The moderating role of time urgency and future time perspective on the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

NGUYEN QUOC PHONGTHE MODERATING ROLE OF TIME URGENCY AND FUTURE TIME PERSPECTIVE ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEAM TEMPORAL LEADERSHIP AND TEAM PERFORMANCE Subject: Master of Business Adm

NGUYEN QUOC PHONG

THE MODERATING ROLE OF TIME URGENCY AND FUTURE TIME PERSPECTIVE ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEAM TEMPORAL LEADERSHIP AND TEAM PERFORMANCE

Subject: Master of Business Administration

Code: 60.34.01.02

SUPERVISOR: Assoc Prof Dr NGUYỄN ĐÌNH THỌ

HO CHI MINH CITY - 2012

First of all, I would like to appreciate to teachers at Economy University of

Ho Chi Minh city for their valuable knowledge that guiding me so far

I would like to appreciate PhD Pham Quoc Hung for his kindness ininstructing me through difficult time in finding ways to result my researchproblems Also through his guiding I found the important and application of thisthesis in literature and implication

Last but not least, I deeply appreciate the helping of my dear wife, my familyfor their counting on me Thanks to them I got the motivation to get through longtime studying to fulfill my master thesis I also would like to appreciate my dearfriends at eMBAK19 class for their sharing knowledge and friendship

Nguyen Quoc Phong

Ho Chi Minh, 26 October 2012

I would like to commit that this thesis, “the moderating role of time urgency,future perspective on the relationship between team temporal leadership and teamperformance”, was accomplished basing on my independent, serious study andscientific researches The data was primary collected by my own with clear origins

In addition, the data would be trust-worthily handled and it has never been released

in any paper so far

Nguyen Quoc Phong

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I COMMITMENT II CONTENTS III FIGURES VII

1.1 P ROBLEM S TATEMENT 1

1.2 R ESEARCH ’ S O BJECTIVES 2

1.3 R ESEARCH ’ S S COPE AND A PPROACH 2

1.3.1 Research’s Scope 2

1.3.2 Research’s Approach 3

1.4 C ONTRIBUTION 3

1.4.1 Academic Contributions 3

1.4.2 Managerial Contributions 4

1.5 R ESEARCH S TRUCTURE 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 T IME U RGENCY 5

2.1.1 Time Urgency and Type A Behavior Pattern 5

2.1.2 Characteristic of Time Urgency 6

2.1.3 Time Urgency and Team Performance 7

2.2 T IME P ERSPECTIVE 8

2.2.1 Time Perspective 8

2.2.2 Time Perspective and team performance 10

2.3 T EAM T EMPORAL L EADERSHIP 12

2.4 T EAM T EMPORAL L EADERSHIP AND T EAM P ERFORMANCE 14

2.5 H YPOTHESES D EVELOPMENT 15

3.1 R ESEARCH D ESIGN 17

3.2 Q UESTIONNAIRE D EVELOPMENT 18

3.3 S CALE 19

3.3.1 Time Urgency Scale 19

3.3.2 Future Time Perspective 20

3.3.3 Temporal Leadership Scale 21

3.3.4 Team Performance Scale 22

3.3.5 Translation of Questionnaires 23

3.4 G ROUP D ISCUSSION 24

3.5 T ARGET P OPULATION 24

3.6 S AMPLE S IZE 25

3.7 S ELECTING T HE S AMPLE AND C OLLECTING D ATA 25

3.8 M ETHODS OF D ATA A NALYSIS 26

3.8.1 Data Screening 26

3.8.2 Reliability 27

3.8.3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis 27

3.8.4 Analysis of Variance 29

3.8.5 Correlation Analysis 30

3.8.6 Regression Analysis 31

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS 33

4.1 D ATA S CREAMING 33

4.2 C HARACTERISTIC OF Q UALIFIED R ESPONDENTS 34

4.3 N ORMALITY A NALYSIS 35

4.4 R ELIABILITY OF T HE M EASUREMENTS 37

4.4.1 Reliability of Time Urgency Measurement 37

4.4.2 Reliability of Future Consequence Measurement 38

4.4.3 Reliability of Team Temporal Leadership Measurement 39

4.4.4 Reliability of Team Performance Measurement 39

4.6 C ONFIRMATORY F ACTOR A NALYSIS 40

4.7 A NALYSIS OF V ARIANCE 45

4.7.1 The Effect of Gender on Team Performance 46

4.7.2 The Effect of Age on Team Performance 47

4.7.3 Test The Effect of Education on Team Performance 47

4.8 C ORRELATION A NALYSIS 48

4.9 H YPOTHESES T ESTING 50

4.9.1 The Effect of Team Temporal Leadership on Team Performance 50

4.9.2 The Moderating Role of Time Urgency and Future Time Perspective on the Relationship between Team Temporal Leadership and Team Performance 52

5.1 D ISCUSSIONS OF F INDINGS 61

5.2 P RACTICAL I MPLICATION 62

5.3 C ONTRIBUTION OF T HE S TUDY 63

5.4 L IMITATION AND F URTHER R ESEARCH 64

REFERENCE IX APPENDIX XV

Table 3.1 Time Urgency Scale

Table 3.2 Future consequence scale

Table 3.3 Team temporal leadership

Table 3.4 Team performance

Table 3.5 Assessing Fit Indices

Table 4.1: Variables

Table 4.2: Socio-demographic Characteristics of Qualified respondents

Table 4.3: Assessment of normality

Table 4.4: Summarize Cronbach’s Alpha score of Time Urgency measurements.Table 4.5: Summarize Cronbach’s Alpha score of Future Consequence

Table 4.9: Goodness-of Fit Indexes Result

Table 4.10 Independent Samples Test (Dependent variable: TP; Grouping variable:Gender)

Table 4.11 Analysis of Variance (Dependent variable: TP; Factor: Age)

Table 4.12 Analysis of Variance(Dependent variable: TP; Factor: Education)

Table 4.13 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations

Table 4.14 The effect of team temporal leadership on team performance

Table 4.15: Statistics of two model (with and without TL)

Table 4.16 The moderating role of time urgency and future time perspective on the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

Table 4.17: Statistics two model (with and without moderator TU and FC)

Table 4.18: Relationship between TL and TP (moderator TU)

Table 4.19: Statistics of Relationship between TL and TP (moderator TU)

Table 4.20: Relationship between TL and TP (moderator FC)

Table 4.21: Statistics of Relationship between TL and TP(moderator FC)

Figure 2.1 Original model (Source: Mohammed and Nadkarni, 2011)

Figure 2.1 Suggested model

Figure 3.1 Research process

Figure 4.1 CFA model

Figure 4.2a: Time urgency strengthen the positive relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

Figure 4.2b: Future consequence strengthen the positive relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Problem Statement

Rapidly changing competition, customer needs, technologies and completion

of task in today’s business environment have created temporal challenges for teams

in the form of extremely short deadlines, complex and dynamic cooperation of taskgoals (e.g Hamm, 2006) These challenges require careful management of temporal(time) resources in teams (Lientz & Rea, 2001), making time become arelevanceresearch issues Despite its importance, research on time, especially time in thedeadline condition of team has been spare and inconsistent (Mohammed &Nadkarni, 2011) To answer the calle of the need to give understanding on thisissue, an increasing number of researchers have been conducted on temporalperspective (e.g Ancona et al., 2001; Waller, 1998; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) Interm of team temporal leadership, Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011)find out teamtemporal leadership has a positive impact on team performance However, theirresearch just focuses on groups in one a technology company, which is not diverseenough to represent work forces in general In addition, they also yet to find out ifthe role of team temporal leadership on team performance can be effected by anymoderator Derived from the notion that leaders can affect circumstances andcircumstances can affect leaders in reverse, the author set out hypotheses thattemporal leadership can be affected by their follower’s individual differences, whichare time urgency(feeling chronically hurried [Landy et al, 1991]) and future timeperspective(cognitive temporal bias toward being future oriented [Zimbardo &Boyd, 1999])

Vietnam is a fast developing country; with an average of GPD growth from

2000 to 2010 was more than 6 % per year (tradingeconomy.com) The economic

developing creates the need of change in leadership not only at individual level butalso at group level tocoordinate member adapting with the sophisticate of tasks.Despite the important of leadership in group and it moderators, which has been aninteresting subject to researchers in developed countries, a comprehensiveinvestigation on group level with Vietnamese work force has been spare.Answering

this call, I investigate the moderating role of time urgency, future perspective on the

relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance.

1.2 Research’s Objectives.

This study examines the relationship between team temporal leadership andteam performance It also analyses the moderating role of individual time urgencyand time perspective on this relationship The questions below will be answeraccordingly:

Question 1:How team temporal leadership affects team performance?

Question 2: How individual time urgency affects the relationship between teamtemporal leadership and team performance?

Question 3: How individual future time perspective affects the relationship betweenteam temporal leadership and team performance?

Last but not least, this paper also wants to test if there is a difference on teamperformance between some main demographic (gender, age, and education) groups.The literature review will define these concepts and reveal relevance researches onthese issues The quantitative research will be conducted to answer these questions

1.3 Research’s Scope and Approach.

1.3.1 Research’s Scope.

First, this study conducted in a crowded city and a small province They are

Ho Chi Minh City and DaklakProvince The reason for this choice is that it’srepresents the diversity of downtown city and rural area

Second, since this paper analysts at team level, the respondents of this papertargeted to interview are full time employees, who working in teams, groups ordepartments (from now the term “team” or “group” will presented for team, groupand department) with other members They can be sale person, marketingperson,doctors, nurses, technicians and any employees who have directed contactwith customers

1.3.2 Research’s Approach.

This study will have two main phases: qualitative and quantitative research.The qualitative include draws draft questionnaire from literature review; then,translate questionnaire into Vietnamese,next conduct group discussions, then reviewand debate and review againquestionnaires until have final questionnaires Thequantitative research will test the measurement (questionnaires), hypothesis anddraw conclusion

1.4 Contribution

1.4.1 Academic Contributions

Individual temporal differences and temporal leadership is well recognizedsubject in Western countries However, at this moment in Vietnam, little researchhas been conducting to analyst their affect, especially at team performance level.This paper contributes to the research field of leadership and team performance intwo aspects First, this thesis tries to confirm whether and how team temporalleadership affect team performances Second, this paper will finds out if individualtime urgency and time perspective affect the relationship between team temporalleadership and team performance Last but not least, it introduces the concept of

time urgency,future time perspective and the nascent concept of team temporalleadership, which are still quite new in Vietnam.

1.4.2 Managerial Contributions

This study provides managers with a deeper understanding of how theirleadership in time perspective affects team performance, and how theirfollower’sdifference in time urgency, time perspective can affect the result of their leadership

1.5 Research Structure

This paper is included in 5 chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Literature review provides theoretical and empirical background

connecting to the hypothesized research model

Chapter 3: Methodology addresses methodologies and analysis tools and

techniques

Chapter 4: Analysis is conducted based on the collected data to test the hypotheses

and answer the research questions

Chapter 5: Discussion base on the result and provide theoretical, practical

implication, and possible directions for further research

Summary

This chapter had introduced the important to conduct this research andrelevance researches of pioneers over the issue of this paper (the issue of time) TheObjectives of this paper is defined as the relationship between team temporalleadership and team performance and the moderators of this relationship, they are

time urgency and future time perspective.The academic and managerial contribution

of this research also had introduced

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews the theoretical and empirical literatures, providing thetheoretical background to the problem under research

Temporal Individual Differences

In the scope of this paper, the author examines two temporal individualdifferences: time urgency and time perspective These temporal individualdifferences are conceptually distinct, capture unique time-based characteristicsrelevant to team tasks, and have been theoretically implicated as important for teamfunctioning Although sparse, team-level studies are beginning to investigate timeurgency (Mohammed & Angle, 2004) and time perspective (West & Meyer, 1997)

2.1 Time Urgency

2.1.1Time Urgency and Type A Behavior Pattern

The empirical and theoretical studies have shown the important of howpeople make decisions under time pressure Time urgency is an important factor toconsider when study people conducting their activities under deadline condition.Time urgency emerged from the study of the relationship between coronary-proneindividual (Type A) and heart disease (Friedman and Roseman, 1974) Timeurgency, a subcomponent of Type A behavior, is a frequent concern with thepassage of time, and a relatively stable characteristic of Type A behavior individual

(Waller et al., 2002) Type A behavior individuals consider hard-driving,competitive, hostile, and time urgent comparison to no coronary-prone individual(Type B) Type A individuals are expected work significantly faster than Type B’s(Yarnold and Grimm, 1982) This sense of time urgency is one of the centralelements of Type A behavior.

Time urgency is characterized by an accelerated pace of activities that resultsfrom striving to fulfill more and more in less time (Friedman and Roseman, 1974).This hard-driving nature is supported by the finding of Burman et al (1975), whosuggests that Type A’s approach all tasks with almost maximum capacity,regardless of specific goal demands of the task (such as deadlines) Theseresearchers’ experiments use two different conditions, one with a set deadline andone without a specific deadline The experiment shows that the deadline conditiondid not influence the pace of Type A individuals, probably because they createdtheir own deadlines in the no-deadline condition Type A individuals arecontinuously involved in a struggle with time, as they are occupied with a sense ofhaste Type A’s check their watches repeatedly and by creating their own deadlines,they try to maintain control over the situation

2.1.2 Characteristic of Time Urgency

People with time urgent characteristic have a chronic feeling of beingpressured and appear to be preoccupied with setting deadlines They are aware oftime and are likely to do more activities than they are able to do in a certain amount

of time They often tend to feel time passing slowly, since they turn to moreimpatient when they want to slow down the speed of their activities (Glass et al,1974) The feeling of urgency affects both the perception and the usage of time forthem when individuals are overwhelmed with activities and duties; a way to controlorder is to follow a schedule they have driven Time-urgent individuals state that bymaking schedule, they can perform well under time pressure (Rastegary & Landy,1993) Gastorf (1980) reports time-urgent people usual schedule for activities

earlier than less time-urgent people Time urgent people also tend to multipletaskssimultaneously to save time.

Time-urgency is connected with behavior under time pressure conditions.Time urgency individuals are tent to aware of time, setting task prioritization andscheduling their own task within the allotted time (Conte, Landy & Mathieu, 1985).Time-urgency individual usually attend carefully the passing of time by checkingtheir watch repeatedly (Price 1982)

In order to fulfill all the activities that they have scheduled, time urgentindividuals must be quite efficient in using their time When time urgent individualsplan many tasks they usually use deadlines as heuristics to prioritize tasks, and tomeasure time remaining to fulfill a task

2.1.3 Time Urgency and Team Performance

Although many researchers have been conducted on time urgency and type Abehavior, The research on time urgency and team performance is spare andinconsistent (Mohammed &Nadkarni, 2011) Previous research mainly focused onthe affects of time urgency on individual performance level Some research statethat time urgency may have a negative effect on performance For example, Friend(1982) findsout that time urgency and subjective workload both have a negativelinear relation with performance results on a problem-solving exam Both variableswere proven to be related with a higher level of stress, which is negative forindividual performance Glass et al (1997) also find a negative relationship betweentime urgency and performance in a take which need performer be patient Incontrast, Bingham and Hailey (1989) find out that high time-urgent individualperform better under deadline condition than low time-urgent individuals, and lestime-urgent individual performance better high time-urgent individual underwithout deadline condition Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) also suggest that lesstime urgent individual would perform better high time urgent one in case ofcomplicate tasks that need high attention and accuracy

Since it is generally accepted that a team’s effectiveness is partly determined

by the individual characteristics of its team members, a number of studies focused

on the effect of individual time urgency in relation to team performance Someindividual characteristics are more facilitative to team effort than others and certaincombinations of characteristics also enhance team performance Waller et al (1998)show that the presence of one time-urgent member increase team’s focus on primarytask activity The author demonstrates that the actions of a time-urgent membermight affect team behavior under deadline condition Meeting deadlines is viewed

as one of measure of team’s performance The authors combined the constructs timeurgency and time perspective and established four prototypical individual-levelbehavior patterns under deadline conditions The results indicate that a temporalmismatch between team members, where individual time urgency and timeperspective greatly differ, would have a negative impact on the team’s performance.This implies that teams are more effective when the team members have the samelevels of time urgency and time perspective Time-urgent people who think theylack the time to make a considerate decision will rely on the things that worked inprevious situation By hurrying, these individuals will more easily overlook certainparts of the circumstance that need more attention The inability to make considereddecisions will reduce individual and organizational performance Thus, timeurgency can have positive effects, such as increasing efficiency, as well as negativeeffects on team performance

2.2 Time Perspective

2.2.1 Time Perspective

Individual’s time perspectives may result from various antecedents, includingculture, religion, family, education, and work backgrounds (Mohammed andNadkarni, 2011) Due to the constraints of time, a full investigation of theseantecedents is beyond the scope of this paper Regardless of how they maydeveloped, time perspectives affect how individuals perceive time and behaveregarding time Individuals’ time perspectives act as temporal cognitive frames used

to “form expectations, goals, contingencies, and imaginative scenarios” (Zimbardo

& Boyd, 1999), which are all important in planning and execution activities

Researchers have different perspectives of time Some researchers argue that

individual’s time perspective focus more on either past, present, or future time(Kluckhohn &Strodtbeck., 1961) Some others consider time perspective as a singleelement varying from a future orientation to a past-and-present orientation(Hofstede& Bond, 1988) However, researches on organizations had focus on theeffect of present and future time perspective on individual decision making and jobperformance (Mohammed and Nadkarni, 2011); therefore, this paper just analysts

on present and future time perspective

Present-oriented individuals tend to believe that behaviors taken today have

no more effect on the probability of attaining a future goal than do future behaviorsthat could be taken as the goal nears Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) reveal thatindividuals with present time perspective focus on present pleasure and tend to (1)believe that planning for the future is somehow useless, (2) take more risk and acthastily, and lose sense of time seriously more than people with other timeperspectives Other researchers also support this argument Das (1987) reveals thatpresent-oriented individuals tended to make plans with shorter planning horizons,whereas Bird’s (1992) and West and Meyer’s (1998) researchsfind that teams withstrong present-oriented individuals tend to focus less on future-oriented strategicthinking than other teams

Future time perspective is overall attitude toward time that focuses on thefuture (Nuttin, 1985) Individuals with future time perspective believe that abehavior performed today increases the probability of desired goals in future (Jones,1988) Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) reveal that individuals with high future timeperspectives were highly goal-oriented individuals and were more likely otherindividuals to consider future consequences, make to-do lists, wear a watch, andhave more clearly defined future goals In addition, planner with future time

perspectives considered longer time horizons that did other planners West andMayer (1998) prove that teams with more future-oriented individuals made morechanges in strategic thinking than did teams with more present-oriented members.

Future-oriented individuals tent to focus in long-term strategy, while oriented individual are likely involve more in day by day activities (Thom, 2004).Neither team with only future-oriented individuals or those with current viewersmeets performance requirements Therefore, some researchers suggest that diversifywith time perspective in teams helps to ensure performance (Mohammed &Harrison, 2007)

present-2.2.2 Time Perspective and team performance

While future-oriented people are likely to make a vision, involve in term planning, and willing to make change, present-oriented people tent to paycareful intention in day-to-day activities (Thoms, 2004) Because present and futureoriented perspective have both advantages and disadvantages, neither teamscomposed of only long-term nor are those of only short-term oriented people likely

long-to consistently meet both performance requirements (Mohammed & Nadkarni,2011)

The strengths of present-oriented people are they are good at keeping ontrack activities, rarely forgetting to do daily work, tend to do well at schedulingevents, and know where everyone is and should be on a daily basis Present-orientedindividuals tend to be good at understanding and evaluating the reactions of otherpeople because of their frequent interaction with them They show to be effective atthe conductions of plans because of their scheduling skills Part of that present-oriented people can spend so much of their time on present-oriented activities isbecause they are spending little time planning for future (Thom, 2004) Thedisadvantages of present-oriented people are their short-term point of view,overseeing in every aspect of current activities in detail, spending little time to think

about the future They make improvement with short-term rather than long-term(Thom, 2004).

Future-oriented individuals also have some advantage They have goodvision, detailed cognitive images of what the future can be, and behave accordinglywith their vision They tend to pay attention to what is going on in the externalenvironment and constantly assess their own position in contrast to that of others.They are good at making people have future point of view with them People withfuture-oriented perspective also have some drawbacks They are good at createvision but not good at working with what is going to happen.They may notacknowledge the past accomplishment and contribution of others (Thom, 2004)

Because neither present-oriented nor future-oriented individuals have bothgood vision to draw out future and good scheduling to bring out day-to-dayactivities, groups with single time perspective hardly accomplish high performance

A diversity of time perspective in teams helps to ensure that both short-term andlong-term objectives are adequately addressed (Mohammed & Harrison, 2007)

However, greater heterogeneity can also generate temporal ambiguities andconflicts among team members in planning and executing team activities (Waller etal., 2001) For example, present-oriented members tend to prefer shorter planninghorizons; whereas future-oriented members favor longer planning horizons (Das,1987) These differences may not only create ambiguity about team schedules, butalso lead to temporal conflict In addition, members’ time perspective biases maycause them to ignore or discount valuable information from members withdissimilar time perspectives For instance, present-oriented individuals may beperceived as carelessly acting without adequately considering long-termconsequences, and future-oriented individuals may be regarded as having an “daydream” mentality out of touch with day-to-day activities

Team temporal leadership is likely to serve as a situational mechanism toreduce the negative and support the positive aspects of diversity in time perspective

(Ancona et al., 2001).When leaders engage in activities such as building in time forcontingencies, enforcing schedules and deadlines through reminders, and balancingthe attention given to short-and long-term activities through behavior sequencing,there is a greater ability that the strengths of present- and future-oriented memberswill be effectively utilized “Synchrony in group member expectation aboutdeadlines may be critical to groups’ ability to accomplish successful transition intheir work” (Gersick, 1989:305); therefore, stronger team temporal leadership mayallow time perspective diversity to be properly leveraged

2.3 Team Temporal Leadership.

Mohammed & Nadkarni (2011) define team temporal leadership asintegrating the time, interaction, performance theories with the nascent literature ontemporal leadership The theory related studies have identified three closely relatedactivities that could handle the problems arising from diversity of temporalindividual differences: scheduling of activities, synchronization of activities, andallocation of temporal resources (McGrath & Kelly, 1986) Setting clear and well-understood schedules reduces temporal conflict by specifying which events happenwhen and by creating a coherent and unifiedplan of provisional deadlines andmilestones that allow team members to follow their progress (Zerubavel, 1981).Synchronization of team activities reduces conflict of temporal interests bycontrolling the flow of the task, improving coordination among team members, andadjusting individual work cycles (Schriber, 1986; Schriber & Gutek, 1987) Finally,lack of temporal resources (time pressure) can be reduced by creating built-in timesfor unexpectedcontingencies, prioritizing task goals, and efficiently allocatingtemporal resources among team members (Schiber & Gutek, 1987) When teammembers experience less time pressure they are likely to be more productive andmore committed to task accomplishment (Gevers, van Eerde, & Rutte, 2001)

Although the time, interaction, performance theory does not specify who willperform these three activities, other temporal researchers have stated that teamleaders are often responsible for implementing time-related activities such asscheduling and reminding team members of deadlines (Gevers, Rutte, & van Eerde,2004; Gevers et al., 2009) Because a team leader’s primary function is “to do, orget done, whatever is not being adequately handled for group needs” (McGrath,1962:5), the task of managing temporal problem in a team often falls to theleader;indeed, leadership researchers are beginning to explicitly link temporalrelated activities to the leadership role For example, Ancona, Goodman, Lawrence,and Tushman (2001) use the term “temporal leadership” to address leadershipchallenges such as deciding how fast to act and managing multiple time frames.Recently, Halbesleben, Novicevic, Harvey, and Kuckley (2003)point out thattemporal activities recognizing time-related differences, and synchronizing theabilities of members should be integral to the leadership role Similarly, van derErve advocated that “the notion of leadership should become more inclusive when itcomes to the temporal or time-related needs of the organization” (2004: 605).Despite these calls, Bluedorn and Jaussi lamented that “the formal use of temporalvariables in leadership research has been scares and scattered; work form temporaltheory has not made its mark on the leadership process” (2008:657) Addressing thisneed, Mohammed & Nadkarni (2004), expand the nascent opinion of temporalleadership to the team context by conceptually and operationally examining theintersection of time, leadership, and teams.

Team temporal leadership is leader behaviors that aid in structuring,coordinating, and managing the pacing task accomplishment in a team Thedimensions of temporal leadership behaviors are scheduling, synchronizing task andallocating temporal resources (Mohammed, 2011) Temporal individual differencescan create both advantages and disadvantages On the positive side, diversify oftemporal in team members can be beneficially in complex, dynamic, and uncertaintask environment (Eisenhardt, 2004; Mohammed & Harrison, 2007) On the

negative side, diversify of temporal in team member can create ambiguity andconflict among team members (Bartel & Milliken, 2004) Consequently, strongteam temporal leadership can generate the benefit of temporal diversify in teammember (Mohammed 2011)

2.4 Team Temporal Leadership and Team Performance

In addition to moderating the relationship between diversity of temporalindividual differences and team performance, team temporal leadership may alsocontribute directly to team performance Because virtually all teams have implicit orexplicit deadlines, the timely completion of work is regarded as a critical indicator

of team success in both science (e.g., Hackman, 1990) and practice (e.g., Fine,1998) Indeed, effective adjustment to external temporal parameters is central tomaximizing team performance in today’s business word, where team are closelytied to environmental pacers such as technology, customer, supplier, and economiccycles (Ancona et al., 2001)

Bridging the team-organization boundary, team temporal leadershipbehaviors may allow team leaders to create internal temporal structures that entrainthe internal tempo, rhythm, and work cycles of a team’s activities to those of itsexternal project environment (Ancona et al., 2001; Halbeslaben et al., 2003;Kelly&McGrath, 1986) For instance, setting interim milestones allow teamsinvolved in complex, dynamic, and creative tasks to shift their attention from thedevelopmental aspects of the project in the later phases so that deadlines are met(Gersick, 1989) Moreover, team temporal leadership behavior such as scheduling,synchronization, and temporal resource allocation can help team leaders betterunderstand and communicate the complexities of department time frames (Ancona

et al., 2001) Crossan, Cunha, Vera and Cunha (2005) suggest that understandingtemporal issues in an environment enables leaders to set the context for teamactivities and to develop a more integrated and flexible approach to time, which islikely to support adaptability and performance Therefore, leaders who establish

clear time frames and convey them to members through schedules, reminders, and

interim milestones and time frames tied to project goals are better positioned to

maximize team productivity (Halbesleben et al., 2003)

2.5Hypotheses Development.

Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) have proved that Team temporal leadership

positively impact team performance The author tests again this hypothesis in

Figure 2.1 Original model (Source: Mohammed and Nadkarni, 2011)

Next, the author put time urgency and future time perspective as moderators

on the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

Hypothesis H2a, H2b: Individual time urgency and future time perspective

moderate the relationship between team temporal leadership and team

performance.

TimeurgencyH2a +

H2b +

Future timeperspectiveFigure 2.2 Suggested model

Suggested model: Time urgency and future time perspective moderate the

relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

CHAPTER 3:RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this chapter is to address the methods used in this study Theitems which had been addressed include research design, questionnairedevelopment, and translation of the questionnaires, target population, sample frame,sample size, sample selection, sample characteristic, data collection and methods ofdata analysis

3.1 Research Design

This research included 2 main phases: Group discussion and main study

Group discussion referred to deep interview with small group of targetparticipants (n = 7) to check the content and meaning of words which were used inthe measurement scales The result of the group discussion showed that the item

“The department’s timeliness in meeting task milestones and biweekly deadline was” is not relevant in Vietnam working environment All participants in the

interview agreed that in Vietnam, the time line of task is usually by monthly,quarterly, or yearly not biweekly.Therefore, it was excluded

Next, the main study was conducted using online survey (web-based,docs.goolge.com) and face to face interview

3.2 Questionnaire Development

The survey included four sections They are individual temporalcharacteristic, team temporal leadership, team performance and socio-demographicprofile questions A short andclear instruction was given at the beginning of eachsection to tell respondent what the purposes of the questionnaires are and how toanswerthem (Babbie, 1998) All items were assessed on Likert-type scales

The purpose of this phase is to adjust the scales in the literature review,modify the questionnaires to be suitable with Vietnam condition Base on the initialquestionnaires, which derived from the primary purpose and theoretical background,the author builds the first draft questionnaires However, the first draftquestionnaires were hardly applicable in Vietnam condition Therefore, thequantitative would be handled through deep interview technique with theparticipation of twenty employees to get the final questionnaires

Figure 3.1 Research Process

CFA: Confirmatory Factor Analysis

3.3 Scale

3.3.1 Time Urgency Scale

Time urgency assessed using a six-item scale derived from the general andtask-related hurry subscales of a measure developed and validated by Landy andcolleagues (1991) The hurry subscales capture the degree to which individuals feelchronically hurried and rush in carrying out their work Respondent’s rates six itemsfrom 1, “strongly disagree,” to 7, “strongly agree” The six items of time urgencyscaled was coded as TU1, TU2, TU3, TU4, TU5, TU6, and it meaning was as thetable below

Table 3.1 Time Urgency Scale.

1 I find myself hurrying to get places even when there is plenty of time TU1

3 People that know me well agree that I tend to do most things in a hurry TU3

4 I tend to be quick and energetic at work TU4

6 My spouse or a close friend would rate me as definitely relaxed and TU6 easy

going

Source: Landy et al., (1991)

3.3.2 Future Time Perspective

Future time perspective was assessed with the Consideration of Future

Consequences Scale developed and validated by Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, and

Edwards (1994) This 12-item scale, which measures the extent to which individuals

consider distant outcomes versus immediate benefits in choosing behaviors, was

rated from 1, “strongly disagree” to 7 “ strongly agree.” All of twelve items of

future time perspective was coded as FC1 to FC12

Table 3.2 Future consequence scale

1 I consider how things might be in the future, and try to influence those FC1things with my day to day behavior

2 Often I engage in a particular behavior in order to achieve outcomes FC2 that

may not result for many years

3 I only act to satisfy immediate concerns, figuring the future will take FC3 care

of itself

Table 3.2 Future consequence scale (continue)

4 My behavior is only influenced by the immediate (i.e., a matter of days FC4

or weeks) outcomes of my actions

5 My convenience is a big factor in the decisions I make or the actions I FC5take

6 I am willing to sacrifice my immediate happiness or well-being in FC6 order to archive future outcomes

7 I think it is important to take warnings about negative outcomes FC7 seriously

even if the negative outcomes will not occur for many years

8 I think it is more important to perform a behavior with important FC8 distant

consequences than a behavior with less-important immediate

12 Since my day to day work has specific outcomes, it is more important FC12 to

me than behavior that has distant outcomes

Source: Strathman et al., (1994)

3.3.3 Temporal Leadership Scale

One of the criticisms impose against leadership research is the overuse ofredeveloped instruments that capture only a small subset of essential leaderbehaviors (Hunter at al., 2007) Because the notion of team temporal leadership hasbeen virtually ignored in empirical research, it was necessary to develop a measurefor the present study Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) developed a seven-itemscale by partially adapting scales for temporal planning (Janicik & Bartel, 2003) andtemporal reminders (Gevers et al., 2006) and modifying these scales to be leader-specific They also composed additional items to fully capture McGrath’s (1991)description of scheduling, synchronization, and allocation of temporal resources andAncona and colleagues’ (2001) conceptualization of temporal leadership Itemresponses were coded from 1, “not at all,” to 7, “at a very great extant” These itemswere coded as TL1 to TL7

Table 3.3 Team Temporal Leadership

1 To what extent does your leader reminds department’s members of TL1

important deadlines?

2 To what extent does your leader prioritize tasks and allocate time to TL2 each task?

3 To what extent does your leader prepare and build in time for TL3

contingencies, problems, and emerging issues?

4 To what extent does your leader urge members to finish subtask on TL4 time?

5 To what extent does your leader set milestones to measure progress of TL5

Source: Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011)

3.3.4 Team Performance Scale

Team performance is multidimensional (Hackman, 1990), and althoughquantity and quality are measured far more frequently in team research (e.g., Austin,2003; Chen & Klimoski, 2003), it was especially important to include the timeliness

of work completion because of the temporal emphasis in the current study.Mohammed and Nadkarni assess team performance via four items capturing teams’timeliness in meeting task milestones, clients’ satisfaction with team performance,and overall performance

The group discussion discovered that the item “ The department’s timeliness inmeeting task milestones and biweekly deadlines was” was not relevance because inVietnam working environment tasks were usually evaluated by the end of themonth, quarter or year Therefore, this item was excluded The remained items werecoded as TP1 to TP3

Table 3.4 Team Performance

1 Please rate the timeline by which this department’s task was completed TP1

2 The department’s timeliness in meeting task milestones and biweekly *

deadlines was.

3 The client’s satisfaction with the department’s performance on this task TP2

was:

4 Your valuation of the department’s overall performance on this task TP3 was:

The term back-translation referred to the translation of a translation back intothe original language (Presser et al., 2004) The purpose of back translation was tocompare, contrast the back translation with the source text with a view to assessingthe quality of the translation For survey translation, back translation is seen asoffering a solution to the fact that researchers often need information about the quality

of translations without being able to read and evaluate these themselves

The basic steps were as follows:

ƒ Firstly, a source text in one language (Source Language Text One, SLT1) was translated into another language (Target Language Text, TLT) using parallel

translation technique

ƒ Secondly, The TLT was translated back into the origin language by a second interpreter, who unfamiliar with the SLT1 and uninformed that there was an SLT1 This second translation was SLT2

ƒ Thirdly, SLT1 was compared to SLT2

ƒ At the end, on the basis of differences or similarities between SLT1 and SLT2, conclusions were drawn about the equivalence of TLT to SLT1

ƒ In this paper, SLT1 and SLT2 were found close in meaning across translated items Therefore, the author decided to use the first translation to conduct group

discussion

3.4 Group Discussion.

The questionnaires was pre-tested using 7 respondents who were working atMega We Care (n=1) BIDV (n=1) DaklakHospital (n=2), Vietjet Air (n=1), VietGuy (n=1), Vietcomreal (n=1) The individuals were not included in the finalsample The qualitative comments received were mostly regarding wording andrepetitions of the items

Because all comments on repetitions were on reverse score items, no revision

on the questionnaire was made All modifications were for wording to make thetranslation clearer and closer to Vietnamese They were “chậm rãi” replaced by “từtốn” (item 1), “tương lai thì để tương lai lo” replaced by “ ngày mai thì để losau”( item 9), “kết quả ngay lập tức” replaced by “kết quả trước mắt” (item 10)

3.5 Target Population

The target population for this research was employee in Vietnam, who had beenworking with direct leader in a period of time less than 36 months, and has a directcontact with clients The reason, why working time of responders with their directleader must be smaller than 36 months, is that one factor to be considered in thispaper is “team temporal leadership” In this case, the leader and followers had just

working together in a short period of time (less than 36 months) The respondentsmust have direct contact with clients so that one can evaluate their teamperformances by client’s satisfaction score.

3.6 Sample Size.

A sample size for a linear regression analysis is various between researchers Afull investigation of this issue is beyond the scope of this paper Green (1991)suggest the number of subject, N, should always equal or greater than a constant A(N ≥ A) Another form stipulates a recommended minimum ratio B of subjects-to-predictors (i.e., N ≥ Bm, where m is the number of predictors) Nguyen DinhTho(2011) suggests that to test exploratory factor analysis, sample size at least 8m +

50 However he also suggest that when the number of item is over 7, that formula become too strictly and we do need to have such a big sample

In this paper, the author followed the suggest of Tabacnick and Fidell’s(1989) that number of subjects for each independent variable in regression analysisshould be five samples per item Because there were total 28 variables (items) in thequestionnaires, the ideal sample size of this study was 140; the author target to have

at least 190 responses

3.7 Selecting The Sample and Collecting Data

In qualitative research, probability sampling is a better than non-probabilitysampling because it is more representing the population Probability samplingmethod is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection(William, 2006) However, due to the limitation of time and aids, the probabilitysampling, base on age, gender, education, sectors could not be conduct In thispaper, the author usesthe convenience sampling technique

Convenience sampling is non-probability sampling technique where subjectsare selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher(Joan, 2009) The most disadvantage of this technique is sampling bias and that thesample is not representative of the entire population

Systematic bias stems from sampling bias This refers to a constant differencebetween the result from the sample and the theoretical results from the entirepopulation It is not rare that the results from a study that uses a convenience samplediffer significantly with the results from the entire population A consequence ofhaving systematic bias is obtaining skewed results(Joan, 2009)

Another significant criticism about using a convenience sample is thelimitation in generalization and inference making about the entire population Sincethe sample is not representative of the population, the results of the study cannotspeak for the entire population This results to a low external validity of the study(Joan, 2009)

Main study’s field work was conducted from July 05 to July 20 2012 by theauthor and assistants The survey was sent by both online interview (through email,facebook.com) and offline interview (face to face interview, mail) The onlineresponses were 65 and off line were 213 60 answers were excluded because ofmissing items, not logical answer in reverse scores, and not fulfilling therequirement predefine criteria ( ) The respond rate by email was 54/200 (27%) andoff line interview was 213/420 (50.7%) The remain 11 answer are through socialnetwork facebook.com

3.8 Methods of Data Analysis

3.8.1 Data Screening

Firstly, the author filtered qualified respondents, who met the predefinedcriteria as mention in sample characteristic section Next, for offline respondents,

the author will check the missing answers (all online respondents were fulfilledbecause the author put “require” in each item) Lastly, the author checks the logical

of respondents of reversed items

3.8.2 Reliability

The author used Cronbach’s Alpha to test the reliability of the measurement.The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient is traditionally reported in statistics asthe measure of internal consistency of responses across the set of items(Schumacker & Lomax, 2004) It calculated the average of all possible split-halfreliability coefficients A computed alpha coefficient varies from 0, denoting nointernal reliability to 1, denoting perfect internal reliability However, if a Cronbackalpha is too big ( α > 0.95) it may not really good because of redundancy problem Itmeans that the items in the scale have similar meaning Therefore, A scale withCronbach’s alpha from 0.7 to 0.8 is accepted, from 0.8 to 0.9 is good (Nguyen DinhTho, 2011) If the research problem is new with the respondents, a Cronbach’s alphaabove 0.6 is accepted (Chu Nguyen Mong Ngoc & Hoang Trong, 2010)

Simultaneously with Cronback Alpha, the author considersCorrected Total Correlation to test the reliable of the items An item can be include in themeasurement if it’s corrected item-total correlation larger than 0.3 (Chu NguyenMong Ngoc & Hoang Trong, 2010)

Item-3.8.3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Prior to conducting hypotheses test, the author conducted confirmatory factoranalysis (CFA) to test the model fit or whether the data fit the hypothesises CFA istheory-or hypothesis driven With CFA it is possible to place substantivelymeaningful constraints on the factor model Researchers can specify the number offactors or set the effect of one latent variable on observed variables to particularvalues CFA allows researchers to test hypotheses about a particular factor structure(e.g., factor loading between the first factor and first observed variable is zero)

Unlike EFA (Exploratory Factor Analysis), CFA produces many goodness-of-fitmeasures to evaluate the model but do not calculate factor scores.

A large class of omnibus tests exists for assessing how well the modelmatches the observed data Chi-Square (χ2) is a classic goodness-of-fit measure todetermine overall model fit The null hypothesis is that the implied or predictedcovariance matrix Σ is equivalent to the observed sample covariance matrix S, Σ =

S A large χ2 and rejection of the null hypothesis means that model estimates do notsufficiently reproduce sample covariance; the model does not fit the data well Incontrast, a small χ2 and failure to reject the null hypothesis is a sign of a goodmodel fit However, the χ2 test may also be invalid when distributional assumptionare violated, leading to the rejection of good models or the retention of bad ones χ2

is based on a very stringent hypothesis of Σ = S (Brown, 2006:81)

Due to these drawbacks of χ2 test many alternative fit statistics have beendeveloped, though each has its own advantages and disadvantages They are the

χ2/df , the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Root Mean Square Error ofApproximation (RMSEA), the significance of parameter estimates, and the amount

of squared multiple correlation, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and Goodness of FixIndex (GFI) (Albright & Park, 2009)

CFI: this index compares the proposed model with a null model assumingthat there are no relationships between the measures While CFI ranges from o for apoor fit to 1 for a good fit; a CFI value greater than 0.90 indicates an acceptable fit

to the data (Albright & Park, 2009)

TLI: TLI is another index for comparative fit that “includes a penaltyfunction for adding freely estimated parameters” (Brown, 2006) TLI can beinterpreted in a similar fashion as CFI, but it can have a value outside of the range

of 0 to 1

RMSEA: this index used to assess residuals and adjusts parsimony in themodel Its value must be equal to or less than 0.08 for and adequate model fit(Albright & Park, 2009).

GFI: GFI introduced by Jöreskog and Sörbom (1984) Like TLI and CFI,GFI is less than or equal to 1 A value of 1 indicates a perfect fit

There is no single evaluation rule on which everyone agrees However,researchers agree that when RMSEA values are below 0.8 and CFI, TLI range from0.9 to 1, CMIN/DF smaller 5 with p value >0.05 indicate a good model fit (Albright

& Park, 2009)

Table 3.5 Assessing Fit Indices

Goodness- of fit Indices Code Desired rang of values

for a good fitAbsolute Fit Indices

Chi-Square/Degrees of Freedom ratio χ2 /df < 5

Root Mean Square Error of Approximation RMSEA ≤ 80

Incremental Fit Indices

Source: Albright & Park, 2009; Brown (2006); Jöreskog and Sörbom (1984)

In addition to goodness- of fit Indices, the author examines 1) reliability ofmeasurement bases on composite reliability, variance extracted, and Cronbach’sAlpha 2) unidimensionality, 3) convergent validity, 4) discriminant validity, and 5)nomological validity (Nguyen Dinh Tho & Nguyen Thi Mai Trang, 2011)

3.8.4 Analysis of Variance

Independent sample T-test was used to examine the equality between gender(male and female) in team performance One-way ANOVA was use to test theequality among age and education group because these variable have more than two

group To test the equality of more than group, we use One-way ANOVANguyenDinh Tho (2011)

After conduct T-test and One-way ANOVA, if there is any different ofequality in team performance between group the author would continue conductTwo-way ANOVA to further test

3.8.5 Correlation Analysis.

The Pearson correlation coefficient is also known as the sample correlation

coefficient (r), product-moment correlation coefficient, or coefficient of correlation.

It was introduced by Galton in 1877 and developed later by Pearson (Neter et al.,

1990) It measures the linear relationship between two random variables An

inter-correlation above 0.80 or 0.85 implies poor discriminate validity (Brown, 2006)

Direction

There are two types or directions of correlation In other words, there are twopatterns that correlations can follow These are called positive correlation andnegative correlation

Positive correlation

In a positive correlation, as the values of one of the variables increase, thevalues of the second variable also increase Likewise, as the value of one of thevariables decreases, the value of the other variable also decreases The exampleabove of income and education is a positive correlation People with higher incomesalso tend to have more years of education People with fewer years of educationtend to have lower income

Negative correlation

In a negative correlation, as the values of one of the variables increase thevalues of the second variable decrease Likewise, as the value of one of thevariables decreases the value of the other variable increases.

A correlation tells us that the two variables are related, but we cannot sayanything about whether one caused the other This method does not allow us tocome to any conclusions about cause and effect but Regression does

3.8.6 Regression Analysis

Regression analysis is a statistical tool for the investigation of relationshipsbetween variables (Nguyen Dinh Tho, 2011) To ascertain the causal effect teamtemporal leadership on team performance, I assembled data on the underlyingvariable (team temporal leadership) on team performance I assessed theirrelationship base on the “statically significance” of the estimated relationships, that

is, the degree of confidence that the true relationship is close to the estimatedrelationship

The hierarchical regression was used when lack of literature review tosupport the research concept (Nguyen Dinh Tho, 2011) Since the literature review

to support the moderating role of time urgency and time perspective on therelationship between team temporal leadership and team performance is still spare(the author search on Google and Google scholar but did not find relevance research

on this issues), the author use hierarchical regression procedure in this paper

A moderator is a variable that affects the direction/ strength of therelationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable (Baron &Kenny, 1986) A common method to test two-way interaction statistically is toconduct regression the dependent variable (Y) on the dependent variable (X) and

the moderating variable (M), in the next step, add the interaction XM in to theequation In this study, the moderating relationship was tested using hierarchicalregression procedures.

Aiken and West (1991) point out that before conducting regression, eachpredictor should be centered by its mean to maximize interpretability and tominimize problem of multicollinearity Then enter the X variable in the firstregression model In the second model, enter the interaction (Xcenter * Mcenter)into the equation If the adjusted R2 inthe second model is significantly higher thanthe one in the first model, and the coefficient for the interaction is significant, there

is evidence that the moderator variable moderates the relationship between theindependent and dependent variable

Summary

Chapter 3 had introduced how this paper was designed, how themeasurements were developed to be applicable in Vietnam situation, and who arethe target respondents The author also introduced some methods of data analysisprior to test the hypotheses, they are they reliable test to test the reliability of themeasurements, Confirmatory Factor Analysis to confirm if the model fit the data,and Correlation analysis to test the discriminate validity between measurements Althe tests indicated the measurements, the model and data can be used to conductregression analysis Last but not least, the author presents method of Regressionanalysis to test the hypotheses