An investigation into language learning strategies used by ethnic non english major students at a university in the north of vietnam

iii Abstract The present research focused on identifying the types and frequency of language learning strategies used by a group of 527 ethnic students studying English at Thai Nguyen U

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ

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Statement of Authorship

The thesis entitled “An Investigation into Language Learning Strategies Used by Ethnic Non-English Major Students at a University in the North of Vietnam” has been submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

I, the undersigned, hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis I have fully acknowledged and referenced the ideas and work of others, whether published or unpublished, in my thesis

My thesis does not contain work extracted from a thesis, dissertation or research paper previously presented for another degree or diploma at this or any other universities

Signed

Le Quang Dung

January, 2018

My sincere thanks also go to the former Dean Assoc Prof Dr Le Hung Tien and the current Dean - Dr Huynh Anh Tuan as well as the staff members at the Faculty of Postgraduate Studies, The University of Languages and International Studies (ULIS), Vietnam National University (VNU), who are always so kind and supportive during my study time

In addition, I would like to express my thankfulness to all the participating teachers at the 4 universities within Thai Nguyen University who helped me in

my preliminary research, especially the teachers who accompanied me during a long time of my data collection time The results I have achieved today partially belong to them I also thank all my informants for giving me the responses I needed to illustrate the views expressed in this study

Last but not least, I would like to thank my fellows at Thai Nguyen University for their dedication and support, my family members for their motivation for me to overcome all the difficulties and to become a better me now

Thanking you all

Le Quang Dung

January, 2018

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Abstract

The present research focused on identifying the types and frequency of language learning strategies used by a group of 527 ethnic students studying English at Thai Nguyen University, and then determined whether there is a relationship between language learning strategies and factors affecting the choices of LLS by ethnic TNU EFL learners In other words, the purpose is to examine whether the factors such as; (i) gender, (ii) English language proficiency, (iii) major fields of study, and (iv) learning styles have any influence on their use of language learning strategies The researcher employed a mixed-method design, involving both quantitative and qualitative approaches The quantitative part was two questionnaire surveys (LLSQ and PLPQ) and the qualitative component was a semi-structured interview The mixed-method study conducted demonstrated that students used all the learning strategies, but at different frequency rates This result allowed the researcher to reach the conclusion that there are no particular preferences in students‟ utilization of LLSs, since they drew on the entire set of strategy types which were medium use The overall analysis of the participants‟ LLSQ scores and through the semi-structured interview did not take into consideration student‟s factors which are language proficiency, major field of study, gender or learning styles impact

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Statement of Authorship i

Acknowledgements ii

Abstract iii

List of Abbreviations vii

List of Tables viii

List of Figures ix

INTRODUCTION 1

1 Background to the Study 1

2 Scope of the study 4

3 Aims of the study 5

4 Research questions 5

5 Definitions of terms 5

6 Significance of the study 7

7 Structure of the study 8

8 Summary 10

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 11

1.1 Introduction 11

1.2 Language Learning Strategies Definitions 13

1.3 Language Learning Strategy Classifications 16

1.4 Factors Influencing Language Learning Strategy Choice 19

1.4.1 Language Learning Strategies and Gender 21

1.4.2 Language Learning Strategies and English Language Proficiency 22

1.4.3 Language Learning Strategies and Major Field of Study 24

1.4.4 Language Learning Strategies and Learning Styles 26

1.5 Language Learning Strategy Research in Vietnam 30

1.6 Theoretical Framework of the Present Study 33

1.7 Conclusion 36

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CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 37

2.1 Context of the study 37

2.2 Qualitative Research 38

2.3 Quantitative Research 39

2.4 Research Design for the Present Study 40

2.5 Mixed-Methods Research 46

2.6 Data Collection Methods 50

2.7 Research Questions 52

2.8 Data Collection Instruments 53

2.8.1 Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire 53

2.8.2 Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire 56

2.8.3 Semi-structured Interview 60

2.8.4 Students‟ level of Proficiency 62

2.9 Data Collection Procedures 63

2.9.1 Participants 63

2.9.2 Characteristics of Participants in the Quantitative Phase 64

2.9.3 Characteristics of the participants in the Qualitative Phase 66

2.9.4 Data Collection 68

2.10 Data Analysis 75

2.11 Synthesizing Quantitative and Qualitative Data 77

2.12 Conclusion 78

CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 79

3.1 Operational and Measurement Levels of the Variables 79

3.2 Results and Discussions of the Quantitative Phase 81

3.2.1 Research question 1: What English language learning strategies do TNU ethnic students employ for their EFL learning? 81

3.2.2 Research Question 2: What English language learning strategies are frequently used by the TNU ethnic students? 86 3.2.3 Research Question 3: To what extent, do the students‟ choices of language learning strategies vary significantly with their gender, major fields of study, levels

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of proficiency and learning styles? If so, what are the main patterns of variation? 97

3.3 Results and Discussions of the Qualitative Phase 115

3.3.1 Data Analysis and Results of the Interviews 115

3.3.2 Level of Language Proficiency 125

3.3.3 Loosing Faces 127

3.3.4 Learning Environment and Learning Opportunities 128

3.3.5 Learning Styles from Secondary Teachers‟ Teaching Styles 130

3.3.6 Language Learning Strategies Training Necessity 132

3.3.7 Cultural Boundary 133

3.3.8 Conclusion 135

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 137

1 Summary of Research Findings 137

2 Limitations of the Study 141

3 Implications and Recommendations of the Study 142

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 147

REFERENCES 148

APPENDICES 166

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List of Abbreviations

LLS: Language Learning Strategy

LLSs: Language Learning Strategies

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

TNU: Thai Nguyen University

TNUS: Thai Nguyen University of Sciences

TUAF: Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry TNUT: Thai Nguyen University of Technology

TNUE: Thai Nguyen University of Education

SILL: Strategy Inventory for Language Learning

LLSQ: Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire

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List of Tables

Table 2.1: The Reliability of the Vietnamese/English Version of the LLSQ 55

Table 2.2 The Reliability of the Vietnamese/English Version of the PLPQ 59

Table 2.3 Details of the participants‟ background 64

Table 2.4: Characteristics of the interviewees 66

Table 3.1: Dependent Variables 79

Table 3.2: Independent Variables 80

Table 3.3: Descriptive Language Learning Strategies 81

Table 3.4: Frequency of Students‟ Overall Strategy Use 87

Table 3.5: Frequency of Use of Strategies in the Six Main Categories 87

Table 3.6 Compare Means of six Main Categories 90

Table 3.7: Reported Strategies Use by High Usage 92

Table 3.8: Gender Difference in Language Learning Strategy Use 100

Table 3.9: Strategy use in Categories by Major Fields of Study 101

Table 3.10: Strategy use in Categories by levels of proficiency 104

Table 3.11: Overall Students Learning Style Preferences 110

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List of Figures

Figure 1: LLS classification of the present study 19

Figure 2: Theoretical Framework based on the Empirical Research 34

Figure 3: Theoretical Framework of the Present Study 35

Figure 4: Research Design for the Present Study 43

Figure 5: The flow chart of the Research design 45

Figure 6: Group averages of the LLSQ scores 68

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INTRODUCTION

1 Background to the Study

Language learning strategies (LLSs) play a vital role in learning a second language (L2) They are specific actions or techniques that learners use to assist their progress in developing language skills Use of appropriate learning strategies help learners to assimilate new information into their own learning and enables them to develop their understanding in mastering the forms, functions and culture required for the reception in the second language (Oxford, 1990)

Research results over the past decades have indicated that a key reason why many second language learners fail, while some learners do better with less effort, lies in various learner attributes such as personality traits, educational perspectives, motivation, cultural backgrounds, or language aptitude It is also worth mentioning that types of strategies used by different learners vary due to stages of learning, teacher expectations, general learning styles, degree of awareness, teaching methods, text-books innovation, purposes for learning the language, and nationality or ethnicity (Bedell, 1993) To put it differently, a learner‟s individual factors can influence which learning strategy the learners will use for their foreign language learning Once well-managed, these variables can significantly contribute to a learner‟s success in language learning Many researchers (e.g., Reid, 1995; Wharton, 2000; Zhang, 2005; Rahimi and Riazi, 2005; Yang, 2010, Minh, 2012; Zeynali, 2012; and Salahshour and Sharifi, 2013) suggest that strategies of successful language learners can supply a basis for aiding language learners, and the conscious use of language learning strategies makes good language learners

From my own experience as a teacher of English for many years at Thai Nguyen University (TNU), I am aware of the fact that students in general and ethnic minority group students in particular are often confused to use their own strategies and abilities to transform their failing situations into successful learning

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experiences In addition, I found that students with different individual identities study English in different ways and have different levels of proficiency It seems that they are not what so called “lazy” and “not motivated” Their language achievement may be affected by many individual factors and the culture which they inherited

A large number of studies have focused on L2 learning with the main focus

on individual differences in language learners as the work by Rubin (1975) who has considered LLS as one individual difference variable which gained increased popularity among positivist researchers in understanding how languages are learnt Rubin (1975) identifies the strategies that the „good language learner‟ uses and draws on this information to help less-effective learners Learning strategies,

in her opinion, have been in the centre of attention and gained great importance in the teaching-learning environment Griffiths (2004) defines learning strategies as the specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferrable to new situations Griffiths has a great concern with the relationship between LLSs and gender, which show language use and have mixed results

Still within the field of LLS and gender, some studies show that there is difference of LLSs use based on the gender (Ehraman & Oxford, 1989; Green & Oxford, 1995; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Zeynali, 2012; Salahshoura, Sharifib & Salahshour, 2013; Zarei, 2013) In such related studies, it was found that female students reporting all or some of six groups of LLSs more frequently than male (Dreyer & Oxford, 1996; Ghasedy, 1998; Goh & Foong, 1997; Green & Oxford, 1995; Hong-Nam & Learvell, 2006; Lan & Oxford, 2003; Lee & Oxford, 2008; Oxford, 1989; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Politzer,1983; Zeynali, 2012) However, the other studies prove that gender does not affect the use of LLS (Griffiths, 2003; Lee & Oxford, 2008; Ziahossein & Salehi, 2008) Alongside the field of LLS, personality of individuals are affected through various variables such as culture (Markus & Kitayama, 1998), genetic and environmental factors (Eysenck, 1985),

of learning approaches and strategies Learning resources are much more accessible thanks to the internet and the teachers are more approachable too In this learning context, the modern language learner constantly experiments with new strategies in the new learning environment and these newly adopted strategies need to be reflected in LLS measurements Another gap in the field which needs

to be addressed is that the relationship between learner variables and LLS use has not been firmly established There are cases when studies with the same interests have created conflicting results, which may be confusing to researchers and practitioners alike Besides, LLS use has not been thoroughly explored in relation

to the ethnic minority group learners Further research should be directed to the investigation of how various learner and learning variables influence the adoption

as well as the effectiveness of LLSs

Studies conducted in Vietnamese teaching and learning contexts are surprisingly rare Important issues like LLSs have such an obvious significance that their rarity may seem odd In fact, Vietnamese context-specific research into different aspects of LLSs is still in its infancy stage with only a few published

This lack of research has rendered any attempts to weave strategy training into the curriculum premature and unsystematic, which albeit well-meant, may produce counter-productive results The reason for this is conceivable Without proper examination and assessment of the LLSs adopted by students, teachers can hardly accommodate their teaching to meet the learning strategies and needs of their students The possible mismatch between teaching and learning strategies thus can be detrimental to the learning process, causing learning failure, frustration and demotivation (Peacock & Ho, 2003) In this regard, in order to assist the language learning process, it is imperative that teachers identify and comprehend LLSs used by learners, promote awareness of them, and foster their appropriate uses

2 Scope of the study

The present study is carried out among the 2nd year students, who have enrolled at least 6 credits for general English at TNU The participants of the study include students of different ethnic minority groups, who are studying for

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their BA degree at TNU The focus of the investigation is on learning strategies, and the relationship between the choice of language learning strategies and the TNU ethnic students in terms of gender, English language proficiency, major fields of study and learning styles

3 Aims of the study

This study attempts to examine types and frequency of LLSs that TNU ethnic students reported employing and then determine whether there is a relationship between language learning strategies and (i) gender, (ii) English language proficiency, (iii) major fields of study, and (iv) learning styles

4 Research questions

This study addresses the following research questions:

1 What English language learning strategies do TNU ethnic students employ for their EFL learning?

2 What English language learning strategies are frequently used by TNU ethnic students?

3 To what extent do the students‟ choices of language learning strategies vary significantly with their gender, major fields of study, levels of proficiency and learning styles? If so, what are the main patterns of variation?

5 Definitions of terms

Language Learning Strategies in the present study refers to behaviours or

thought processes whether observable or unobservable, or both, that TNU students generate and use to enhance their specific skills or general knowledge in learning the English language

The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) refers to an

instrument which has been developed by Oxford (1990) It is designed to investigate learners‟ language learning strategies and to assess the frequency of use of language learning strategies The SILL has two versions including version 5.1 (80 items) and version 7.0 (50 items) Version 5.1 is designed to gather information about how native-speaking English students learn a foreign or second

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language and version 7.0 is designed for non-native speakers of English who are learning English as a second or foreign language

Strategy categories as defined by Oxford (1990) and used in the SILL

Memory strategies: memory strategies (items 1 to 9 on the SILL) help with the

storage and retrieval of new information Examples include using sounds and mental pictures in association with new information Another example is using flashcards

Cognitive strategies: cognitive strategies (items 10 to 23 on the SILL) are

techniques involving transformation, direct analysis or synthesis of the language Examples include reasoning, translating, analysing and practicing functions in natural situations

Compensation strategies: compensation strategies (items 24 to 29 on the

SILL) allow learners to fill in gaps of information by predicting from context, using gestures, native language use and using descriptions

Metacognitive strategies: metacognitive strategies (items 30 to 38 on the

SILL) include establishing goals and objectives, self-monitoring, evaluation of progress, planning how and when to learn

Affective strategies: affective strategies (items 39 to 44 on the SILL) are

actions that enable the learner to maintain stable attitudes, emotions and motivations helpful for consistent language learning Examples include self-encouragement and talking with others

Social strategies: social strategies (items 45 to 50 on the SILL) include

interacting with others in various social environments

Learning styles refers to cognitive characteristic, effective, and

psychological behaviours that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment

Ethnic refers to the ethnic minority groups the students belong to In this

study, the participants consist of minority groups of Thai, Tay, Nung, Dao and H‟mong

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English Language Proficiency Levels refer to their proficiency levels

graded into „high‟, „moderate‟ or „low‟ These levels are based on the students‟

end-of-semester test scores

Major field of study refers to the academic discipline to which

an undergraduate student formally commits (e.g Social Sciences and Natural Sciences)

6 Significance of the study

A review of the literature shows that there have been no studies conducted in the Vietnamese context or with Vietnamese participants especially with the ethnic participants from mountainous areas which is similar to the present research This study systematizes the theoretical concepts and empirical evidence which are believed to underpin learners‟ LLSs and utilises this foundation to inform the whole research process In fact, there is extremely limited literature on LLSs among Vietnamese learners Particularly, the relationship between learner variables and LLS use or the issue of LLSs in relation to the mentioned factors has not been explored in any depth Therefore, the first significance is that this research extends the literature on the issues surrounding LLSs of Vietnamese EFL learners

Secondly, students can benefit most in terms of their awareness of LLSs

as an important aspect in the English learning process Traditionally develo ped

on a try-and-error basis among Vietnamese students, LLSs are usually considered a self-regulated domain and very often taken for granted However,

it should be noted that in order to be effectively used in enhancing learning of all kinds, strategies as a kind of procedural knowledge need to be learnt initially (Griffiths, 2004) Being more aware of this need to learn LLSs, ethnic students at TNU will develop a more positive and serous attitude towards LLSs, which directs their actual learning process as independent learners Therefore, this study is highly informative regarding the current patterns of LLS use among their own students Knowledge of possible correlations

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between LLS use and learner variables, with gender or English ability being the major LLS indicators, also provides teachers with more information about how their students should or need to regulate their English learning process In this way, English teachers can facilitate the learning process by promoting appropriate use of LLSs through implicit or explicit strategy training

This study can also be of value to language educators, educational administrators and policy makers regarding appropriate approaches to enhancing the language learning experience for TNU ethnic students Aspects of material design, educational objectives, learning opportunity provision, support services and the like can be adjusted or modified to better accommodate the LLSs of TNU ethnic students Furthermore, findings of this empirical research study present a valuable reference and resource for other researchers and scholars in the field, both locally, nationally and internationally It presents one of the initial efforts to build the scientific foundation for more effective instructional designs in teaching English as a foreign language, with special regard to independent learning through the orchestration of appropriate LLSs

7 Structure of the study

This thesis is organized into three parts: Introduction, Content, and Conclusions and Recommendations

The Introduction part introduces the context of research, providing its

background and formulating the problem statements The research questions as well as the significance of the study for the overall EFL research fields are also included in this part This part also provides clarification of operational definitions, of the nature and scope of the study, and the aims and objectives of the study

In the Content part, a comprehensive literature review follows the

introduction part in Chapter 1 In addition, in the first chapter, the conceptual framework guiding the research is discussed, and a summary of the relevant theoretical and empirical literature is provided The literature review section aims

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at providing a comprehensive insight into previous research conducted in this field, delineating the context of this research, gaps in existing EFL research, and the place of the present study in the overall theoretical framework of foreign language acquisition

Chapter 2 clarifies the methodological considerations and procedures involved in the research process The research design, research method, and research instruments used in the study will be discussed in detail in the second chapter It will also include a rationale for choosing the SILL inventory, the semi-structured interviews, and the two questionnaires as the tools of the research design The data collection and analysis procedures will also be delineated, and the ethical considerations and limitations of the chosen research design will be discussed Also, the chapter will include information on the population and sampling used for the study

The third chapter presents the results of the study The results of the SILL and perceptual learning styles questionnaires will be presented and analysed quantitatively with the purpose of finding trends linking language proficiency, gender, major field of study and learning styles The qualitative insights of students that effect the choices of LLSs will also be discussed, these findings elicited from semi-structured interviews in which the respondents will be asked to share their attitudes, perceptions, and ideas about the EFL study they are undergoing

The third chapter also presents a discussion of the findings with proper relevance to the prior theoretical research The findings will be related to the previous studies on the same subject, with the comparison and contrast of findings with those of other researchers The implications of the research findings will also

be properly revealed in regard to the theoretical and empirical research in the field

of language learning strategy

The Conclusions and Recommendations part is dedicated to the

conclusions elicited from the present research and also contains recommendations

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for further research The conclusion section is dedicated to the summary of findings and the identification of the research progress that could be achieved by means of conducting this research The recommendations section is dedicated to the delineation of further directions of research in this field, and to the demarcation of gaps still remaining in the field

8 Summary

This part has introduced the topic of this research which aims to explore the types, frequency and patterns of variations between the four mentioned factors and language learning strategies used by TNU students when learning English as a foreign language The part introduced the study through exploring existing literature with the aim of identifying language learning strategies used by ethnic students at Thai Nguyen University

This part has also introduced the rationale for this study in order to justify why this study is important To do this, this section examined the work of other researchers in order to evaluate their contribution to the topic of the research, and

to identify gaps in existing research in order to justify the reason for undertaking this research The section revealed that little research has been carried out to explore the relationship between language learning strategies used and the factors affecting the choices of LLSs of TNU students This part has also addressed the research questions and significance of this study

The first part concluded by offering a definition of key terms used in the study and also included a structure of the study, setting out the organization of the study from the introduction to the conclusion Having established the background

of this study, the next part will present a review of the literature related to this topic of research, which aims to explore the types, frequency and possible patterns

of variations between the use of language learning strategies and factors such as gender, major fields of study, level of English proficiency and learning styles of ethnic students at Thai Nguyen university

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CONTENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Introduction

There is general agreement that researchers in the world have paid attention

to research works in the field of LLSs in the mid-seventies From the very first purpose of LLS studies to “identify what good language learners report they do to learn a second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed doing while learning a second or foreign language” (Rubin, 1987, p 19), and to identify the characteristics of "good language learners" and “poor language learners", research

in the LLS area has shown that LLSs have the potential to be “an extremely

powerful learning tool” for language learners (O‟Malley et al., 1985, p 43)

Researchers have considered many aspects: e.g., what makes a good language learner; how learners process new information; what kind of strategies they employ to understand; to learn or to retrieve the information; and what factors affect the learners‟ choice of LLS use There have been many research works concerning what makes a good language learner: e.g., Stern (1975); Rubin (1975); Naiman, Fröhlich, Stern and Todesco (1978); Ramirez (1986); Chamot and Küpper (1989); O‟Malley and Chamot (1990); Oxford and Cohen (1992); and Griffiths (2008)

Although the research into language learning strategies used by successful and unsuccessful language learners has produced some interesting insights, the picture which emerges is far from unified (Griffiths, 2004) According to Hismanoglu (2000), there has been a prominent shift in the field of language learning and teaching with more emphasis on learners and learning processes rather than on teachers and teaching processes

Some researchers have not been convinced that LLSs are as beneficial as the literature might have us believed Macaro (2006) argues there is not enough rigorous research to show a definitive causality so the notion that gets into

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people‟s heads is: use of strategies leads to proficiency, achievement and success; i.e., causality But we just do not know that Taguchi (2002) also raises concerns about adopting a general approach to good language learners since we can somehow observe the good language learner and copy the strategies employed This idea excludes all other variables such as learning styles, sex, age and culture,

to name a few

Although there are numbers of important criticisms over the research done

on language learning strategies (Macaro, 2007; Oxford, 1994; Rees-Miller, 1993; Oxford & Nyikos, 1998; Takeuchi, 2003, and Griffiths, 2007), there are still irrefutable benefits of the use of LLSs in teaching According to Macaro (2003), learner strategy instruction appears to be effective in promoting successful learning if it is carried out over lengthy periods of time and if it includes a focus

on metacognition In addition to the benefits of consistent and focused strategy training, Fewel (2010) asserts that the strategy training provided for the learners,

to some degree, may contribute to the success of learners From a slightly

different perspective, Ehrman et al., (2003) state that training has a significant

impact on motivation, aptitude, knowledge of strategies, and the perceived usefulness of directly applying strategies to language learning and use Cohen (2003), in agreement with these statements, suggests that learning will be facilitated by making the learners aware of range of strategies from which they can choose during the language learning and use Chamot (2001), in one of his research works, points out the features of learners who can employ various LLSs, states that they also gain the ability to orchestrate the strategies that best meet both the task demands and their own learning strengths Finally, Oxford (2003) states that in other subject areas learners enjoy the benefits of learning strategy used in their academic studies and it is not surprising that L2 learners when carefully choose and use the relevant strategies become successful

Many research works have then explored the types and the nature of strategy use, the effectiveness (if any) of LLS training However, as stated by Phakiti

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(2003, p.7), “To date, there is little empirical evidence to show how language learning strategies are related to actual strategy use in context.” This opinion was also asserted by Rees-Millers (1993, p.11) “Until empirical data, particularly in the form of empirical studies are gathered to answer questions about the usefulness of learner training, teachers should approach the implementation of learner training in the classroom.” Therefore, it is necessary to conduct more research work in the field of LLS of EFL language learners in the specific context

in order to help learners choose the proper LLSs in acquiring the target language, especially in the settings of mountainous areas

1.2 Language Learning Strategies Definitions

Difficulties in defining LLS remain even at the basic level of terminology Researchers define LLS in different ways such as „technique‟, „tactic‟ and „skill‟ These definitions sometimes overlap and conflict to each other Oxford (1989) defines the term as „behaviours‟ or actions This means LLS is observable, whereas Weinstein and Mayer (1986) argue LLS involve both behaviours and thoughts, that means unobservable

Schmeck (1988, p.5) makes the clear distinction between “strategies” and

“tactics” when he stated the distinction is a subtle, but important one He pointed out the origins of the word “strategy” as a military term used to describe plans for executing military operations He saw strategies as “basic abstract categories of processing by which information perceived in the outside world is organized and categorized into cognitive structures as a part of a conceptual network”, while tactics are “variable and idiosyncratic learning activities, which learners use to organize a learning situation, respond to the learning environment, or cope with input and output demands” (Ellis 2008, p.704)

The nature of what is LLS is also an argument among researchers Stern (1983, as cited in Ellis, 1994, p 531) describes the nature of learning strategies as general and overall when he defines that “strategy is best reserved for general

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tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learners, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior” while Wenden (1987) argues that LLS is not about general approach of learners He claims that LLS refers to “specific actions or techniques” (Wenden, 1987, p.7)

Although “there is little consensus in the literature concerning either definition or the identification of LLS” (Wenden and Rubin, 1987, p.7), language learning strategies have been variously defined over the years Outstanding definitions include:

 “Particular forms of observable learning behavior, more or less consciously employed by the learner” (Stern 1983, p 405)

 “The behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learner‟s encoding process” (Weinstein and Mayer

1986, p 315)

 “Techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order

to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information” (Chamot 1987, p 71)

 “The behaviors and thought processes that learners use in the process of learning including any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner

to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information” (Wenden and Rubin 1987, p 19)

 “Strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affects learning directly” (Rubin 1987, p 23)

 “Specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (Oxford 1990, p 8)

 “The mental process which learners employed to learn and use the target language” (Nunan 1991, p 168)

 “Learning processes which are consciously selected by the learner The element of choice is important here because this is what gives a strategy its special character These are also moves which the learner is at least partially aware of, even if full attention is not being given to them” (Cohen 1998, p 4)

 “Any thoughts, behaviours, beliefs, or emotions that facilitate the acquisition, understanding, or later transfer of new knowledge and skills” (Weinstein, Husman and Dierkin 2000, p 727)

 “The techniques or procedures that facilitate a learning task” (Chamot

2001, p 25)

It appears that all these researchers identify language learning strategies as techniques used to acquire knowledge, gain success and enjoy the learning of a second language They are self-controlled, can be general or specific, cognitive or affective Nevertheless, the definitions are still very ambiguous, broad and lack clarity Macaro (2006) calls this her strongest attack on strategy research when she says, “Even the cognitive learning strategies, such as seeking meaning, using deduction, inferencing, or monitoring, are defined so broadly that it is questionable whether they can be specified in terms of observable, specific, universal behaviors that could be taught to or assessed in students.” (p.681) Macaro (2007, p.54) calls the definitions “loose” and bunched together with all sorts of learner behaviors According to him, these loose definitions of LLSs have

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meant that strategies have been confused, or used interchangeably, with

„processes‟, or they have been juxtaposed with „processes‟ but the differences between them never defined, however, each researcher proposes a definition according to the context, and the setting or the subject characteristic in which the research has been conducted

Although many researchers have attempted to differentiate between two or more of the terms discussed above and to posit a clear definition of the concept

“strategy”, in practice many of the concepts appear to be interchangeable Cohen (1998, p.10) noted that the term strategy has been used to denote general as well

as specific approaches and suggested that a solution would be to refer to all of these approaches with the term strategies, “while still acknowledging that there is

a continuum from the broadest categories to the most specific or low-level” Oxford and Crookall (1989:404) remarked, it is not important how they are called, what matters is that they make learning more efficient and effective Altogether, the researcher agrees with Liang (2009) that LLS has some characteristics as follows

- Learning strategies are either behavioral thus observable, or mental then not observable

- Learning strategies could be either general approaches or specific actions

or techniques adopted to learn a target language

- Learners are generally aware of what approaches or techniques they have used in language learning, despite some subconscious activities under certain circumstances (p.27)

1.3 Language Learning Strategy Classifications

Oxford (1990) describes language learning strategies as specific, directed steps taken by learners to enhance their own learning She separates strategies into two strategy orientations and six strategies groups: (1) direct learning orientation, consisting of (a) memory, (b) cognitive, and (c) linguistic

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deficiency compensation strategy groups, and (2) indirect learning orientation, consisting of (a) metacognitive, (b) affective, and (c) social strategy groups There are some other ways of classifying language learning strategies (Wong – Fillmore, 1979; Rubin 1981; Skehan 1989; Ellis 1997) Chamot (1990) presents three major classes of strategies: (a) metacognitive, (b) cognitive, and (c) socio-affective Language learning strategies have been classified as (a) meta-cognitive, cognitive, or socio-affective (e.g., Brown & Palinscar, 1982; Chamot, 1987; O‟Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Kupper, 1985) or (b) direct or indirect (e.g., Oxford, 1990; Rubin, 1975, 1981) However, all these classifications have some notions in common as follows:

(i) Meta-cognitive strategies are those which “involve thinking about the

learning process, planning for learning, monitoring of learning while it is taking place, and self-evaluation of learning after the learning activity” (Chamot, 1987, p 72)

(ii) “Cognitive strategies involve manipulation or transformation of the

material to be learned; in other words, the learner interacts directly with what is to

be learned” (Chamot, 1987, p 72)

(iii) „Affective‟ means “of the feelings; emotional” (Macquarie Study

Dictionary, 1988, p 13, p 633) and affective learning involves attitudes, values and behaviours, while social behaviour involves two-way interaction between two

or more people Socio-affective strategies are behaviours employed so that social interaction and the learner‟s affective state enhance learning

(iv) Direct strategies are strategies that directly involve the target

language as they require mental processing of the language (Oxford, 1990,

p 37)

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(v) Indirect strategies “provide indirect support for language learning

through focusing, planning, evaluating, seeking opportunities, controlling anxiety, increasing cooperation and empathy and other means” (Oxford, 1990, p 151) Although Oxford‟s classification is “perhaps the most comprehensive classification of learning strategies to date” (Ellis, 1994, p.539), it is still, of necessity, somewhat selective since “dozens and perhaps hundreds of such strategies exist” (Oxford, Lavine and Crookall, 1989, p.29) Oxford (1990) acknowledges the possibility that the categories will overlap, and gives as an example the metacognitive strategy of planning, which as far as planning requires reasoning, might also be considered a cognitive strategy

Oxford (1990, p.49) also justifies that behaviors as learning strategies on the grounds “can help learners become more fluent in what they already know and may lead learners to get new information about what is appropriate or permissible

in the target language” However, she confirms that “there is no complete agreement on exactly what strategies are; how many strategies exist; how they should be defined, demarcated, and categorized; and whether it is or ever will be possible to create a real, scientifically validated hierarchy of strategies.” Oxford (1990, p 17)

As can be seen from above, the LLS classification still overlaps and conflict

in opinions and the process of establishing terminology, definitions Classification systems for language learning strategies are far from straightforward This study is only based on the classification with the main focus on types of LLS used by the TNU ethnic students and concentrates on LLS with the purpose to examine the relationship between language learning strategy used by TNU ethnic students with the four factors which may affect their choices of LLS, i.e gender, major field of study, level of proficiency and learning styles

The 50 strategies in the Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (LLSQ) were classified based on the combined principles of goal orientation and content/skill

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According to Rubin (1987, as cited in Griffiths, 2003) individual learners are seen as capable of making deliberate efforts to use learning strategies in order to promote their own learning From that point of view, Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) propose a model of language learning whereby LLSs interact in a complicated way with other individual factors such as intelligence, aptitude, attitudes, motivation and anxiety They also state that other possible learner variables which have the potential to affect the choice of language learning strategies might include personality, gender, learning styles, beliefs and personal circumstances

It is a common observation that students from different national backgrounds

do not always learn in the same ways (Griffiths and Parr, 2000; Pennycook, 1997; Pierson, 1996; White, 1989) This may be at least partly because differences in cultural backgrounds and educational systems “foster different strengths and weaknesses in learners” (Surtridge, 1997, p.72)

Corbett (1999) points out that some students come from very “talkative” backgrounds where they are brought up from an early age to express ideas freely; others come from backgrounds where they are taught to think carefully before speaking and where imposing one‟s ideas on others is considered extremely impolite Some students are encouraged to be active in their approach to their learning; others are traditionally passive (Usuki, 2000) whereas some others are brought up in an environment where people communicate naturally without worrying too much about correctness; others are brought up to feel keenly the loss of face which comes from being seen to make mistakes (Ching, 1992; Clarke, 1996) These kinds of national characteristics may well affect the different ways students of varying nationalities behave and interact in a teaching/learning situation and the kinds

of learning strategies they typically employ

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1.4.1 Language Learning Strategies and Gender

Although there are quite a few studies which investigate the relationship between language learning strategy uses and gender (Bacon 1992; Boyle, 1987; Burstall, 1975; Eisenstein, 1982; Farhady, 1982; Nyikos, 1990; Sunderland, 1998; Zeylani, 2012; Tam, 2013; Zarei, 2013 and Mashadi & Fallah, 2014), studies which explore LLS use according to gender are not common Tran (1988) discovered that most studies in this area seem to have reported a greater use of LLSs by women After studying the language learning strategies used by more than 1,200 undergraduate university students, Oxford and Nyikos (1989, p.296) conclude that gender differences had a profound influence: females used strategies more frequently than males

Chang et al (2007) investigates the influence of gender on college EFL

learning strategy use in Taiwan A total of 1758 Taiwanese college EFL learners took part in this research study The finding of the study indicated statistically significant differences found in the use of cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, social strategies and overall strategies with regard to gender

Recently, Zeynali (2012) has conducted a research study on 149 learners at Institute in Tabriz, Iran The findings show that there is a significant gender difference in the use of language learning strategies as a whole Female learners also have tendency to use overall language learning strategies more often than males There are important differences between genders in the use of social/ affective strategies with females using them more often However, the findings from Zarei (2013) show males showed more frequent use of all strategy categories

in all the six categories except social categories that both males and females had equal frequencies

Mixed results have led to the recognition that, perhaps, it is not the genetic element of sex that influence the LLS choice, but the social cultural

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bindings of being female or male in a certain community that is at play here As language learning, like any type of learning, is basically a social process under the social- cultural constructivist view, it is affected by the social cultural implications /dictation associated with different sexes That explains the mixed findings in relation to gender in different research contexts and that is also the reason why the socio-culturally-oriented notion of gender is employed and examined in this study, rather than sex itself The use of gender here implies the reference to the outer social and cultural context when analysing sex differences

In summary, it is still controversial as to whether the differences between male and female learners‟ choice of strategies are significant and whether males

or females are more frequent strategy users Based on these previous research works, it might be concluded that male and female may use different strategies in learning language and the frequency may be varied This study aims to examine whether or not the TNU ethnic students‟ gender are related to their language learning strategy use

1.4.2 Language Learning Strategies and English Language Proficiency

Recent research works show that students who have higher level of language proficiency tend to employ greater range of language learning strategy than those

of lower level of proficiency (Green and Oxford 1995; Ghadessy 1998;

Intaraprasert 2004; Su 2005; Khalil 2005; Teng 2006; Chang et al., 2007; Wu

2008; and Anugkakul 2011) Instead of classifying as high and low proficiency levels, some researchers used the terms “successful” and “unsuccessful” language

learners or „good‟ or „poor‟ language learners (Rubin, 1987; Cohen et al., 1996;

Cohen and Manion, 2002)

Work done with Hispanic learners, for example, was popular in the United States because of the increasing numbers of Latinos who migrated to the country The striking finding that stood out from the research done with the Hispanics is

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that the level of proficiency does affect the learners‟ choice of strategies Green (1991) and Green and Oxford (1993) found that learners with a high level of proficiency used strategies more often than students with low proficiency

Egyptian learners were found to be trained to use strategies (Aliweh, 1989) and they preferred metacognitive and memory strategies to cognitive strategies (Touba, 1992) Work done with Thai learners also revealed that strategies were associated with proficiency (Mullins, 1992) Davis and Abas (1991) informed us that Indonesian learners prefer using all the learning strategies except affective strategies while Nuril (1998) posited on the importance of culture in learning strategy use Malaysian learners like Indonesian learners also tend to avoid affective strategies because they do not feel comfortable expressing their feelings and as such are inhibited in some ways

Khalil (2005) conducts a research study to investigate LLS use and to explore the effect of proficiency level on frequency of strategy used by 378 Palestinian EFL learners The results indicated that learner proficiency level had

an effect on frequency of overall strategy use; furthermore, proficiency level had

an effect on memory, compensatory, cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies For the individual strategies, the researcher reported that proficiency level had an effect on the individual strategies

Teng (2006) conducts a research study to examine the learning strategies used by technology college students in Taiwan, and to find the differences in learning strategies among EST students with regard to their English proficiency Participants of the study were 156 freshmen students at National Yunlin University of Science and Technology Results of the study indicated that among the six strategy groups, compensation strategies were most often used by the subjects, and that social strategies were least often used Besides, greater uses of learning strategies were found among more proficient learners

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Wu (2008) aimed to probe the significant differences between strategies used

by higher and lower proficiency learners as well as the effects of LLSs on learner‟s proficiency Forty-nine higher proficiency and eighty-eight freshmen EFL Taiwanese students took part in the research The findings showed that both higher and lower proficiency EFL students used compensation strategies more often than other strategies Higher proficiency EFL students use LLSs more often than lower proficiency EFL students In addition, the use of cognitive strategies had the strongest relation to English proficiency as well as cognitive strategy use had greater effect on the listening and reading proficiency of Taiwanese learners Recently, Kunasaraphan (2015) conducts a research study to identify whether English language learning strategies commonly used by the first year students at International College, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University include six direct and indirect strategies His study explored whether there was a difference in these students‟ use of six direct and indirect English learning strategies between the different levels of their English proficiency The results of the analysis reveal that English learning strategies commonly used by the first year students include six direct and indirect strategies, including differences in strategy use of the students with different levels of English proficiency

In the present investigation, the researcher examines the relationship between language learning strategy use and the TNU ethnic students‟ levels of proficiency which are classified into high, moderate and low based on the students‟ scores gained on the end-of-semester tests

1.4.3 Language Learning Strategies and Major Field of Study

Up to now, research works on major field of study as a factor related to language learning strategy have not been paid much attention, except for the works by Peacock and Ho (2003); Intaraprasert (2003, 2004); Zhang (2005); Alireza and Abdullah (2010); and Minh (2012)

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Peacock and Ho (2003) explore the use of 50 common second language learning strategies by 1,006 English for Academic Purposes (EAP) students across eight disciplines – Building, Business, Computing, Engineering, English, Maths, Primary education, and Science in a university in Hong Kong A positive association was found between 27 strategies and proficiency English students used the most strategies, and Computing ranked the fewest Different deficiencies

in strategy use were found in different disciplines, for example, the very low use

of metacognitive strategies by computing students

Zhang (2005) explores EFL college students‟ language learning strategies in the Chinese context The subjects of the study were 106 students who were enrolled in the second year of their 4-year undergraduate degree program, majoring in two programs offered by Hohai University at its Changzhou campus, Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science and Engineering The findings of the study indicated that the different strategies were respectively emphasized for students of arts and science and engineering

Alireza and Abdullah (2010) explore the use of language learning strategies among Iranian Engineering and Political Science graduate students Thirty Iranian graduate students at University Putra Malaysia took part in the study The findings showed that the students from different majors used different language learning strategies

Recently, Minh (2012) conducts a research study to investigate and describe types of language learning strategies which Vietnamese science-oriented university students reported employing in learning the English language and to explore patterns of variations in frequency of students‟ reported strategy use according to major fields of study which are classified as science and technology and health science) The research subjects were 645 undergraduate science-oriented students in 6 universities in the north of Vietnam In learning the English

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language, science-oriented university students, on a whole, reported medium frequency of strategy use The findings also reveal that frequency of students‟ overall reported use of strategies varied significantly according to their major fields of study and students majoring in Engineering and Technology reported employing more strategies than Health Science students

Consistent research findings in the literature have strongly supported the hypothesis that academic majors or fields of study have an impact on the use of LLSs among language learners The present investigation examines whether or not the TNU ethnic students majoring in Social Sciences and Natural Sciences are related to the use of language learning strategies in learning the English language

1.4.4 Language Learning Strategies and Learning Styles

The term „learning styles‟ has been defined as “cognitive, affective, and

physiological traits that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment” Keefe, (1982,

p 44) In addition, learning styles are the general approaches, for example, global

or analytic, auditory or visual, that students use in acquiring a new language or in learning any other subject These styles are “the overall patterns that give general direction to learning behavior” (Cornett, 1983, p 9) Claxton and Murrell (1987) analyze learning styles at four levels: personality, information processing, social interaction, and instructional methods After reviewing the state of the art of research in learning styles, the authors indicated a need for further investigation in

a number of areas They reported that we need to know more about the actual impact on learning when methods used by an instructor are inconsistent with a student's style Dunn & Griggs (1988, p 3) affirm that “learning style is the biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics that make the same teaching method wonderful for some and terrible for others”

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According to Reid (1987), the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire is theoretically grounded in a perceptual modality approach with the intention of measuring a student‟s preference for one of four basic perceptual learning modalities (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile) and two social interaction factors (individual or group learning)

Auditory Learning

Learning primarily with ears (Reid, 1987); auditory learners who recall at least 75 percent of what is discussed or heard in a normal forty to fifty-minute period (Dunn, 1988) The instructor could use tapes, video tapes, records, radio, television, and precise oral directions when setting tasks or for any aspect of the task requiring understanding, performance, progress, or evaluation

Kinesthetic Learning

Learning primarily by experience (Reid, 1987); kinesthetic learners who use the body to experience, do, and become involved with the specific learning (Dunn, 1988) The instructor could provide opportunities for real and active experiences for planning and carrying out objectives

Tactile Learning

Learning through the sense of touch; learning primarily by “hands-on” tasks (Reid, 1987) They learn better by working on experiments in a laboratory, handling, and building models Students with tactile perceptual strengths need to underline as they read, take notes when they listen, and manipulate the material when possible Writing notes or instructions can help them remember information (Dunn, 1988) The instructor could use manipulative and three-dimensional materials to implement the objectives

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Visual Learning

Learning primarily with eyes (Reid, 1987); visual learners remember what is seen and retrieve details and events by concentrating on them (Dunn, 1988) Instructors could use pictures, filmstrips, computers, films, videos, graphs, charts, transparencies, diagrams, drawings, books, and magazines (provide resources that require reading), and written assignments and evaluations

Group

The learners learn more effectively through working with other (at least one other) students (Reid, 1998) They prefer group interaction and classwork with other students and complete work more successfully when they work with others

Individual

The learners learn more effectively through working alone (Reid, 1998) Individual learners prefer to work alone They learn new material best when they learn it alone and they remember new information they learn by themselves The learning style of the student is another factor that needs to be taken into account when discussing strategy choice As Wharton (2000 , pp.209-210) remarked, various investigations, such as Ehrman & Oxford 1990 and Rossi -Le

1989 (as cited in Wharton 2000) have suggested that strategy use is determined

by it Furthermore, there exists a wide array of learning styles that differ according to the learner‟s cultural and language background (Reid 1987, as cited in Wharton 2000) Additionally, Green and Oxford (1995, p 292) declared that “students with different learning styles (e.g., visual, auditory, and hands-on; reflective and impulsive; analytic and global; extroverted and

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introverted) often choose strategies that reflect their style preferences.” There

is, however, not always a clear distinction between learning styles and personality types, as discussed in the previous paragraph, and Ehrman and Oxford (1990, p.324) seem to equate the two concepts

Although learning styles are not dichotomous (black or white, present or absent), learning styles generally operate on a continuum or on multiple, intersecting continua For example, a person might be more extroverted than introverted, or more closure-oriented than open, or equally visual and auditory but with lesser kinesthetic and tactile involvement Few if any people could be classified as having all or nothing in any of these categories (Ehrman, 1996) Active and reflective learners are related to extrovert and introvert, as

described by the Myers-Briggs model (the model of personality development

created by Briggs Myers) Sensing learners learn by observing, gathering data through the senses, while intuitive learners learn by indirect perception and imagination Visual learners learn by seeing pictures, diagrams and timetables On the other hand, verbal learners learn through words, written and spoken explanations Sequential learners learn by following logically step by step, whereas global learners learn more randomly without any connections (Gunduz & Ozcan, 2010)

Reid (1987; 1995) and Oxford and Anderson (1995) demonstrate that ESL students varied significantly in their sensory preferences, with people from certain cultures differentially favoring the three different modalities for learning Students from Asian cultures, for instance, were often highly visual, with Koreans being the most visual Many studies, including Reid‟s, found that Hispanic learners were