The moderating role of time urgency and future time perspective on the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

NGUYEN QUOC PHONG THE MODERATING ROLE OF TIME URGENCY AND FUTURE TIME PERSPECTIVE ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEAM TEMPORAL LEADERSHIP AND TEAM PERFORMANCE Subject: Master of Business A

NGUYEN QUOC PHONG

THE MODERATING ROLE OF TIME URGENCY AND FUTURE TIME PERSPECTIVE ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEAM TEMPORAL LEADERSHIP AND TEAM PERFORMANCE

Subject: Master of Business Administration

Code: 60.34.01.02

SUPERVISOR: Assoc Prof Dr NGUY ỄN ĐÌNH THỌ

HO CHI MINH CITY - 2012

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I would like to appreciate to teachers at Economy University of

Ho Chi Minh city for their valuable knowledge that guiding me so far

I would like to appreciate PhD Pham Quoc Hung for his kindness in instructing me through difficult time in finding ways to result my research problems Also through his guiding I found the important and application of this thesis in literature and implication

Last but not least, I deeply appreciate the helping of my dear wife, my family for their counting on me Thanks to them I got the motivation to get through long time studying to fulfill my master thesis I also would like to appreciate my dear friends at eMBAK19 class for their sharing knowledge and friendship

Nguyen Quoc Phong

Ho Chi Minh, 26 October 2012

COMMITMENT

I would like to commit that this thesis, “the moderating role of time urgency, future perspective on the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance”, was accomplished basing on my independent, serious study and scientific researches The data was primary collected by my own with clear origins

In addition, the data would be trust-worthily handled and it has never been released

in any paper so far

Nguyen Quoc Phong

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I COMMITMENT II CONTENTS III FIGURES VII

1.1 P ROBLEM S TATEMENT 1

1.2 R ESEARCH ’ S O BJECTIVES 2

1.3 R ESEARCH ’ S S COPE AND A PPROACH 2

1.3.1 Research’s Scope .2

1.3.2 Research’s Approach .3

1.4 C ONTRIBUTION 3

1.4.1 Academic Contributions 3

1.4.2 Managerial Contributions 4

1.5 R ESEARCH S TRUCTURE 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 T IME U RGENCY 5

2.1.1 Time Urgency and Type A Behavior Pattern 5

2.1.2 Characteristic of Time Urgency 6

2.1.3 Time Urgency and Team Performance 7

2.2 T IME P ERSPECTIVE 8

2.2.1 Time Perspective 8

2.2.2 Time Perspective and team performance 10

2.3 T EAM T EMPORAL L EADERSHIP 12

2.4 T EAM T EMPORAL L EADERSHIP AND T EAM P ERFORMANCE 14

2.5 H YPOTHESES D EVELOPMENT 15

3.1 R ESEARCH D ESIGN 17

3.2 Q UESTIONNAIRE D EVELOPMENT 18

3.3 S CALE 19

3.3.1 Time Urgency Scale 19

3.3.2 Future Time Perspective 20

3.3.3 Temporal Leadership Scale 21

3.3.4 Team Performance Scale 22

3.3.5 Translation of Questionnaires 23

3.4 G ROUP D ISCUSSION 24

3.5 T ARGET P OPULATION 24

3.6 S AMPLE S IZE 25

3.7 S ELECTING T HE S AMPLE AND C OLLECTING D ATA 25

3.8 M ETHODS OF D ATA A NALYSIS 26

3.8.1 Data Screening 26

3.8.2 Reliability 27

3.8.3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis 27

3.8.4 Analysis of Variance 29

3.8.5 Correlation Analysis .30

3.8.6 Regression Analysis 31

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS 33

4.1 D ATA S CREAMING 33

4.2 C HARACTERISTIC OF Q UALIFIED R ESPONDENTS 34

4.3 N ORMALITY A NALYSIS 35

4.4 R ELIABILITY OF T HE M EASUREMENTS 37

4.4.1 Reliability of Time Urgency Measurement 37

4.4.2 Reliability of Future Consequence Measurement 38

4.4.3 Reliability of Team Temporal Leadership Measurement 39

4.4.4 Reliability of Team Performance Measurement 39

4.6 C ONFIRMATORY F ACTOR A NALYSIS 40

4.7 A NALYSIS OF V ARIANCE 45

4.7.1 The Effect of Gender on Team Performance 46

4.7.2 The Effect of Age on Team Performance 47

4.7.3 Test The Effect of Education on Team Performance 47

4.8 C ORRELATION A NALYSIS 48

4.9 H YPOTHESES T ESTING 50

4.9.1 The Effect of Team Temporal Leadership on Team Performance .50

4.9.2 The Moderating Role of Time Urgency and Future Time Perspective on the Relationship between Team Temporal Leadership and Team Performance 52

5.1 D ISCUSSIONS OF F INDINGS 61

5.2 P RACTICAL I MPLICATION 62

5.3 C ONTRIBUTION OF T HE S TUDY 63

5.4 L IMITATION AND F URTHER R ESEARCH 64 REFERENCE IX APPENDIX XV

TABLES

Table 3.1 Time Urgency Scale

Table 3.2 Future consequence scale

Table 3.3 Team temporal leadership

Table 3.4 Team performance

Table 3.5 Assessing Fit Indices

Table 4.1: Variables

Table 4.2: Socio-demographic Characteristics of Qualified respondents

Table 4.3: Assessment of normality

Table 4.4: Summarize Cronbach’s Alpha score of Time Urgency measurements Table 4.5: Summarize Cronbach’s Alpha score of Future Consequence measurements

Table 4.6: Summarize Cronbach’s Alpha score of Team Temporal Leadership

measurements

Table 4.7: Summarize Cronbach Alpha score of Team Performance measurments Table 4.8: Standardized Regression weight

Table 4.9: Goodness-of Fit Indexes Result

Table 4.10 Independent Samples Test (Dependent variable: TP; Grouping variable: Gender)

Table 4.11 Analysis of Variance (Dependent variable: TP; Factor: Age)

Table 4.12 Analysis of Variance(Dependent variable: TP; Factor: Education)

Table 4.13 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations

Table 4.14 The effect of team temporal leadership on team performance

Table 4.15: Statistics of two model (with and without TL)

Table 4.16 The moderating role of time urgency and future time perspective on the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

Table 4.17: Statistics two model (with and without moderator TU and FC)

Table 4.18: Relationship between TL and TP (moderator TU)

Table 4.19: Statistics of Relationship between TL and TP (moderator TU)

Table 4.20: Relationship between TL and TP (moderator FC)

Table 4.21: Statistics of Relationship between TL and TP(moderator FC)

FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Original model (Source: Mohammed and Nadkarni, 2011)

Figure 2.1 Suggested model

Figure 3.1 Research process

Figure 4.1 CFA model

Figure 4.2a: Time urgency strengthen the positive relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

Figure 4.2b: Future consequence strengthen the positive relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Problem Statement

Rapidly changing competition, customer needs, technologies and completion

of task in today’s business environment have created temporal challenges for teams

in the form of extremely short deadlines, complex and dynamic cooperation of task goals (e.g Hamm, 2006) These challenges require careful management of temporal (time) resources in teams (Lientz & Rea, 2001), making time become arelevance research issues Despite its importance, research on time, especially time in the deadline condition of team has been spare and inconsistent (Mohammed & Nadkarni, 2011) To answer the calle of the need to give understanding on this issue, an increasing number of researchers have been conducted on temporal perspective (e.g Ancona et al., 2001; Waller, 1998; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) In term of team temporal leadership, Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011)find out team temporal leadership has a positive impact on team performance However, their research just focuses on groups in one a technology company, which is not diverse enough to represent work forces in general In addition, they also yet to find out if the role of team temporal leadership on team performance can be effected by any moderator Derived from the notion that leaders can affect circumstances and circumstances can affect leaders in reverse, the author set out hypotheses that temporal leadership can be affected by their follower’s individual differences, which are time urgency(feeling chronically hurried [Landy et al, 1991]) and future time perspective(cognitive temporal bias toward being future oriented [Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999])

Vietnam is a fast developing country; with an average of GPD growth from

2000 to 2010 was more than 6 % per year (tradingeconomy.com) The economic

developing creates the need of change in leadership not only at individual level but also at group level tocoordinate member adapting with the sophisticate of tasks Despite the important of leadership in group and it moderators, which has been an interesting subject to researchers in developed countries, a comprehensive investigation on group level with Vietnamese work force has been spare.Answering

this call, I investigate the moderating role of time urgency, future perspective on the

relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

1.2 Research’s Objectives

This study examines the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance It also analyses the moderating role of individual time urgency and time perspective on this relationship The questions below will be answer accordingly:

Question 1:How team temporal leadership affects team performance?

Question 2: How individual time urgency affects the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance?

Question 3: How individual future time perspective affects the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance?

Last but not least, this paper also wants to test if there is a difference on team performance between some main demographic (gender, age, and education) groups The literature review will define these concepts and reveal relevance researches on these issues The quantitative research will be conducted to answer these questions

1.3 Research’s Scope and Approach

1.3.1 Research’s Scope

First, this study conducted in a crowded city and a small province They are

Ho Chi Minh City and DaklakProvince The reason for this choice is that it’s represents the diversity of downtown city and rural area

Second, since this paper analysts at team level, the respondents of this paper targeted to interview are full time employees, who working in teams, groups or departments (from now the term “team” or “group” will presented for team, group and department) with other members They can be sale person, marketing person,doctors, nurses, technicians and any employees who have directed contact with customers

1.3.2 Research’s Approach

This study will have two main phases: qualitative and quantitative research The qualitative include draws draft questionnaire from literature review; then, translate questionnaire into Vietnamese,next conduct group discussions, then review and debate and review againquestionnaires until have final questionnaires The quantitative research will test the measurement (questionnaires), hypothesis and draw conclusion

1.4 Contribution

1.4.1 Academic Contributions

Individual temporal differences and temporal leadership is well recognized subject in Western countries However, at this moment in Vietnam, little research has been conducting to analyst their affect, especially at team performance level This paper contributes to the research field of leadership and team performance in two aspects First, this thesis tries to confirm whether and how team temporal leadership affect team performances Second, this paper will finds out if individual time urgency and time perspective affect the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance Last but not least, it introduces the concept of

time urgency,future time perspective and the nascent concept of team temporal leadership, which are still quite new in Vietnam

1.4.2 Managerial Contributions

This study provides managers with a deeper understanding of how their leadership in time perspective affects team performance, and how theirfollower’s difference in time urgency, time perspective can affect the result of their leadership

1.5 Research Structure

This paper is included in 5 chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Literature review provides theoretical and empirical background

connecting to the hypothesized research model

Chapter 3: Methodology addresses methodologies and analysis tools and

techniques

Chapter 4: Analysis is conducted based on the collected data to test the hypotheses

and answer the research questions

Chapter 5: Discussion base on the result and provide theoretical, practical

implication, and possible directions for further research

Summary

This chapter had introduced the important to conduct this research and relevance researches of pioneers over the issue of this paper (the issue of time) The Objectives of this paper is defined as the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance and the moderators of this relationship, they are time urgency and future time perspective.The academic and managerial contribution

of this research also had introduced

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews the theoretical and empirical literatures, providing the

theoretical background to the problem under research

Temporal Individual Differences

In the scope of this paper, the author examines two temporal individual differences: time urgency and time perspective These temporal individual differences are conceptually distinct, capture unique time-based characteristics relevant to team tasks, and have been theoretically implicated as important for team functioning Although sparse, team-level studies are beginning to investigate time

urgency (Mohammed & Angle, 2004) and time perspective (West & Meyer, 1997)

2.1 Time Urgency

2.1.1Time Urgency and Type A Behavior Pattern

The empirical and theoretical studies have shown the important of how people make decisions under time pressure Time urgency is an important factor to consider when study people conducting their activities under deadline condition Time urgency emerged from the study of the relationship between coronary-prone individual (Type A) and heart disease (Friedman and Roseman, 1974) Time urgency, a subcomponent of Type A behavior, is a frequent concern with the passage of time, and a relatively stable characteristic of Type A behavior individual

(Waller et al., 2002) Type A behavior individuals consider hard-driving, competitive, hostile, and time urgent comparison to no coronary-prone individual (Type B) Type A individuals are expected work significantly faster than Type B’s (Yarnold and Grimm, 1982) This sense of time urgency is one of the central elements of Type A behavior

Time urgency is characterized by an accelerated pace of activities that results from striving to fulfill more and more in less time (Friedman and Roseman, 1974) This hard-driving nature is supported by the finding of Burman et al (1975), who suggests that Type A’s approach all tasks with almost maximum capacity, regardless of specific goal demands of the task (such as deadlines) These researchers’ experiments use two different conditions, one with a set deadline and one without a specific deadline The experiment shows that the deadline condition did not influence the pace of Type A individuals, probably because they created their own deadlines in the no-deadline condition Type A individuals are continuously involved in a struggle with time, as they are occupied with a sense of haste Type A’s check their watches repeatedly and by creating their own deadlines, they try to maintain control over the situation

2.1.2 Characteristic of Time Urgency

People with time urgent characteristic have a chronic feeling of being pressured and appear to be preoccupied with setting deadlines They are aware of time and are likely to do more activities than they are able to do in a certain amount

of time They often tend to feel time passing slowly, since they turn to more impatient when they want to slow down the speed of their activities (Glass et al, 1974) The feeling of urgency affects both the perception and the usage of time for them when individuals are overwhelmed with activities and duties; a way to control order is to follow a schedule they have driven Time-urgent individuals state that by making schedule, they can perform well under time pressure (Rastegary & Landy, 1993) Gastorf (1980) reports time-urgent people usual schedule for activities

earlier than less time-urgent people Time urgent people also tend to multiple taskssimultaneously to save time

Time-urgency is connected with behavior under time pressure conditions Time urgency individuals are tent to aware of time, setting task prioritization and scheduling their own task within the allotted time (Conte, Landy & Mathieu, 1985) Time-urgency individual usually attend carefully the passing of time by checking

their watch repeatedly (Price 1982)

In order to fulfill all the activities that they have scheduled, time urgent individuals must be quite efficient in using their time When time urgent individuals plan many tasks they usually use deadlines as heuristics to prioritize tasks, and to measure time remaining to fulfill a task

2.1.3 Time Urgency and Team Performance

Although many researchers have been conducted on time urgency and type

A behavior, The research on time urgency and team performance is spare and inconsistent (Mohammed &Nadkarni, 2011) Previous research mainly focused on the affects of time urgency on individual performance level Some research state that time urgency may have a negative effect on performance For example, Friend (1982) findsout that time urgency and subjective workload both have a negative linear relation with performance results on a problem-solving exam Both variables were proven to be related with a higher level of stress, which is negative for individual performance Glass et al (1997) also find a negative relationship between time urgency and performance in a take which need performer be patient In contrast, Bingham and Hailey (1989) find out that high time-urgent individual perform better under deadline condition than low time-urgent individuals, and les time-urgent individual performance better high time-urgent individual under without deadline condition Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) also suggest that less time urgent individual would perform better high time urgent one in case of complicate tasks that need high attention and accuracy

Since it is generally accepted that a team’s effectiveness is partly determined

by the individual characteristics of its team members, a number of studies focused

on the effect of individual time urgency in relation to team performance Some individual characteristics are more facilitative to team effort than others and certain combinations of characteristics also enhance team performance Waller et al (1998) show that the presence of one time-urgent member increase team’s focus on primary task activity The author demonstrates that the actions of a time-urgent member might affect team behavior under deadline condition Meeting deadlines is viewed as one of measure of team’s performance The authors combined the constructs time urgency and time perspective and established four prototypical individual-level behavior patterns under deadline conditions The results indicate that a temporal mismatch between team members, where individual time urgency and time perspective greatly differ, would have a negative impact on the team’s performance This implies that teams are more effective when the team members have the same levels of time urgency and time perspective Time-urgent people who think they lack the time to make a considerate decision will rely on the things that worked in previous situation By hurrying, these individuals will more easily overlook certain parts of the circumstance that need more attention The inability to make considered decisions will reduce individual and organizational performance Thus, time urgency can have positive effects, such as increasing efficiency, as well

as negative effects on team performance

2.2 Time Perspective

2.2.1 Time Perspective

Individual’s time perspectives may result from various antecedents, including culture, religion, family, education, and work backgrounds (Mohammed and Nadkarni, 2011) Due to the constraints of time, a full investigation of these antecedents is beyond the scope of this paper Regardless of how they may developed, time perspectives affect how individuals perceive time and behave regarding time Individuals’ time perspectives act as temporal cognitive frames used

to “form expectations, goals, contingencies, and imaginative scenarios” (Zimbardo

& Boyd, 1999), which are all important in planning and execution activities

Researchers have different perspectives of time Some researchers argue that individual’s time perspective focus more on either past, present, or future time (Kluckhohn &Strodtbeck., 1961) Some others consider time perspective as a single element varying from a future orientation to a past-and-present orientation (Hofstede& Bond, 1988) However, researches on organizations had focus on the effect of present and future time perspective on individual decision making and job performance (Mohammed and Nadkarni, 2011); therefore, this paper just analysts

on present and future time perspective

Present-oriented individuals tend to believe that behaviors taken today have

no more effect on the probability of attaining a future goal than do future behaviors that could be taken as the goal nears Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) reveal that individuals with present time perspective focus on present pleasure and tend to (1) believe that planning for the future is somehow useless, (2) take more risk and act hastily, and lose sense of time seriously more than people with other time perspectives Other researchers also support this argument Das (1987) reveals that present-oriented individuals tended to make plans with shorter planning horizons, whereas Bird’s (1992) and West and Meyer’s (1998) researchsfind that teams with strong present-oriented individuals tend to focus less on future-oriented strategic thinking than other teams

Future time perspective is overall attitude toward time that focuses on the future (Nuttin, 1985) Individuals with future time perspective believe that a behavior performed today increases the probability of desired goals in future (Jones, 1988) Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) reveal that individuals with high future time perspectives were highly goal-oriented individuals and were more likely other individuals to consider future consequences, make to-do lists, wear a watch, and have more clearly defined future goals In addition, planner with future time

perspectives considered longer time horizons that did other planners West and Mayer (1998) prove that teams with more future-oriented individuals made more changes in strategic thinking than did teams with more present-oriented members

Future-oriented individuals tent to focus in long-term strategy, while oriented individual are likely involve more in day by day activities (Thom, 2004) Neither team with only future-oriented individuals or those with current viewers meets performance requirements Therefore, some researchers suggest that diversify with time perspective in teams helps to ensure performance (Mohammed & Harrison, 2007)

present-2.2.2 Time Perspective and team performance

While future-oriented people are likely to make a vision, involve in term planning, and willing to make change, present-oriented people tent to pay careful intention in day-to-day activities (Thoms, 2004) Because present and future oriented perspective have both advantages and disadvantages, neither teams composed of only long-term nor are those of only short-term oriented people likely

long-to consistently meet both performance requirements (Mohammed & Nadkarni, 2011)

The strengths of present-oriented people are they are good at keeping on track activities, rarely forgetting to do daily work, tend to do well at scheduling events, and know where everyone is and should be on a daily basis Present-oriented individuals tend to be good at understanding and evaluating the reactions

of other people because of their frequent interaction with them They show to be effective at the conductions of plans because of their scheduling skills Part of that present-oriented people can spend so much of their time on present-oriented activities is because they are spending little time planning for future (Thom, 2004) The disadvantages of present-oriented people are their short-term point of view, overseeing in every aspect of current activities in detail, spending little time to think

about the future They make improvement with short-term rather than long-term (Thom, 2004)

Future-oriented individuals also have some advantage They have good vision, detailed cognitive images of what the future can be, and behave accordingly with their vision They tend to pay attention to what is going on in the external environment and constantly assess their own position in contrast to that of others They are good at making people have future point of view with them People with future-oriented perspective also have some drawbacks They are good at create vision but not good at working with what is going to happen.They may not acknowledge the past accomplishment and contribution of others (Thom, 2004)

Because neither present-oriented nor future-oriented individuals have both good vision to draw out future and good scheduling to bring out day-to-day activities, groups with single time perspective hardly accomplish high performance

A diversity of time perspective in teams helps to ensure that both short-term and long-term objectives are adequately addressed (Mohammed & Harrison, 2007)

However, greater heterogeneity can also generate temporal ambiguities and conflicts among team members in planning and executing team activities (Waller et al., 2001) For example, present-oriented members tend to prefer shorter planning horizons; whereas future-oriented members favor longer planning horizons (Das, 1987) These differences may not only create ambiguity about team schedules, but also lead to temporal conflict In addition, members’ time perspective biases may cause them to ignore or discount valuable information from members with dissimilar time perspectives For instance, present-oriented individuals may be perceived as carelessly acting without adequately considering long-term consequences, and future-oriented individuals may be regarded as having an “day dream” mentality out of touch with day-to-day activities

Team temporal leadership is likely to serve as a situational mechanism to reduce the negative and support the positive aspects of diversity in time perspective (Ancona et al., 2001).When leaders engage in activities such as building in time for contingencies, enforcing schedules and deadlines through reminders, and balancing the attention given to short-and long-term activities through behavior sequencing, there is a greater ability that the strengths of present- and future-oriented members will be effectively utilized “Synchrony in group member expectation about deadlines may be critical to groups’ ability to accomplish successful transition in their work” (Gersick, 1989:305); therefore, stronger team temporal leadership may allow time perspective diversity to be properly leveraged

2.3 Team Temporal Leadership.

Mohammed & Nadkarni (2011) define team temporal leadership as integrating the time, interaction, performance theories with the nascent literature on temporal leadership The theory related studies have identified three closely related activities that could handle the problems arising from diversity of temporal individual differences: scheduling of activities, synchronization of activities, and allocation of temporal resources (McGrath & Kelly, 1986) Setting clear and well-understood schedules reduces temporal conflict by specifying which events happen when and by creating a coherent and unifiedplan of provisional deadlines and milestones that allow team members to follow their progress (Zerubavel, 1981) Synchronization of team activities reduces conflict of temporal interests by controlling the flow of the task, improving coordination among team members, and adjusting individual work cycles (Schriber, 1986; Schriber & Gutek, 1987) Finally, lack of temporal resources (time pressure) can be reduced by creating built-in times for unexpectedcontingencies, prioritizing task goals, and efficiently allocating temporal resources among team members (Schiber & Gutek, 1987) When team members experience less time pressure they are likely to be more productive and more committed to task accomplishment (Gevers, van Eerde, & Rutte, 2001)

Although the time, interaction, performance theory does not specify who will perform these three activities, other temporal researchers have stated that team leaders are often responsible for implementing time-related activities such as scheduling and reminding team members of deadlines (Gevers, Rutte, & van Eerde, 2004; Gevers et al., 2009) Because a team leader’s primary function is “to do, or get done, whatever is not being adequately handled for group needs” (McGrath, 1962:5), the task of managing temporal problem in a team often falls to the leader;indeed, leadership researchers are beginning to explicitly link temporal related activities to the leadership role For example, Ancona, Goodman, Lawrence, and Tushman (2001) use the term “temporal leadership” to address leadership challenges such as deciding how fast to act and managing multiple time frames Recently, Halbesleben, Novicevic, Harvey, and Kuckley (2003)point out that temporal activities recognizing time-related differences, and synchronizing the abilities of members should be integral to the leadership role Similarly, van der Erve advocated that “the notion of leadership should become more inclusive when it comes to the temporal or time-related needs of the organization” (2004: 605) Despite these calls, Bluedorn and Jaussi lamented that “the formal use of temporal variables in leadership research has been scares and scattered; work form temporal theory has not made its mark on the leadership process” (2008:657) Addressing this need, Mohammed & Nadkarni (2004), expand the nascent opinion of temporal leadership to the team context by conceptually and operationally examining the intersection of time, leadership, and teams

Team temporal leadership is leader behaviors that aid in structuring, coordinating, and managing the pacing task accomplishment in a team The dimensions of temporal leadership behaviors are scheduling, synchronizing task and allocating temporal resources (Mohammed, 2011) Temporal individual differences can create both advantages and disadvantages On the positive side, diversify of temporal in team members can be beneficially in complex, dynamic, and uncertain task environment (Eisenhardt, 2004; Mohammed & Harrison, 2007) On the

negative side, diversify of temporal in team member can create ambiguity and conflict among team members (Bartel & Milliken, 2004) Consequently, strong team temporal leadership can generate the benefit of temporal diversify in team member (Mohammed 2011)

2.4 Team Temporal Leadership and Team Performance

In addition to moderating the relationship between diversity of temporal individual differences and team performance, team temporal leadership may also contribute directly to team performance Because virtually all teams have implicit or explicit deadlines, the timely completion of work is regarded as a critical indicator

of team success in both science (e.g., Hackman, 1990) and practice (e.g., Fine, 1998) Indeed, effective adjustment to external temporal parameters is central to maximizing team performance in today’s business word, where team are closely tied to environmental pacers such as technology, customer, supplier, and economic cycles (Ancona et al., 2001)

Bridging the team-organization boundary, team temporal leadership behaviors may allow team leaders to create internal temporal structures that entrain the internal tempo, rhythm, and work cycles of a team’s activities to those of its external project environment (Ancona et al., 2001; Halbeslaben et al., 2003; Kelly&McGrath, 1986) For instance, setting interim milestones allow teams involved in complex, dynamic, and creative tasks to shift their attention from the developmental aspects of the project in the later phases so that deadlines are met (Gersick, 1989) Moreover, team temporal leadership behavior such as scheduling, synchronization, and temporal resource allocation can help team leaders better understand and communicate the complexities of department time frames (Ancona

et al., 2001) Crossan, Cunha, Vera and Cunha (2005) suggest that understanding temporal issues in an environment enables leaders to set the context for team activities and to develop a more integrated and flexible approach to time, which is likely to support adaptability and performance Therefore, leaders who establish

clear time frames and convey them to members through schedules, reminders, and interim milestones and time frames tied to project goals are better positioned to maximize team productivity (Halbesleben et al., 2003)

2.5Hypotheses Development

Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) have proved that Team temporal leadership positively impact team performance The author tests again this hypothesis in Vietnam conditions

Hypothesis 1 (H1): Team temporal leadership is positively related to team performance

Team temporal Leadership

Team performance

H1 +

Figure 2.1 Original model (Source: Mohammed and Nadkarni, 2011)

Next, the author put time urgency and future time perspective as moderators

on the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

Hypothesis H2a, H2b: Individual time urgency and future time perspective moderate the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

Figure 2.2 Suggested model

Suggested model: Time urgency and future time perspective moderate the

relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

Summary

Chapter two reveal theoretical research on team temporal leadership, individual time urgency, time perspective differences and team performance Basing on the research of Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) the author test on of their finding is that if there is any relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance in Vietnam context The author also suggest the new model that are time urgency and time perspective affect the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance

Team temporal

Leadership

Team performance

Time urgency

Future time perspective

H1 + H2a +

H2b +

CHAPTER 3:RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this chapter is to address the methods used in this study The items which had been addressed include research design, questionnaire development, and translation of the questionnaires, target population, sample frame, sample size, sample selection, sample characteristic, data collection and methods of data analysis

3.1 Research Design

This research included 2 main phases: Group discussion and main study

Group discussion referred to deep interview with small group of target participants (n = 7) to check the content and meaning of words which were used in

the measurement scales The result of the group discussion showed that the item

“The department’s timeliness in meeting task milestones and biweekly deadline

was” is not relevant in Vietnam working environment All participants in the

interview agreed that in Vietnam, the time line of task is usually by monthly,

quarterly, or yearly not biweekly.Therefore, it was excluded

Next, the main study was conducted using online survey (web-based, docs.goolge.com) and face to face interview

3.2 Questionnaire Development

The survey included four sections They are individual temporal characteristic, team temporal leadership, team performance and socio-demographic profile questions A short andclear instruction was given at the beginning of each section to tell respondent what the purposes of the questionnaires are and how to answerthem (Babbie, 1998) All items were assessed on Likert-type scales

The purpose of this phase is to adjust the scales in the literature review, modify the questionnaires to be suitable with Vietnam condition Base on the initial questionnaires, which derived from the primary purpose and theoretical background, the author builds the first draft questionnaires However, the first draft questionnaires were hardly applicable in Vietnam condition Therefore, the quantitative would be handled through deep interview technique with the participation of twenty employees to get the final questionnaires

Figure 3.1 Research Process

CFA: Confirmatory Factor Analysis

3.3 Scale

3.3.1 Time Urgency Scale

Time urgency assessed using a six-item scale derived from the general and task-related hurry subscales of a measure developed and validated by Landy and colleagues (1991) The hurry subscales capture the degree to which individuals feel chronically hurried and rush in carrying out their work Respondent’s rates six items from 1, “strongly disagree,” to 7, “strongly agree” The six items of time urgency scaled was coded as TU1, TU2, TU3, TU4, TU5, TU6, and it meaning was as the table below

Table 3.1 Time Urgency Scale

1 I find myself hurrying to get places even when there is plenty of time TU1

3 People that know me well agree that I tend to do most things in a hurry TU3

4 I tend to be quick and energetic at work TU4

6 My spouse or a close friend would rate me as definitely relaxed and

easy going

TU6 Source: Landy et al., (1991)

3.3.2 Future Time Perspective

Future time perspective was assessed with the Consideration of Future Consequences Scale developed and validated by Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, and Edwards (1994) This 12-item scale, which measures the extent to which individuals consider distant outcomes versus immediate benefits in choosing behaviors, was rated from 1, “strongly disagree” to 7 “ strongly agree.” All of twelve items of future time perspective was coded as FC1 to FC12

Table 3.2 Future consequence scale

1 I consider how things might be in the future, and try to influence those

things with my day to day behavior

FC1

2 Often I engage in a particular behavior in order to achieve outcomes

that may not result for many years

FC2

3 I only act to satisfy immediate concerns, figuring the future will take

care of itself

FC3

Table 3.2 Future consequence scale (continue)

4 My behavior is only influenced by the immediate (i.e., a matter of days

or weeks) outcomes of my actions

FC4

5 My convenience is a big factor in the decisions I make or the actions I

take

FC5

6 I am willing to sacrifice my immediate happiness or well-being in

order to archive future outcomes

FC6

7 I think it is important to take warnings about negative outcomes

seriously even if the negative outcomes will not occur for many years

FC7

8 I think it is more important to perform a behavior with important

distant consequences than a behavior with less-important immediate

FC8

consequences

9 I generally ignore warning about possible future problem because I

think the problems will be resolved before they reach crisis level

FC9

10 I think that sacrificing now is usually unnecessary since future

outcome can be dealt with at a later time

FC10

11 I only act to satisfy immediate concerns, figuring that I will take care

of future problems that may occur at a later date

FC11

12 Since my day to day work has specific outcomes, it is more important

to me than behavior that has distant outcomes

FC12 Source: Strathman et al., (1994)

3.3.3 Temporal Leadership Scale

One of the criticisms impose against leadership research is the overuse of redeveloped instruments that capture only a small subset of essential leader behaviors (Hunter at al., 2007) Because the notion of team temporal leadership has been virtually ignored in empirical research, it was necessary to develop a measure for the present study Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) developed a seven-item scale by partially adapting scales for temporal planning (Janicik & Bartel, 2003) and temporal reminders (Gevers et al., 2006) and modifying these scales to be leader-specific They also composed additional items to fully capture McGrath’s (1991) description of scheduling, synchronization, and allocation of temporal resources and Ancona and colleagues’ (2001) conceptualization of temporal leadership Item responses were coded from 1, “not at all,” to 7, “at a very great extant” These items were coded as TL1 to TL7

Table 3.3 Team Temporal Leadership

Team Temporal Leadership Scale Code

1 To what extent does your leader reminds department’s members of

3 To what extent does your leader prepare and build in time for

contingencies, problems, and emerging issues?

6 To what extent does your leader effective in coordinating the

department to meet task deadline?

TL6

7 To what extent is your leader effective in coordinating the department

to meet client deadlines?

TL7 Source: Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011)

3.3.4 Team Performance Scale

Team performance is multidimensional (Hackman, 1990), and although quantity and quality are measured far more frequently in team research (e.g., Austin, 2003; Chen & Klimoski, 2003), it was especially important to include the timeliness of work completion because of the temporal emphasis in the current study Mohammed and Nadkarni assess team performance via four items capturing teams’ timeliness in meeting task milestones, clients’ satisfaction with team performance, and overall performance

The group discussion discovered that the item “ The department’s timeliness in meeting task milestones and biweekly deadlines was” was not relevance because in Vietnam working environment tasks were usually evaluated by the end of the month, quarter or year Therefore, this item was excluded The remained items were coded as TP1 to TP3

Table 3.4 Team Performance

Team Performance Scale Code

1 Please rate the timeline by which this department’s task was completed TP1

2 The department’s timeliness in meeting task milestones and biweekly

4 Your valuation of the department’s overall performance on this task

The term back-translation referred to the translation of a translation back into the original language (Presser et al., 2004) The purpose of back translation was to compare, contrast the back translation with the source text with a view to assessing the quality of the translation For survey translation, back translation is seen as offering a solution to the fact that researchers often need information about the quality of translations without being able to read and evaluate these themselves

The basic steps were as follows:

ƒ Firstly, a source text in one language (Source Language Text One, SLT1)

was translated into another language (Target Language Text, TLT) using parallel translation technique

ƒ Secondly, The TLT was translated back into the origin language by a second

interpreter, who unfamiliar with the SLT1 and uninformed that there was

an SLT1 This second translation was SLT2

ƒ Thirdly, SLT1 was compared to SLT2

ƒ At the end, on the basis of differences or similarities between SLT1 and

SLT2, conclusions were drawn about the equivalence of TLT to SLT1

ƒ In this paper, SLT1 and SLT2 were found close in meaning across translated

items Therefore, the author decided to use the first translation to conduct group discussion

3.4 Group Discussion

The questionnaires was pre-tested using 7 respondents who were working at Mega We Care (n=1) BIDV (n=1) DaklakHospital (n=2), Vietjet Air (n=1), Viet Guy (n=1), Vietcomreal (n=1) The individuals were not included in the final sample The qualitative comments received were mostly regarding wording and repetitions of the items

Because all comments on repetitions were on reverse score items, no revision

on the questionnaire was made All modifications were for wording to make the translation clearer and closer to Vietnamese They were “chậm rãi” replaced by “từ

tốn” (item 1), “tương lai thì để tương lai lo” replaced by “ ngày mai thì để lo sau”( item 9), “kết quả ngay lập tức” replaced by “kết quả trước mắt” (item 10)

3.5 Target Population

The target population for this research was employee in Vietnam, who had been working with direct leader in a period of time less than 36 months, and has a direct contact with clients The reason, why working time of responders with their direct leader must be smaller than 36 months, is that one factor to be considered in this paper is “team temporal leadership” In this case, the leader and followers had just

working together in a short period of time (less than 36 months) The respondents must have direct contact with clients so that one can evaluate their team

performances by client’s satisfaction score

3.6 Sample Size

A sample size for a linear regression analysis is various between researchers A full investigation of this issue is beyond the scope of this paper Green (1991) suggest the number of subject, N, should always equal or greater than a constant A (N ≥ A) Another form stipulates a recommended minimum ratio B of subjects-to-predictors (i.e., N ≥ Bm, where m is the number of predictors) Nguyen Dinh Tho(2011) suggests that to test exploratory factor analysis, sample size at least 8m +

50 However he also suggest that when the number of item is over 7, that formula become too strictly and we do need to have such a big sample

In this paper, the author followed the suggest of Tabacnick and Fidell’s (1989) that number of subjects for each independent variable in regression analysis should be five samples per item Because there were total 28 variables (items) in the questionnaires, the ideal sample size of this study was 140; the author target to have at least 190 responses

3.7 Selecting The Sample and Collecting Data

In qualitative research, probability sampling is a better than non-probability sampling because it is more representing the population Probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection (William, 2006) However, due to the limitation of time and aids, the probability sampling, base on age, gender, education, sectors could not be conduct In this paper, the author usesthe convenience sampling technique

Convenience sampling is non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher (Joan, 2009) The most disadvantage of this technique is sampling bias and that the sample is not representative of the entire population

Systematic bias stems from sampling bias This refers to a constant difference between the result from the sample and the theoretical results from the entire population It is not rare that the results from a study that uses a convenience sample differ significantly with the results from the entire population A consequence of having systematic bias is obtaining skewed results(Joan, 2009)

Another significant criticism about using a convenience sample is the limitation in generalization and inference making about the entire population Since the sample is not representative of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the entire population This results to a low external validity of the study (Joan, 2009)

Main study’s field work was conducted from July 05 to July 20 2012 by the author and assistants The survey was sent by both online interview (through email, facebook.com) and offline interview (face to face interview, mail) The online responses were 65 and off line were 213 60 answers were excluded because of missing items, not logical answer in reverse scores, and not fulfilling the requirement predefine criteria ( ) The respond rate by email was 54/200 (27%) and off line interview was 213/420 (50.7%) The remain 11 answer are through social network facebook.com

3.8 Methods of Data Analysis

3.8.1 Data Screening

Firstly, the author filtered qualified respondents, who met the predefined criteria as mention in sample characteristic section Next, for offline respondents,

the author will check the missing answers (all online respondents were fulfilled because the author put “require” in each item) Lastly, the author checks the logical

of respondents of reversed items

3.8.2 Reliability

The author used Cronbach’s Alpha to test the reliability of the measurement The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient is traditionally reported in statistics as the measure of internal consistency of responses across the set of items (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004) It calculated the average of all possible split-half reliability coefficients A computed alpha coefficient varies from 0, denoting no internal reliability to 1, denoting perfect internal reliability However, if a Cronback alpha is too big ( α > 0.95) it may not really good because of redundancy problem

It means that the items in the scale have similar meaning Therefore, A scale with Cronbach’s alpha from 0.7 to 0.8 is accepted, from 0.8 to 0.9 is good (Nguyen Dinh Tho, 2011) If the research problem is new with the respondents, a Cronbach’s

alpha above 0.6 is accepted (Chu Nguyen Mong Ngoc & Hoang Trong, 2010)

Simultaneously with Cronback Alpha, the author considersCorrected Total Correlation to test the reliable of the items An item can be include in the measurement if it’s corrected item-total correlation larger than 0.3 (Chu Nguyen Mong Ngoc & Hoang Trong, 2010)

Item-3.8.3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Prior to conducting hypotheses test, the author conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test the model fit or whether the data fit the hypothesises CFA is theory-or hypothesis driven With CFA it is possible to place substantively meaningful constraints on the factor model Researchers can specify the number of factors or set the effect of one latent variable on observed variables to particular values CFA allows researchers to test hypotheses about a particular factor structure (e.g., factor loading between the first factor and first observed variable is zero)

Unlike EFA (Exploratory Factor Analysis), CFA produces many goodness-of-fit measures to evaluate the model but do not calculate factor scores

A large class of omnibus tests exists for assessing how well the model matches the observed data Chi-Square (χ2) is a classic goodness-of-fit measure to determine overall model fit The null hypothesis is that the implied or predicted covariance matrix Σ is equivalent to the observed sample covariance matrix S, Σ =

S A large χ2 and rejection of the null hypothesis means that model estimates do not sufficiently reproduce sample covariance; the model does not fit the data well In contrast, a small χ2 and failure to reject the null hypothesis is a sign of a good model fit However, the χ2 test may also be invalid when distributional assumption are violated, leading to the rejection of good models or the retention of bad ones χ2

is based on a very stringent hypothesis of Σ = S (Brown, 2006:81)

Due to these drawbacks of χ2 test many alternative fit statistics have been developed, though each has its own advantages and disadvantages They are the

to the data (Albright & Park, 2009)

TLI: TLI is another index for comparative fit that “includes a penalty function for adding freely estimated parameters” (Brown, 2006) TLI can be interpreted in a similar fashion as CFI, but it can have a value outside of the range

of 0 to 1

RMSEA: this index used to assess residuals and adjusts parsimony in the model Its value must be equal to or less than 0.08 for and adequate model fit (Albright & Park, 2009)

GFI: GFI introduced by Jöreskog and Sörbom (1984) Like TLI and CFI, GFI is less than or equal to 1 A value of 1 indicates a perfect fit

There is no single evaluation rule on which everyone agrees However, researchers agree that when RMSEA values are below 0.8 and CFI, TLI range from 0.9 to 1, CMIN/DF smaller 5 with p value >0.05 indicate a good model fit (Albright

& Park, 2009)

Table 3.5 Assessing Fit Indices

Goodness- of fit Indices Code Desired rang of values

for a good fit Absolute Fit Indices

Chi-Square/Degrees of Freedom ratio χ2 /df < 5

Root Mean Square Error of Approximation RMSEA ≤ 80

Incremental Fit Indices

Source: Albright & Park, 2009; Brown (2006); Jöreskog and Sörbom (1984)

In addition to goodness- of fit Indices, the author examines 1) reliability of measurement bases on composite reliability, variance extracted, and Cronbach’s Alpha 2) unidimensionality, 3) convergent validity, 4) discriminant validity, and 5) nomological validity (Nguyen Dinh Tho & Nguyen Thi Mai Trang, 2011)

3.8.4 Analysis of Variance

Independent sample T-test was used to examine the equality between gender (male and female) in team performance One-way ANOVA was use to test the equality among age and education group because these variable have more than two

group To test the equality of more than group, we use One-way ANOVANguyen Dinh Tho (2011)

After conduct T-test and One-way ANOVA, if there is any different of equality in team performance between group the author would continue conduct Two-way ANOVA to further test

3.8.5 Correlation Analysis

The Pearson correlation coefficient is also known as the sample correlation

coefficient (r), product-moment correlation coefficient, or coefficient of correlation

It was introduced by Galton in 1877 and developed later by Pearson (Neter et al.,

1990) It measures the linear relationship between two random variables An

inter-correlation above 0.80 or 0.85 implies poor discriminate validity (Brown, 2006)

Direction

There are two types or directions of correlation In other words, there are two patterns that correlations can follow These are called positive correlation and negative correlation

Positive correlation

In a positive correlation, as the values of one of the variables increase, the values of the second variable also increase Likewise, as the value of one of the variables decreases, the value of the other variable also decreases The example above of income and education is a positive correlation People with higher incomes also tend to have more years of education People with fewer years of education tend to have lower income

Negative correlation

In a negative correlation, as the values of one of the variables increase the values of the second variable decrease Likewise, as the value of one of the variables decreases the value of the other variable increases

A correlation tells us that the two variables are related, but we cannot say anything about whether one caused the other This method does not allow us to come to any conclusions about cause and effect but Regression does

3.8.6 Regression Analysis

Regression analysis is a statistical tool for the investigation of relationships between variables (Nguyen Dinh Tho, 2011) To ascertain the causal effect team temporal leadership on team performance, I assembled data on the underlying variable (team temporal leadership) on team performance I assessed their relationship base on the “statically significance” of the estimated relationships, that

is, the degree of confidence that the true relationship is close to the estimated relationship

The hierarchical regression was used when lack of literature review to support the research concept (Nguyen Dinh Tho, 2011) Since the literature review

to support the moderating role of time urgency and time perspective on the relationship between team temporal leadership and team performance is still spare (the author search on Google and Google scholar but did not find relevance research

on this issues), the author use hierarchical regression procedure in this paper

A moderator is a variable that affects the direction/ strength of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986) A common method to test two-way interaction statistically is to conduct regression the dependent variable (Y) on the dependent variable (X) and

the moderating variable (M), in the next step, add the interaction XM in to the equation In this study, the moderating relationship was tested using hierarchical regression procedures

Aiken and West (1991) point out that before conducting regression, each predictor should be centered by its mean to maximize interpretability and to minimize problem of multicollinearity Then enter the X variable in the first regression model In the second model, enter the interaction (Xcenter * Mcenter) into the equation If the adjusted R2 inthe second model is significantly higher than the one in the first model, and the coefficient for the interaction is significant, there

is evidence that the moderator variable moderates the relationship between the independent and dependent variable

Summary

Chapter 3 had introduced how this paper was designed, how the measurements were developed to be applicable in Vietnam situation, and who are the target respondents The author also introduced some methods of data analysis prior to test the hypotheses, they are they reliable test to test the reliability of the measurements, Confirmatory Factor Analysis to confirm if the model fit the data, and Correlation analysis to test the discriminate validity between measurements Al the tests indicated the measurements, the model and data can be used to conduct regression analysis Last but not least, the author presents method of Regression analysis to test the hypotheses