learners learn a language more successfully (Oxford, 2003) because “Academic language learning is more effective when it is supported by learning strategies” (Herrera & Murry, 2011) Therefore, LLS are worth being mentioned before moving

to VLS since these two terms are closely related to each other in terms of their benefits

in L2 learning Both LLS and VLS can contribute to SLA since they promote learner autonomy in which learners manage their self-directed learning process leading to the possession of an active role in L2 learning without heavy dependence on teachers’ provision of input Learners hence should be provided with the strategies necessary for their later continuous learning after leaving their pedagogical classroom settings

The notion of language learning strategies has long been proposed by many scholars More specifically, Scarcella and Oxford, (1992) explain that the steps and techniques employed by learners while learning a language such as looking for their conversation partners, and supporting themselves with encouragement to deal with a difficult language task are also defined as learning strategies In another point of view, Richards and Platt (1992) have the same idea with Zare (2012) which states that all the thoughts and behaviors that are used intentionally by learners during their learning process so as to support them to comprehend, remember or study new

information better are called learning strategies Recently, with a broader definition, Chamot (2005) states that the conscious and goal driven procedures which are employed by learners to learn and use a language are called language learning strategies Similarly, Ortega (2013) agrees that learning strategies are procedures that are conscious, mental, behavioral and employed in learning process by learners with the goal to take control over their learning tasks and learning activities

Although defined specifically or generally from different viewpoints, all the above definitions confirm that language learning strategies aim at helping learners learn the language more successfully (Lee, 2010) Therefore, once learners have consciously decided on which strategies should be used to make full use of their learning styles and tackle the tasks the most efficiently, these strategies will become

an indispensable toolkit for independent, conscious, purposeful and active self learning and the awareness, employment of strategies will help learners to more effectively acquire a language (Macaro, 2002)

In order for the practitioners of language and other scholars, researchers to know more clearly about learning strategies, Oxford (1990) presents twelve key features involved in LLS including: (1) Improve communicative competence, the major goal of language learning; (2) Let learners be more self-directed because they have to be responsible for the strategies they have chosen and their own development

in language learning process; (3) Widen the teachers’ roles as teachers are not only the ones who teach the knowledge, but they also the ones who guide their students how to acquire the knowledge by introducing the strategies and helping students choose the strategies which are the most appropriate for learners’ learning styles; (4) Are problem-oriented because learners engage in different learning strategies to cope with different issues; (5) Are certain actions that learners take when learning; (6) Include many attributes of learners, not only the cognitive aspect; (7) Help learning process with both direct and indirect way; (8) Can not always be observable; (9) Are often noticed and conscious because learners are aware of the strategies and intentionally employ the strategies for their purposes of learning; (10) Can be taught,

which means that teachers can instruct learning strategies to language learners to make them usefully familiar to language practitioners; (11) Are flexible therefore learners should be encouraged to choose the appropriate strategies and flexibly make them suitable for the lessons as well as their learning style to improve their learning

; (12) Are affected by various factors hence it should be strongly stressed that with the same strategies, different learners will achieve different levels of success, and different learners will employ different strategies to gain the same goals

From the widely preceding mentioned concept of LLS, this research paper narrows down its focus to a smaller respect which is strategies of vocabulary learning The next part of the research paper is going to present some information about vocabulary before moving to strategies of learning vocabulary

2.2 Vocabulary in second language acquisition

2.2.1 The significance of Vocabulary Learning

All languages consist of words Languages come out first as words in terms of the way each of us learns our first and any subsequent languages Nagy (1988) shows that the enrichment of vocabulary knowledge is the foundation and the very first part

of the learning process and the poor knowledge of vocabulary is a serious barrier for many learners of language In the same vein, Nist and Simpson (1993) state that learners who have limited vocabulary often struggle in language learning, not only are they not able to understand thoroughly what they are reading but they also find some reading texts difficult In addition, Wilkins (1972, as cited in Clouston, 1994) concludes that little can be expressed if there is no grammar, but if there is no vocabulary, nothing can be expressed It can be inferred that even when someone has good grammar; it will be useless if they do not know vocabulary because however well the learners can learn grammatical structures, however effectively the pronunciation and intonation of L2 are mastered, if there is no vocabulary to convey meanings, learners cannot communicate successfully in an L2 at all costs In this light, Nation (1990, as cited in Alqahtani, 2015) also claims that vocabulary inevitably needs to be paid great attention otherwise lack of vocabulary knowledge may cause

failure in both receptive skills namely listening and reading and productive language skills, i.e speaking and writing From the same point of view, Alqahtani (2015) says that if it were not for sufficient vocabulary, people could not communicate to express their feelings as well as opinions both in form of spoken and written successfully The more vocabulary the learners master, the more they can speak, write, read and listen as effectively as they want In a nutshell, Cook (2016) concludes that whenever people want to express something in a foreign language, they will feel they struggle with the words rather than the grammar or pronunciation For the above reasons, it is not surprising that Macaro (2003) claims in his survey that secondary language teachers consider vocabulary as a topic that most needs to be researched to improve the quality of the teaching and learning in their classrooms In conclusion, it can be inferred that the importance of vocabulary in a foreign or second language learning has been recognized and the considerable researches on implications for teaching are

in great demand However, teaching learners how to learn or to know a word is not simple because to know a word, learners need not only to know its definition, its logical relationship with other words, but also understand how to use the word exactly

in various contexts (Stahl & Kapinus, 2001) More details about knowing a word is presented as follows

2.2.2 Knowing a Vocabulary Item

Learning and knowing vocabulary is a complex process including knowing the knowledge of the written and spoken form, morphology, meaning, grammar and collocation, connotation and association, and the knowledge of social use and other constraints (Nation, 1990; Richard, 1976) Laufer (1998) states that knowledge of vocabulary is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon, but begins from unknown to known and develops fully to mastery level

According to Henriksen (1999), the knowledge of vocabulary is a combination

of productive knowledge and receptive knowledge Laufer et al (2004) describes productive and receptive knowledge as: the retrieval of the word form is considered

as receptive knowledge and retrieval of the word meaning as productive knowledge

Developed from this definition, the definition of Webb (2008) is wider and more specific Receptive vocabulary knowledge is the ability to not only recognize the form but also define or search for the synonym of a word, whereas the ability to remember the form and meaning of a word is called productive vocabulary knowledge Nation (1990) also points out the common feature of each type of knowledge For receptive knowledge, vocabulary is acquired by recognizing the form and retrieving the meaning through reading and listening, while productive knowledge is defined as the ability to retrieve and produce the proper written or spoken form of a word in the target language through speaking and writing For this reason, Schmitt (2000) states that learners’ acquisition of receptive knowledge in some degrees may come prior that of productive one

To be more specific, Harmer (1993) proposes a definition of knowing a word as: knowing the meaning of the word- to relate the word to a suitable object or context; knowing its word formation- to pronounce and spell the word precisely, to know its derivations (suffixes and prefixes); knowing its usage – to know its collocations, idioms, metaphors, style and register (the suitable level of formality), to

be conscious of any associations and connotations the word may have; knowing its grammar- to use it in the correct form of grammar Therefore, students with various first language backgrounds will experience various barriers in the process of learning

a word due to their different levels of familiarity with the word knowledge

According to Nation (2001), knowing a word completely includes knowing its spoken and written form, word parts, meaning, references, associations, grammatical function, collocations and knowing constraints when using the words in specific context

It can be inferred from the aspects mentioned above that a word is a complex item and the learners need more than just one exposure to acquire it It often takes a long time for learners to master the different aspects of lexical item knowledge Every exposure to a word is a chance to accumulate the related forms of word knowledge

Therefore, the important point is that learners must learn the word knowledge

thoroughly and carefully so that learners can have an adequate meaning presentation

of the words, which leads to a precise understanding essential for the recognition of the words to make them productive or active vocabulary and use them appropriately

in any specific context (Lee, 2003)

After knowing precisely what is included in knowing a vocabulary item, teachers can be able to find the effective strategies to teach vocabulary the most successfully The following part is going to summarize and analyze some teaching methods that have long been used to teach vocabulary

2.2.3 Existing vocabulary teaching strategies

According to Stahl (2005), the knowledge of a word is both its definition and possibility to fit into the world Therefore, it is proved by a lot of scholars and researchers that strategies of teaching vocabulary should always focus on the word’s definition and its contextual function

Back to the year of 1990, Palmberg (1990) classified that there were two core teaching methods to enhance vocabulary learning The first method emphasized on the demand to get the learners familiarized with the exercises built on a native base (Palmberg, 1990), which aimed at making words take on the same meaningfulness as for learners and native speakers The second one, however, emphasized the creation

of learners’ own associational links This method depended upon learners’ language background and their language learning experience; therefore, teachers should include flexibility into the activities in classrooms to support the improvement of learners' own built-in lexical system

Following that idea, Seal (1991) divides vocabulary teaching strategies into planned and unplanned activities in classroom As the names convey, the unplanned strategies are implemented in situations where words can be taught and learned accidentally, incidentally and unsystematically in class, while the planed strategies refer to occasion when teachers have prepared the list of target words systematically

in advance In order for vocabulary to be taught and learnt effectively, teachers should

combine both strategies to ensure the systematic teaching of vocabulary and the improvement of learners’ personal strategies and word associations

To be more detail, the common strategies are divided into 4 categorizes (Oxford & Crookall, 1990) which are: (1) the first one is de-contextualizing including: word lists, dictionary use and flashcards; (2) the next one is semi-contextualizing including: word grouping, association, aural imaginary, visual imagery, physical sensation, keyword, physical response, and semantic mapping; (3) the third one is fully contextualizing including: listening, speaking, reading, and writing; (4) the last one is adapting including structured reviewing All techniques are necessary for learners to learn vocabulary; therefore, vocabulary teaching should

be flexible and should take account of the different dimensions of the mental lexical item and teachers as well as learners should search for the strategy that is the most suitable for an individual learner’s vocabulary acquisition to assist lexical learning and consolidation in their memories

On the other hand, to the role of learners, they need to decide on their own preferable strategies of vocabulary learning which are able to help them with their acquisition of vocabulary The following part of this study is going to search for the answer to the following questions: (1) what is the definition of vocabulary learning strategies? And (2) how many categories of vocabulary learning strategies are there?

2.3 Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS)

2.3.1 Some definitions of vocabulary learning strategies

Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) play a key role in vocabulary learning (Boonkongsaen, 2012) However, the definitions of VLS are proposed differently from various researchers based on their varied perspectives

In the early time, Cunningsworth (1995) says that vocabulary learning

strategies “a powerful approach” can be based merely on the sensitiveness to the vocabulary systems, the encouragement of skills related to dictionary and the reflection to useful learning methods Then, Schmitt (1997) widens this concept by saying that the process in which the information is collected, saved, retrieved and

used is called learning, and hence anything taken by learners that influences this process is considered as vocabulary learning strategies Not long after that, Cameron (2001) has proposed a clearer definition which sees VLS as any actions taken by learners assist learners in understanding and remembering the new lexical items From another perspective, Intaraprasert (2004, as cited in Asyiah, 2017) defines VLS

as learning techniques and behaviors used by language learners so as to find out the word meaning, keep the newly-learned word meaning in mind, and enrich their vocabulary knowledge Finally, to summarize all of the above definitions and provide

a more comprehensible concept of vocabulary learning strategies , a brief definition

of VLS has been suggested by Asgari and Mustapha, which considers vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) as any steps that language learners take with an aim at achieving the acquisition of new English words (Asgari & Mustapha, 2011)

Through making sense of the definitions and the significance of vocabulary learning strategies, it would be necessary to examine these strategies to find out how these strategies are going to assist learners to enlarge their knowledge of vocabulary, and decide on which strategies are suitable for learners in certain contexts

2.3.2 Classification of VLS

Vocabulary learning strategies have been put into groups by many different ways One classification is proposed by Oxford (1990) which put VLS into two groups: direct and indirect strategies While direct strategies deal with cognitive, memory and compensation, indirect strategies comprise affective, metacognitive and social From another point of view, Cook (2001) classifies VLS into 2 categories including: the one focusing on the meaning understanding of the words including guessing the meaning from contexts, using dictionary, deducting word part based on word formation, using cognates; and the other focusing on acquiring the words such as: using rote learning and repetition, rearranging words in mind, connecting with previous knowledge

Some other classifications are worth being mentioned including classification

of O’Malley and Chamot (1990) and that of Gu and Johnson (1996) According to

O’Malley and Chamot (1990), VLS are divided into 3 groups: Cognitive, Metacognitive and Social strategies, whereas Gu and Johnson (1996) divide VLS into

2 groups: “Metacognitive (of planning, monitoring and evaluating) and Cognitive strategies (of attention, rehearsal, production)” (as cited in Letchumanan et al , 2016, p.174)

However, Schmitt (1997) claims that no researchers have presented a comprehensive and sufficient strategies taxonomy in this particular field Therefore, Schmitt (1997) makes an attempt to build list of VLS which was primarily based on Oxford’s and O’Malley and Chamot’s classification system He identifies the overlap from O’Malley and Chamot’s classification as well as Oxford’s (1990) classification

of cognitive, memory, metacognitive and social functions in his 58 vocabulary learning strategy classification Then determination strategies are added to the classification Finally, he categorizes the 58 vocabulary learning strategies into two main themes: the first one consists of strategies of discovering the meaning of new words, the second one includes strategies of consolidating a learnt word once learners encounter it Thus, vocabulary learning strategies classification of Schmitt is more accurate, comprehensive and powerful after being developed from O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990) classification as well as Oxford’s (1990) classification of vocabulary learning strategies (Letchumanan, Muthusamy, Govindasamy, & Farashaiyan, 2016) Therefore, Schmitt’s classifications of strategies are taken as a guideline for this research and the instrument to collect the data for this research will

be based on Schmitt’s taxonomy Table 2.1 below illustrates more clearly Schmitt’s taxonomy:

Table 2.1 An illustration of Schmitt’s (1997) vocabulary learning strategies

Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS)

Determination

strategies (DET)

Social strategies (SOC)

Social strategies (SOC)

Memory strategies (MEM)

Cognitive strategies (COG)

Metacognitive strategies (MET)

1 Social strategies (SOC): learners interact with other people in society to enhance their language learning

2 Memory strategies (MEM): learners learn by making a connection between their old knowledge and new material

3 Cognitive strategies (COG): learners learn more mechanically, without mental processing

4 Metacognitive strategies (MET): learners manage their learning process by arranging time, making plan and evaluating their learning process, strategies used as well as the result of learning

5 Determination Strategies (DET): learners deal with situations in which they encounter new knowledge that is beyond their current knowledge by guessing the meaning from context or analyzing part of speech

Among the five groups of his taxonomy, the first 4 groups mentioned above were drawn from taxonomy of VLS of Oxford However, Schmitt found that Oxford’s taxonomy could not help learners when they were facing with new words, which happened frequently in their learning process As a result, Schmitt created one

more group called Determination Strategies consisting of strategies that learners employed when trying to understand a new word’s meaning without getting help from other people

In addition, with respect to the process involved in vocabulary learning, Cook and Mayer (1983) together with Nation (1990) suggested that VLS should have been divided into 2 categories namely Consolidation Strategies and Discovery Strategies Discovery Strategies can be described as the strategies used at the time learners search for and discover the meaning of new words In contrast, Consolidation Strategies are considered as the attempt to consolidate the target words after they have been encountered

2.3.2.1 Discovery Strategies

Discovery strategies consist of determination strategies and social strategies

1) Determination Strategies (DET)


Learners figure out the meaning of new words without consulting other people’s help by using the following methods:

Guessing through context

Basically, this strategy encourages learners to attempt to figure out the meaning of the new words by looking at the surrounding words in the text (Schmitt, 1997) Nelson (2008) states that context is the important key to successful vocabulary learning because students must understand vocabulary and become accomplished in

making use of context clues to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words Actually, our

brain does not remember isolated facts, but rather things in context, therefore, students should learn new words as they come across them in actual sentences, paragraphs rather than learn from isolated lists of vocabulary According to Nation (2001), this strategy is incidental learning because it appears with receptive skills (i.e reading and listening) with no intention of learning any certain words For example, learners can learn vocabulary while reading for pleasure newspapers, magazines, books, etc without deliberation to study specific vocabulary Nevertheless, in order

to be successful in using this strategy, it is required that other words in the text must

be familiar to learner; otherwise, it will be very difficult for learners to guess the meaning of the new words (Schmitt, 2000) In addition, leaners must possess enough background knowledge with regard to the context and hints for guessing should be efficient enough as well (McCarthy, 1990) Above all, over the last twenty years, Schmitt (1997) has considered guessing meaning through context strategy as more suitable for the communicative approach than other strategies of Discovery Strategies, and thus it is strongly encouraged to be employed to facilitate the learning process

There are five steps that Clarke and Nation (1980) suggest in order to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words, including:

Step 1 Identify the word form of the new words.


Step 2 Pay attention to the surrounding words of the new word and pare them to the

bone if needed.


Step 3 Examine the larger context of the unfamiliar words such as the surrounding

words, sentences and clauses through conjunctions, punctuation

Step 4 Guess the meaning

Step 5 Check the guessing

However, in order to make the guessing effective, learners should know when and how to employ the context as well as how to find hints and make use of them (Blachowicz & Fisher, 2010) Learners also need to practice guessing skill regularly

to improve their skill, reduce the wrong guesses and enhance their learning

Word Part Analysis

According to Wei (2011), the word part technique is a method of making a connection between an already learned word with a new word through their same word part In other words, it is the division and recognition of roots within an unknown word Learners can connect previously known words with the new unknown word on the grounds of commonalities in parts of speech and identifying the meaning of a new word thanks to analyzing its prefix, suffix, and root of the word Nation (2001) suggests that there are two steps included in this strategy The first step

is the breakdown of the unknown word into parts so that learners can identify its component The second step is the ability to identify the meaning of the common word parts and paraphrase the meaning from dictionary to include the meaning of those word parts (Nation 2001) Therefore, if an affix is added to a word that learners have already known, learners can learn that new word with ease

Dictionary use

Dictionary strategy may cause positive and negative effect on learning Summers (1988) claims that dictionary use can help with lexical development because it is more likely for learners to find the correct meaning of a new word when looking it up in the dictionary rather than guessing its meaning from context (Bogaards, 1998), especially it is the case when learners encounter an unguessable word whose meaning is beyond the learner’s comprehension Moreover, Luppescu and Day (1993) state that Japanese English learners allowed to access to a bilingual dictionary score remarkably better than those who don’t use dictionary in post-reading Nevertheless, Knight (1994) points out that using dictionary while trying to master L2 vocabulary might sometimes cause inefficient learning Another finding

of Luppescu and Day (1993) shows that learners who consult dictionaries to complete

a reading task take twice as much time as to complete a reading task without using dictionaries Further, misunderstanding may be caused by locating the wrong meaning of an unknown word in a dictionary (Tang, 1997) Therefore, because of its advantages and disadvantages, learners should take caution when using dictionary as

a strategy to learn vocabulary Nation (1990) proposes the solution that after guessing the meaning of a word from the context, learners need to look it up in the dictionary

so that they can pick up the suitable meaning of the word Additionally, learners can learn about its pronunciation, part of speech, syntactic behavior, and possible alternative spellings which can not be found from guessing Therefore, learners can easily remember the meaning from the context, check the correct meaning and learn about other aspects of a vocabulary item from the dictionary It has proved that using

dictionary is still a helpful technique in the process of mastering a foreign or second language

2) Social Strategies (SOC)


This second category of discover strategies is a method to discover the meaning by asking for help from other people who know the vocabulary item that learners don’t know Teachers are the ones who are often asked to provide help in many ways such as translating the word into L1, providing synonym, antonym, usage, giving example of using the word in sentence because they play “the main role in the educational system” (Alhaysony, 2012) Learners often ask the teachers about the meaning, spelling, pronunciation or any issues that are beyond their knowledge, but the information asked for by learners are often different from learner to learner: one may ask for L1 equivalent while others may ask for paraphrases, synonyms or antonyms Therefore, learners can use SOC in their own way to enrich their knowledge

2.3.2.2 Consolidation Strategies

The process of consolidating vocabulary includes 4 categories: Social Strategies (SOC), Memory Strategies (MEM), Cognitive Strategies (COG), Metacognitive Strategies (MET)

1) Social Strategies (SOC)


Social strategies in consolidation group are strategies that learners take part in group work activities, ask teachers to check their flash cards, word lists or communicate with native speakers to improve their learning The noticeable advantage of cooperative learning activities is especially stated by Nation (2001) that leaners can learn from their peers a lot of information from various aspects of a particular word In addition, group work helps students get more involved in the task because they have to pay more attention to the task to understand what other people are talking about and to think more of the information they are going to share with other students in the group (Laufer and Hulstijin, 2001) Therefore, learners can both learn the knowledge of a new word, i.e its meaning, its use in sentence, and practise

using the new word and revising the previous learnt words through working with peers

2) Memory Strategies (MEM)


Memory strategies include strategies that help learners make a connection between the previously studied vocabulary with the new word to be learnt by applying the method of imagery or grouping for a better retention of the word According to Schmitt (1997), mental processing plays an important part in long-term retention; therefore, memory strategies are necessary for helping learners learn faster, retrieve better because learners integrate the new knowledge with the already existing knowledge This important role of memory strategies has been displayed clearly in Schmitt’s VLS taxonomy since he named twenty-seven memory strategies in his fifty eight strategies of VLS taxonomy including the use of semantic map, the grouping of words together to study, the use of a new word in sentence, the studying of the word’s spelling and sound, the use of keyword method, the use of physical action when studying the word, the analysis of part of speech of the word, the use of paraphrasing technique of the meaning of the word, etc (Schmitt, 1997) Among the various strategies of memory strategies, the keyword method has been proposed to be one of the most efficient strategies to retrieve the word and to enhance the word retention (Hulstijn, 1997; Nation, 1990)

3) Cognitive Strategies (COG)


Schmitt (2000) claims that cognitive strategies are very similar to memory strategies, but manipulative mental processing is not paid the most attention here Cognitive strategies consist of written and spoken repetition as well as some mechanical techniques involving vocabulary learning Despite the fact that repetition may not help at the beginning stage of learning a word, it is useful in making a word stay in memory after learner has learnt that word (Milton, 2009) The next two strategies include using flash cards and word lists are claimed by Schmitt (1997) that they can be used not only when learners first encounter the word but also when learners review the word later In addition, learners can record a tape of word lists

and learn through listening to the tape Another interesting strategy is learning by labeling onto their respective physical objects Learners are also recommended to keep a notebook to take note the to-be-learnt vocabulary to facilitate the learning process (Fowle, 2002)

4) Metacognitive Strategies (MET)


According to Schmitt (2000), metacognitive strategies is an overview about the self decision making and self evaluation of learners about their own learning process Therefore, a necessary need is to train learners to manage, measure and judge their own learning process by using spaced word practice or do word tests so that they can evaluate their improvement in learning Schmitt (1997) also suggests that learners should get as much exposure to L2 as possible from a variety of language resources such as: books, magazines, newspapers, movies, internet, and conversation with native speakers to enrich their knowledge of vocabulary With this group of strategies, learners will be more responsible for their study, and be more willing to decide on which strategies are suitable for different vocabulary in different time, which words should be paid less attention for their low frequency and which words should be spent more time and effort on for their high frequency

The table presenting Schmitt’s (1997) classification of 58 vocabulary learning strategies is illustrated in appendix 1

2.3.3 VLS training

VLS has been very useful in helping learners become independent in their process of learning vocabulary (Nation, 2001) Therefore, it is suggested by Nation (2001) that learners should be trained with VLS strategies, which is integrated in a course with the facilitation of teachers such as: teachers decide on the strategies to be focused on, manage time the most beneficially for learners, provide chances for learners to practice strategies and give comment on their practice These activities, according to Hedge (2000), help learners become more conscious of how to learn effectively, become more involved, active in learning activities, and be more responsible for their own learning Therefore, Cohen, Weaver and Li (1998) foresee

the importance of VLS training and strongly recommended that strategies-based instruction should be incorporated in a foreign language program and foreign language classroom to successfully raise learners’ awareness of the learning strategies With this learner-centered approach of instruction, learners will be more

in charge of their learning and not only the teachers but also the learners themselves take responsibilities for helping learners become an effective learner of foreign or second language since learners are instructed to know how to wisely make full use of various learning strategies to boost their own learning process

So as to be able to train learners learning strategies, teachers must master the knowledge of strategies and make them practical rather than just theoretical because teachers not only teach learners the strategies but also teach them how to apply strategies to learn and how to take advantage of strategies to facilitate the learning process (Oxford, 1990) Nation (2001) has suggested useful steps for teachers to follow when training learners to use strategies as follows:

1 The learners watch the teachers modeling the strategy 


2 The teachers perform each step of the strategy in isolation

3 Learners work in pairs practicing the strategy 


4 Learners give feedback on the application of each step of the strategy

5 Learners give feedback on advantages and disadvantages when using the strategy outside class time 


6 Learners do tests on the strategy use and get comments from teachers 


7 Learners discuss the use of the strategy with teachers and ask for advice if necessary

Following those steps, trainers can help trainees to directly practice how to monitor the strategies, evaluate the efficiency of those strategies by identifying their advantages as well as disadvantages, and discover how to use them the most effectively in facilitating their own learning By this way, learners are not only provided chances to choose strategies based on their learning styles but also encouraged to self-evaluate and self-direct their own learning process (Hedge, 2000)

2.4 Teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices

2.4.1 Definition of teachers’ beliefs

Beliefs are seen as a pivotal construct influencing human behavior Utami (2016) points out that teachers’ beliefs in language learning and teaching are regarded

as one of the key factors of how to prepare, plan, manage and evaluate the instructions

in classroom However, it is quite hard to define exactly what beliefs are because researchers have defined beliefs and belief systems from different perspectives due

to their research agendas (Nishino, 2009) Therefore, the definition of teachers’ beliefs has been suggested in numerous ways One of those suggestions defines belief

as any simple conscious or unconscious idea integrating descriptive and prescriptive elements which can be inferred from what a person says or does (Rokeach, 1968, as cited in Guerra &Wubbena, 2017) In the same thought, Pajares (1992) confirms that beliefs are messy concepts that cannot be observed and have to be inferred from people’s words, behaviors or actions, and these concepts are directed by a particular set of assumptions about beliefs However, Pajares (1992) also stresses that teachers’ beliefs are attitudes of teachers about education namely teaching, learning, schooling and students On the other hand, Richards (1998) views teachers’ belief as not only teachers’ attitudes about education but all that teachers build up over time about the theories, attitudes, values, information, expectations and assumptions and bring with them to the classroom According to Barcelos (2003), there are 3 approaches to define Teachers’ beliefs: the first approach is the normative approach in which beliefs are preconceptions, myths, or misconceptions about language teaching and learning; the second approach is the metacognitive approach in which beliefs serve as a kind of conscious or unconscious logic to help with the process of learning and teaching language; and the last one is the contextual approach whereby beliefs can be better understood in a particular context

In conclusion, I would like to combine the above mentioned knowledge of teachers’ beliefs to consider teachers’ beliefs as all the opinions, attitudes related to teaching and learning a foreign language which are built up by teachers themselves

through their knowledge, their prior learning experience, and their own teaching context

2.4.2 Definition of classroom practices

Nishino (2009) defines classroom practices as all that teachers do in the classrooms including using teaching methodologies, activities, materials; playing roles; as well as dealing with classroom pedagogical matters such as interpersonal interactions, encouragement, evaluation and assessment Recently, Li & Oliveira (2015) generalize the classroom practices as process that consists of a variety of agents together with the interactions among these agents within the classroom Therefore, it can be demonstrated in different forms and influenced by not only internal but also external factors in the classroom

The previously mentioned definitions of teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices will help us understand more clearly about these two terms and lead us to easily understand the interrelationship between them

2.4.3 The interrelationship between Teachers’ Beliefs and Classroom Practices

According to Clark & Peterson (1986, as cited in John, 1992), teachers' beliefs make up a pivotal part of the previous known knowledge through which teachers act and believe in the classrooms Nevertheless, according to Borg (2003), it is not until 1990s that scholars start to investigate the influence of teacher cognition on their language instruction although the impact of teacher cognition on teachers’ professional practices has been identified over the past two decades Shavelson and Stern (1981) note that it is what teachers believe that controls what they do in the classroom Therefore, the instructional decisions, the choice of instructional materials and the selection of certain instructional practices are strongly affected by the beliefs that teachers are holding, which directly determines students’ attitudes, motivation and language proficiency in target language learning (Riley, 1996) Moreover, it is clearly shown that wherever beliefs derive from, they affect teachers’ purposes, materials, procedures, classroom interaction patterns, the students, the roles, and the

schools that teachers are working in (Kuzborska, 2011) Hence, new information is interpreted through teachers’ beliefs and they influence how teachers are going to react and respond to what happens in classroom (Shavelson, 1983, as cited in Denicolo & Kompf, 2005) To display the relationship between language teachers’ cognitions and their learning (through schooling and professional coursework) and their classroom practices, Borg (2006) presents a diagram as a brief illustration in figure 2.1 as follows:

Figure 2.1 Elements and processes in language teacher cognition (Borg, 2006)

It needs to be marked here that “teacher cognition” mentioned in the above figure refers to “teachers’ beliefs” because teacher cognition is considered the

TEACHER COGNITION

Extensive classrooms experience

which controls early cognitions

and forms teachers’ perceptions of

initial training

May affect current cognitions although these may limit its impact especially when unacknowledged

learning, students, subject matter, curricula, materials, instructional activities, self.

Influence practice either by

modifying cognitions or else

directly, in which case