A classical introduction to modern number theory, kenneth ireland, michael rosen 1

In preparation for this many of the techniques ofalgebraic number theory are introduced; algebraic numbers and algebraicintegers, finite fields, splitting of primes, etc.. In Chapter 18

Graduate Texts in Mathematics 84

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(continued after index)

Kenneth Ireland

Michael Rosen

A Classical Introduction to Modern Number Theory

Second Edition

Springer

University of Michigan Ann Arbor,MI48109 USA

Michael Rosen Department of Mathematics Brown University

Providence , RI 02912 USA

K A Ribet Department of Mathematics University of California

at Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720·3840 USA

Mathematics Subject Classification (2000): II QI, 11-02

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ireland, Kenneth F.

A classical introduction to modem number theory / Kenneth

Ireland, Michael Rosen.-2nd ed

p cm.-(Graduate texts in mathematics; 84)

Include s bibliographical references and index

I Number theory I Rosen , Michael I II Title III Series

QA241.I667 1990

512.7-dc20

90-9848 Printed on acid-free paper

"A Classical Introduction to Modem Number Theory" is a revised and expanded version of Elements of Number Theory " published in 1972by Bogden and Quigley, Inc , PUbl ishers.

©1972, 1982, 1990 Springer Science+Business Media New York

Originallypublished by Springer-Verlag New York, Inc in 1990.

All rights reserved This work may not be transl ated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation , computer software, or

by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc , in this publication , even if the former are not especially identified , is not to be taken as a sign that such names ,

as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchand ise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone

This reprint has been authorizedby Springer-Verlag (Beriin/HeidelberglNew York) for sale in

the People's Republicof China onlyand not for export therefrom.

Reprinted in China by BeijingWorldPublishingCorporation, 2003

987

ISBN 978-1-4419-3094-1 ISBN 978-1-4757-2103-4 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-2103-4

Preface to the Second Edition

It is now 10 years since the first edit ion of this book appeared in 1980 Theintervening decade has seen tremendous advances take place in mathe-matic s generally, and in number theory in particular It would seem desir-able to treat some of these advances , and with the addition of two newchapter s, we are able to cover some portion of this new material

As examples of important new work that we have not included, wemention the following two results :

(I) The first case of Fermat's last theorem is true for infinitely manyprime exponentsp. This means that, for infinitely many primesp ,theequ ation x P + yP = zPhas no solutions in nonzero integers with p r

.ryz Th is was proved by L.M Adelman and D.R Heath-Brown andindependently by E Fouvry An overview of the proof is given by

Heath-Brown in the Mathematical Intellig encer (Vol 7, No.6, 1985).

(2) Let PI , P2,and P3be three distinct primes Then at least one of them is

a primitive root for infinitely many primes q. Recall that E Artinconjectured that, ifaE 7L is not 0, I, - I,or a square, then there are

infinitely many primes q such that a is a primitive root modulo q The

theorem we have stated was proved in a weaker form by R Gupta andM.R Murty, and then strengthened by the combined efforts of R.Gupta, M.R Murty, V.K Murty , and D.R Heath-Brown An exposi-tion of this result, as well as an analogue on elliptic curves , is given byM.R Murty in the Mathematic:allntelligencer(Vol 10, No.4, 1988).The new material that we have added falls principally within the frame-work of arithmetic geometry In Chapter 19 we give a complete proof ofL.J Mord ell's fundamental theorem , which asserts that the group of ra-tional points on an elliptic curve, defined over the rational numbers, isfinitely generated In keeping with the spirit of the book, the proof (due inessence to A Weil) is elementary.Itmakes no use of cohomology groups

or any other advanced machinery Itdoes use finiteness of class numberand a weak form of the Dirichlet unit theorem; both results are proved inthe text

The second new chapter, Chapter 20, is an overview of G Faltings 'sproof of the Mordell conjecture and recent progress on the arithmetic of

v

vi Preface to the Second Editionelliptic curves, especially the work of B Gross , V.A Kolyvagin , K.Rubin , and D Zagier Some of this work has surprising applications toother areas of number theory We discuss one application to Fermat's lasttheorem , due to G Frey, J.P Serre, and K Ribet Another importantapplication is the solution of an old problem due to K F Gauss aboutclass numbers of imaginary quadratic number fields This comes about bycombining the work of B Gross a nd D Zagier with a result of D Gold-feld This chapter contains few proofs Its main purpose is to give aninformative survey in the hope that the reader will be inspired to learn thebackground necessary to a better understanding and appreciation of theseimportant new developments

The rest of the book is essentially unchanged An attempt has beenmade to correct errors and misprints In an effort to keep confusion to aminimum, we have not changed the bibliography at the end of the book New references for the two new chapters, Chapters 19 and 20, will befound at the end of those chapters We would like to thank Tom Nakaharaand others for submitting a list of misprints from the first edition Also, wethank Linda Guthrie for typing portions of the final chapters

We have both been very pleased with the warm reception that the firstedition of this book received It is our hope that the new edition willcontinue to entice readers to delve deeper into the mysteries of this an-cient, beautiful, and still vital subject

Michael Rosen

Addendum to Second Edition Second Corrected Printing

The second printing of the second edit ion is unchanged except for tion s and the addition of a few clarifying comments I would like to thank

correc-K Conrad, M Jastrzebsk i, F Lemmermeyer and others who took thetrouble to send us detailed lists of misprints

Notes for the Second Edition, Fifth Corrected Printing

In 1995Andrew Wiles published a paper in the Annals of Mathematicswhich proved the Taniyarna-Shimura-Weil conjecture is true for semi-stableelliptic curves over the rational numbers Together with earlier results, prin-cipally the theorem of Ken Ribet mentioned on page 347, this provedFermat's Last Theorem The most famous conjecture in elementary numbertheory is finally a theorem!!!

Number theory is an ancient subject and its content is vast Any ductory book must, of necessity, make a very limited selection from thefascinating array of possible topics Our focus is on topics which point in thedirection of algebraic number theory and arithmetic algebraic geometry Byacareful selection of subject matter we have found it possible to exposit somerather advanced material without requiring very much in the way of technicalbackground Most of this material is classical in the sense that is was dis-covered during the nineteenth century and earlier, but it is also modernbecause it is intimately related to important research going on at the presenttime.

intro-In Chapters 1-5 we discuss prime numbers, unique factorization, metic functions, congruences, and the law of quadratic reciprocity Very little

arith-is demanded in the way of background Nevertheless it arith-is remarkable how amodicum of group and ring theory introduces unexpected order into thesubject For example, many scattered results turn out to be parts of the answer

to a natural question: What is the structure of the group of units in the ring

7L/n7L?

Reciprocity laws constitute a major theme in the later chapters The law

of quadratic reciprocity, beautiful in itself, is the first of a series of reciprocitylaws which lead ultimately to the Artin reciprocity law one of the majorachievements of algebraic number theory We travel along the road beyondquadratic reciprocity by formulating and proving the laws of cubic andbiquadratic reciprocity In preparation for this many of the techniques ofalgebraic number theory are introduced; algebraic numbers and algebraicintegers, finite fields, splitting of primes, etc Another important tool in this

vii

viii Preface

investigation (and in others!) is the theory of Gauss and Jacobi sums Thismaterial is covered in Chapters6-9 Later in the book we formulate and provethe more advanced partial generalization of these results, the Eisensteinreciprocity law

A second major theme is that of diophantine equations, at first over finitefields and later over the rational numbers The d iscussion of polynomialequations over finite fields is begun in Chapters 8 and 10 and culminates inChapter II with an exposition of a portion of the paper" Number of solutions

of equations over finite fields " by A Weil This paper, published in 1948, hasbeen very influential in the recent development of both algebraic geometryand number theory In Chapters 17 and 18we consider diophantine equationsover the rational numbers Chapter 17 covers many standard topics fromsums of squares to Fermat's Last Theorem However, because of materialdeveloped earlier we are able to treat a number of these topics from a novelpoint of view Chapter 18 is about the arithmetic of elliptic curves It dif-fers from the earlier chapters in that it is primarily an overview with manydefinitions and statements of results but few proofs Nevertheless, by con-centrating on some important special cases we hope to convey to the readersomething of the beauty of the accomplishments in this area where much work

is being done and many mysteries remain

The third, and final, major theme is that of zeta functions In Chapter 11 wediscuss the congruence zeta function associated to varieties defined over finitefields In Chapter 16 we discuss the Riemann zeta function and the DirichletL-functions In Chapter 18 we discuss the zeta function associated to analgebraic curve defined over the rational numbers and Heeke L-functions.Zeta funct ions compress a large amount of arithmetic information into asingle function and make possible the application of the powerful methods ofanalysis to number theory

Throughout the book we place considerable emphasis on the history of.our subject In the notes at the end of each chapter we give a brief historicalsketch and provide references to the literature The bibliography is extensivecontaining many items both classical and modern Our aim has been toprovide the reader with a wealth of material for further study

There are many exercises, some rout ine, some challenging Some of theexercises supplement the text by providing a step by step guide through theproofs of important results In the later chapters a number of exercises havebeen adapted from results which have appeared in the recent literature Wehope that working through the exercises will be a source of enjoyment as well

as instruction

In the writing of this book we have been helped immensely by the interest

a nd assistance of many mathematical friends and acquaintances We thankthem all In particular we would like to thank' Henry Pohlmann who insisted

we follow certain themes to their logical conclusion, David Goss for allowing

us to incorporate some of his work into Chapter 16, and Oisin McGuinessfor his invaluable assistance in the preparation of Chapter 18 We would

Preface ix

like to thank Dale Cavanaugh, Janice Phillips, and especially Carol Ferreira,for their patience and expertise in typing large portions of the manuscript.Finally, the second author wishes to express his gratitude to the VaughnFoundation Fund for financial support during his sabbatical year inBerkeley , California (1979/80)

Michael Rosen

Applications of Unique Factorization

§I Infinitely Many Primes in7l

§2 Some Arithmetic Functions

The Structure ofU("l./ n"l.)

§I Primitive Roots and the Group Structure ofU(71.1 n71.)

§2 nth Power Residues

Quadratic Reciprocity

§I Quadratic Residue s

§2 Law of Quadratic Reciprocity

§3 A Proof of the Law of Quadratic Reciprocity

17

17 18 2122

28282931

34

3939

45

50

5053

58

xi

Quadratic Gauss Sums

§I Algebraic Numbers and Algebraic Integers

§2 The Quadratic Character of 2

§3 Quadratic Gauss Sum s

§4 The Sign of the Quadratic Gauss Sum

Finite Fields

§I Basic Properties of Finite Fields

§2 The Existence of Finite Fields

§3 An Application to Quadratic Residues

Gauss and Jacobi Sums

§I Multipl icative Characters

§2 Gauss Sums

§3 Jacobi Sums

§4 The Equationx" +y"=I inF p

§5 More on Jacobi Sums

§6 Applications

§7 A General Theorem

Cubic and Biquadratic Reciprocity

§I The Ringl[w]

§2 Residue Class Rings

§3 Cubic Residue Character

§4 Proof of the Law of Cubic Reciprocity

§5 Another Proof of the Law of Cubic Reciprocity

§6 The Cubic Character of 2

§7 Biquadratic Reciprocity : Preliminaries

§8 The Quartic Residue Symbol

§9 The Law of Biquadratic Reciprocity

§10 Rational Biquadratic Reciprocity

§II The Constructibility of Regular Polygons

§12 Cub ic Gauss Sums and the Problem of Kummer

Equations over Finite Fields

§I Affine Space , Projective Space , and Polynomials

7073

108

109III112 115 117 118 119121123127130131

138

138143145

Contents xiii

§3 The Rationality of the Zeta Function Associated to

The Stickelberger Relation and the Eisenstein Reciprocity Law 203

Diophantine Equations

§ I Generalities and First Examples

§2 The Method of Descent

§3 Legendre's Theorem

§4 Sophie Germain 's Theorem

§5 Pelt's Equation

§6 Sums of Two Squares

§7 Sums of Four Squares

§8 The Fermat Equation : Exponent 3

§9 Cubic Curves with Infinitely Many Rational Points

§1O The Equationy 2=xl +k

§IIThe First Case of Fermat's Conjecture for Regular Exponent

§12 Diophantine Equations and Diophantine Approximation

Elliptic Curves

§I Generalities

§2 Local and Global Zeta Functions of an Elliptic Curve

§3y2= xl +D, the Local Case

§4y 2= Xl - Dx, the Local Case

§5 Heeke L-functions

§6y2= x l - Dx , the Global Case

§7y 2=Xl +D, the Global Case

§8 Final Remarks

The Mordell-Weil Theorem

§I The Addition Law and Several Identities

§2 The Group EI2E

§3 The Weak Dirichlet Unit Theorem

§4 The Weak Mordell-Weil Theorem

§5 The Descent Argument

New Progress in Arithmetic Geometry

§I The Mordell Conjecture

§2 Elliptic Curves

§3 Modular Curves

§4 Heights and the Height Regulator

§5 New Results on the Birch-Swinnerton-Dyer Conjecture

§6 Applications to Gau ss's Class Number Conjecture

Selected Hints for the Exercises

Bibliography

Index

Contents

269269271

272

275276278280284287288290292

297297301304306307310312314

319320323326328330

339340343345348353358367 375 385

Chapter 1

Unique Factorization

The notion of prime number is fundamental in number

theory The first part of this chapter is devoted to proving

that every integer can be written as a product of primes

in an essentially unique way.

After that, we shall prove an analogous theorem in the

ring ofpolynomials over a field.

On a more abstract plane, the general idea of unique

factorization is treated for principal ideal domains.

Finally, returning from the abstract to the concrete, the

general theory is applied to two special rings that will be

important later in the book.

As a first approximation, number theory may be defined as the study of thenatural numbers 1,2,3,4, L Kronecker once remarked (speaking ofmathematics generally) that God made the natural numbers and all the rest

is the work of man Although the natural numbers constitute, in some sense,the most elementary mathematical system, the study of their properties hasprovided generations of mathematicians with problems of unending fascina-tion

We say that a number adivides a numberb if there is a number c such

thatb = ac If a divides b, we use the notation alb For example, 218,3115,

but 6,(21 If we are given a number, it is tempting to factor it again andagain until further factorization is impossible For example, 180= 18 x 10

=2 x 9 x 2 x 5=2 x 3 x 3 x 2 x 5 Numbers that cannot be factoredfurther are called primes To be more precise, we say that a numberp is a

prime if its only divisors are I and p. Prime numbers are very importantbecause every number can be written as a product of primes Moreover,primes are of great interest because there are many problems about themthat are easy to state but very hard to prove Indeed many old problemsabout primes are unsolved to this day

The first prime numbers are 2,3,5,7, 11, 13, 17, 19,23,29,31,37,41,

43, One may ask if there are infinitely many prime numbers The answer

is yes Euclid gave an elegant proof of this fact over 2000 years ago We shallgive his proof and several others in Chapter 2 One can ask other questions

2 1 Unique Factorization

of this nature Letn(x)be the number of primes between I andx. What can

be said about the functionn(x)?Several mathematicians found by experimentthat for large x the function n(x)was approximately equal to x /ln(x) Thisassertion, known as the prime number theorem, was proved toward the end

of the nineteenth century byJ.Hadamard and independently by Ch.-J de laValle Poussin More precisely, they proved

lim n(x) = I

Even from a small list of primes one can notice that they have a tendency

to occur in pairs, for example, 3 and 5, 5 and 7, I I and 13, 17 and 19 Dothere exist infinitely many prime pairs? The answer is unknown

Another famous unsolved problem is known as the Goldbach conjecture

(c H Goldbach) Can every even number be written as the sum of twoprimes? Goldbach came to this conjecture experimentally Nowadayselectronic computers make it possible to experiment with very large numbers

No counterexample to Goldbach's conjecture has ever been found Greatprogress toward a proof has been given byI.M Vinogradov and L Schnirel-mann In 1937 Vinogradov was able to show that every sufficiently large oddnumber is the sum of three odd pr imes

In this book we shall not study in depth the distribution of prime numbers

or additive" problems about them (such as the Goldbach conjecture).Rather our concern will be about the way primes enter into the multiplica tivestructure of numbers The main theorem along these lines goes back essen-tially to Euclid It is the theorem of unique factorization This theorem issometimes referred to as the fundamental theorem of arithmetic It deservesthe title In one way or another almost all the results we shall discuss depend

on it The theorem states that every number can be factored into a product ofprimes in a un ique way What un iqueness means will be explained below

As an illustration consider the number 180 We have seen that 180=

2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5= 22 X 32 X 5 Uniqueness in this case means thatthe only primes dividing 180 are 2, 3, and 5 and that the exponents 2, 2, and

I are uniquely determined by 180

71.will denote the ring of integers, i.e., the set 0, ±I, ±2,±3, , togetherwith the usual definition of sum and product.Itwill be more convenient towork with 71 rather than restricting ourselves to the positive integers Thenotion of divisibility carries over with no difficulty to 71 Ifp is a positive

prime, - p will also be a pr ime We shall not consider I or - I as pr imes even

though they fit the definition This is simply a useful convention Note that

I and -1 divide everything and that they are the only integers with thisproperty They are called the units of71 Notice also that every nonzerointeger divides zero As is usual we shall exclude division by zero

There are a number of simple properties of division that we shall simplylist The reader may wish to supply the proofs

§l Unique Factor izatio n in 1.

(I) ala, a :1=O

(2) If a lb and b la, then a = ± b.

(3) If alb and bl e, then ale.

(4) If alb and a le, then alb + e

3

Let nE1Land letp be a prime Then if n is not zero, there is a nonnegative integer a such that pain but pa+1,rn This is easy to see if both p and n are

positive for then the powers ofpget larger and larger and eventually exceedn.

The other cases are easily reduced to this one The numberais called the

order of n at pand is denoted by ord,n. Roughly speaking ord,n is thenumber of times p divides n If n = 0, we set ord,0 = 00 Notice that

ord,n = 0 if and only if (iff) p,r n.

Lemma 1 Every nonzero integer can be written as a product ofprimes.

PROOF Assume that there is an integer that cannot be written as a product ofprimes Let N be the smallest positive integer with this property Since N

cannot itself be prime we must have N =mn, where I < m, n < N

How-ever, since m and n are positive and smaller than N they must each be a

product of primes But then so is N = mn This is a contradiction

The proof can be given in a more positive way by using mathematicalinduction It is enough to prove the result for all positive integers 2 is a

pr ime Suppose that 2 < N and that we have proved the result for allnumbersmsuch that 2 ~ m < N We wish to show that Nis a product ofprimes If N is a prime , there is nothing to do If N is not a prime , then

N = mn ,where 2~ m , n < N By induction both m and n are products of

By collecting terms we can write n = p~ 'p~2 p':,.m , where the Pi are

primes and the a, are nonnegative integers We shall use the follow ing

notation :

n =(-IY(II)npal P),

p

where e(n) = 0 or I depending on whether n is positive or negative and

where the product is over all positive primes The exponentsa(p) are negative integers and , of course,a(p) = 0 for all but finitely many primes For example, ifn = 180, we have e(n)=0, a(2) =2, a(3) =2, and a(5) = I,and all othera(p) = O

non-We can now state the ma in theorem

Theorem 1 For every nonzero intege r n there is a prime fa ctori zation

n = (_1 )' (11)Ilp alPI,

p

with the exponents uniquely det ermined by n Infaet, we have a(p) = ord,n.

-Definition Ifai' a2' , anE7L ,we define (al' a2' , an)to be the set of

a ll integers of the form alx 1+a2x2 + +anXnwith Xl' X2' • x, E7L.

Let A = (at> a 2, ,an)' Notice that the sum and difference of twoelements inA are again inA Also, ifaEA and rE7L. thenra EA. In ring-theoretic language, A is an ideal in the ring 7L

Lemma 3 If a, b e 7L, then there is a dE7L such that (a, b) = (d).

PROOF. We may assume that not both a and bare zero so that there arepositive elements in (a, b). Let dbe the smallest positive element in(a, b).

Clearly(d) ~ (a, b).We shall show that the reverse inclusio n also holds.Suppose thatcE(a, b). By Lemma 2 there exist integers q and rsuch that

c = qd +r with 0 :5'; r < d Since both c and d are in (a, b) it follows that

r = c - qd is also in (a, b) Since 0 :5'; r < d we must have r = O Thus

Definition Let a, b e 7L An integer d is called a greatest comm on divisor of

aandbifdisadivisor of bothaand band if every other common divisor of

aand bdividesd.

Notice that ifcis another greatest common div isor ofaand b, then we

must have cldand die and so c = x.d.Thus the greatest common divisor oftwo numbers, if it exists , is determined up to sign

As an example, one may check that 14 is a greatest common divisor of

42 and 196 The following lemma will establish the existence of the greatestcommon divisor, but it will not give a method for computing it In theExercises we shall outline an efficient method of computation known as theEuclidean algorithm

Lemma 4 Let a, bE7L If(a , b) = (d) then d is a greatest common divisor of

a and b.

PROOF Since aE(d)andb e (d)we see thatdis a common divisor ofaand b.

Suppose thatcis a common divisor Thencdivides every number of the form

~I Unique Factorization in7L 5

Definition We say that two integersa and b are relatively prime if the only

common divisors are ±I, the units

It is fairly standard to use the notation (a, b) for the greatest commondivisor ofaand b.The way we have defined th ings,(a, b)is a set However,since (a, b)= (d)and dis a greatest common div isor (if we requiredto bepositive, we may use the article the) it will not be too confusing to use the

symbol(a, b)for both meanings With this convention we can say thataand

bare relatively prime if(a, b)= I

Proposition1.1.1.Suppose that alb e and that (a, b)= I Then ale

PROOF Since (a, b) = I there exist integers rand s such that ra+sb = I.Therefore,rae+sbc= e Since a div ides the left-hand side of this equation

This proposition is false if (a, b) # I For example, 6124 but 6,(3 and

6,(8

Corollary I.lfp is a prime and plbe, then either p lb or pie.

PROOF.The only div isors ofpare±I and±p Thus (p, b) = 1orp ; i.e., either

piborpandbare relat ively pr ime Ifpi b,we are done If not,(p , b)= 1and

We can state the corollary in a slightly different form that is often usefu l:

Ifp is a pr ime and prb and p ,( e, then p ,( be.

Corollary 2.Suppose that p is a prime and that a, bE7l Thenord,ab=ord,a

+ord,b.

PROO F. Let ~ = ord,a and f3 = ord,b.Then a = p'c and b= plJd, where

p ,( c and p ,( d Then ab= p2 +Pcd and by Corollary I p ,( cd.Thus ord, a h=

We are now in a position to prove the main theorem

Apply the function ord, to both sides of the equation

n = (_lytn)[Ipa(p)

p

and use the property oford,given by Corollary 2 The result is

ord, n= t;(n) ordi - I) + La(p) ordq(p).

p

Now, from the definition oford, we haveordq( - 1)= 0 andordip) =0

ifp # qand 1ifp = q.Thus the right-hand side collapses to the single term

a(q), i.e.,ord,n =a(q), which is what we wanted to prove

6 I Unique Factor ization

It is to be emphasized that the key step in the proof is Corollary 1: namely,

if pl ab, then pia or plb Whatever difficulty there is in the proof is centered

The theorem of unique factor ization can be formulated and proved in moregeneral contexts than that of Section I In this section we shall consider thering k[x] of polynomials with coefficients in a fieldk.In Section 3 we shallconsider pr incipal ideal domains It will turn out that the analysis of thesesituations will prove useful in the study of the integers

Iff, 9Ek[x], we say that / divides9 if there is an hEk[x] such that

9 =/h.

If deg / denotes the degree of /, we have deg/g = deg / + degg Also,

remember that deg / =0 ifff is a nonzero constant.It follows thatfig andgl/iff / = cg, where c is a nonzero constant It also follows that the only

polynomials that divide all the others are the nonzero constants These arethe units ofk[x]. A nonconstant polynomial p is said to be irreducible if qlp implies tha t qis either a constant or a constant times p. Irreduciblepolynomials are the analog of prime numbers

Lemma 1 Every nonconstant polynomial is the product 0/irreducible nomials.

poly-PROOF The proof is by induction on the degree Itis easy to see that pol nomials of degree 1 are irreducible Assume that we have proved the resultfor all polynomials of degree less thann and that deg / = n If/ is ir red ucible,

y-we are done Otherwise / = gh, where I =s; deg q, deg h < n By the

induc-tion assumpinduc-tion bothg and h are products of irreducible polynom ials Thus

Itis convenient to define mon ic polynomial A polynomial/ is called mon ic

if its leading coefficient is I For example, x 2 + x - 3 and x 3 - x 2 + 3x +

17 are monic but 2x 3 - 5 and 3x 4 + 2x 2 - I are not Every polynomial(except zero) is a constant times a monic polynomial

Let p be a monic irreducible polynomial We define ord, / to be the

mus , exist since the degree of the powers ofp gets larger and larger Notice

thatord,I = 0 iffp ,rf.

Theorem 2 Let / Ek[x] Then we can write

P

§2 Unique Factorization ink[x] 7

where the product is ocer all monic irreducible polynomials and c is a constant The constant c and the exponents a(p) are uniquely determined by I; in fact, a(p) = ord,f.

The existence of such a product follows immediately from Lemma I Asbefore, the un iqueness is more difficult and the proof will be postponed until

we develop a few tools

Lemma 2.Let I, 9 Ek[x]. If9 =1= 0, there ex ist polynomials h, rEk[x] such that I = hg +r, where either r = 0or r =1= 0and deg r < degg.

PROOF If 9 If, simply set h= 1 /9and r=O If g,.rI ,let r= I - hgbe thepolynomial of least degree among all polynom ials of the form1-19with

I Ek[x] We claim that deg r < degg. If not, let the lead ing term ofrbe

ax" and that of 9 be bx" Then r - ab" '~ -mg = I - (h +ab - t~-m)ghassmaller degree than rand is of the given form This is a contradiction 0Definition IfIt, 12' ,.I~ Ek[x], then (/1 ' 12, , fn) is the set of allpol ynomials of the form Ilh l +.I~h 2 + +fnh., where hi' h2, , h.

Ek[x].

In ring-theoretic language (JI , [2, ' " ,[.) is the ideal generated by

L T« ,f"

Lemma 3.Given f, 9Ek[x] there is a dEk[ x] such that(f,g) = (d).

PROOF. In the set(J, g)letdbean element ofleast degree We ha ve(d) s; (f,g)

and we want to prove the reverse inclusion LetCE(J, g) Ifd,.rc, then thereexist pol ynom ials hand ·r such that c = hd +r with deg r < degd Since

c andd are in (J, g ) we have r = c - hd s; (J, g) Since r has smaller degree

thand th is is a contradiction Therefore, dIc and cE(d) 0Definition Let I , 9 Ek[x] Then d e k[x] is said to be a greatest common divisor off and9 if d div ides I and 9 and every common divisor of I and 9

dividesd.

Notice that the greatest common divisor of two polynomials is determined

up to mult iplication by a constant Ifwe require it to be monic, it is uniquelydetermined and we may speak ofthe greatest common divi sor.

Lemma 4 Let I , 9 Ek[ x] By Lemma 3 there is a d e k[x] such that (J, g) =

(d ) d is a greatest common divisor 01I and g.

PROOF Sincejs(d) and 9 E(d) we have d l/and d ig Suppose that hiland

th ath lg Then h divides every polynomial of the form II+gm with I,m Ek [x ].

8 I Unique Factorization

Definition Two polynomialsf and9are said to berelatively primeif the onlycommon divisors off and 9 are constants In other words, (f, g) = (I).Proposition 1.2.1 If f and 9 are relatively prime and f Igh, then f Ih PROOF Iff and 9 are relatively prime, we have(f,g) = (1)so there are poly-nomials I and m such that If + mg = I Thus lfh +mgh = h. Since f

divides the left-hand side of this equationf must d ivideh. 0Corollary I IfP is an irreduciblepolynomial and p Ifg, then pIfor pig.

PROOF Sincep is irreducible(p, f) = (p) or (I) In the first casep Ifand weare done In the second case p andf are relatively prime and the result

Corollary 2 Ifp is a monic irreducible polynomial and f, 9Ek[x], we have ordpfg = ordpf+ ordpg.

PROOF The proof is almost word for word the same as the proof to Corollary

Now, since cis a constant q,rc and ord, c =O Moreover, ord,p =0 if

q # p and I if q=p.Thus the above relation yields ordqf=a(q). Thisshows that the exponents are uniquely determined It is clear that if theexponents are uniquely determined byf, then so is c This completes the

The reader will not have failed to notice the great similarity in the methods

of proof in Sect ions I and 2 In this section we shall prove an abstract theoremthat includes the previous results as spec ial cases

Throughout this section Rwill denote an integral domain

Definition 1.Ris said to be aEuclidean domainif there is a functionJ.from thenonzero elements ofR to the set {O, 1,2,3, } such that if a, bER, b:f 0,

).(d) < ).(b).

ord inary absolute value as the function ).; in the ringk[x] the function thatassigns to every polynomial its degree will serve the purpose

Proposition 1.3.1.IfR is a Euclidean domain and I ~ R is an ideal , then there

is an element a ER such that I = Ra = {ralrER}

PROOF Consider the set of nonnegative integers {i.(b)l bEI , b :P 0) Sinceevery set of nonnegative integers has a lea st element there is anaEI, a :P 0,

such tha t ).(a )~ ).(b) for all b e I, b :P O We claim th at I = Ra C learl y,

such that b =ca + d, where either d =0 or ).(d) < ).(a) Since d =b

-caEI we cannot have ).(d ) < ).(a) Thus d = 0 and b = ca ERa.Therefore,

For elements a l , • •.o; ER , define (al> a2' , an)= Ra, + Ra 2+

+ Ra n= {L i'= 1 rjadrj ER } (a I' a 2 , • • , an)is an idea l If an ideal I

is equal to (aI' ,a rr) for some elements a,EI , we say that I is finitelygenerated IfI = (a)for someaEI, we say thatI is a principal idea l

Definition2 R is said to be a prin cipal ideal domain (PID) if every ideal of R is

pr incipal

Proposition 1.3.1 a sserts that every Euclidean domain is a PID The verse of this statement is false , although it is somewhat hard to provideexamples

con-The remaining di scussion in th is section is about PID's con-The notion ofEucl idean doma in is useful because in practice one can show tha t manyrings are PID's by first establish ing that they are Euclidean domains Weshall give two further examples in Sec tion 4

We introduce some more term inology If a, bER, b :P 0, we say that b

called a unit ifudiv ides I Two elementsa, b ERare said to be associates if

impl ies that a is either a unit or an associate of p A nonunit p ER is said to be prime if p :P 0 and pi ab im plies that pIa or pIb.

The di stinction between irred ucible element and pr ime element is new

In gene ral these notions do not co inc ide As we have seen the y do co inc ide

Some of the notions we are discussing can be trans lated into the language

of ideals Thus alb iff (b) ~ (a) U ER is a un it iff (u) = R a and bare

associate iff (a) = (b) p is prime iff abE(p) implies th at either a E(p) or

10 I Unique Factorization

bE(p). All these assertions are easy exercises The notion of irreducibleelement can be formulated in terms of ideals, but we will not need it.Definition.dERis said to be agreatest common divisor(gcd) of two elements

a, bERif

(a) dlaanddlb.

(b) d'Iaandd'Ibimplies thatd'Id.

It is easy to see that ifbothdandd'are gcd's ofaandb,thendis associate

tod',

The gcd of two elements need not exist in a general ring However,Proposition 1.3.2 Let R be aPIDand a, bER Then a and b have a greatest common divisor d and (a, b) = (d)

PROOF Form the ideal(a, b).SinceRis a PID there is an elementdsuch that

(a, b)= (d). Since (a) s; (d) and (b) s; (d) we have dla and dlb. If d'ia

andd'Ib,then(a) s; (d') and(b) s; (d ').Thus(d) = (a, b) s; (d') andd'Id.

Two elementsaandbare said to be relatively prime if the only commondivisors are units

Coronary 1.IfRisaPIDand a, bER are relatively prime, then (a, b) = R.

Coronary 2.IfRisaPIDand pERisirreducible, then pisprime.

PROOF Suppose thatpiaband thatp.r a.Sincep.r ait follows that the only

SinceabE(P)and pbE(p)we have (b)s; (p).Thusplb.

irreducibleinterchangeably

We want to show that every nonzero element ofRis a product of

a # 0,there is an irreducible dividinga.Then we show thatais a product ofirreducibles

Lemma 1.Let(al ) S; (a2)S; (a3)S; be an ascending chain of ideals Then thereisall integer k such that (ak) =(ak +,)for/ =0, 1,2, III other words, the chain breaks off in finitely many steps.

PROOF Let I = U;X;I(ai)'It is easy to see that Iis an ideal ThusI = (a)forsome aER. But aE Ui=l(ai)implies that aE(ak)for some k,which showsthat I =(a) S; (ak). Itfollows that I= (ak) =(ak +I) = 0

§3 Unique Fact orization in a Principal Ideal Domain IIProposition 1.3.3.Ellery nonzero nonunit of R is a product of irreducibles.

PROOF LetaER, a #- 0,a not a unit We wish to show, to begin with , that a

is divisible by an irred ucible element Ifais irreducible, we a re done wisea = at b t, where at andb,a re nonun its If al is irreducible, we are done.Otherwisea l = a2b2, where a2 and b2 are nonunits If a2 is irreducible, we

Other-a re done Otherwise co ntinue Other-as before Notice th Other-at(a)c (a.) c (a2)c

By Lemma I thi s chai n can not go on indefinitely Thus for some k, akisirred ucib le

We now show that a is a product of irreducibles If a is irred ucible, we are

done Otherwise let PI be a n irr edu cible such that Plla. Then a=PICI ' If

C 1is a un it, we are done Otherwise letP2 be an irred ucible such that P21 cl •

Thena = PIP2 c 2 •IfC2is a unit, we are done Otherwise continue as before.Not ice that (a) c (cl ) c (C 2)c . This chain cannot go on indefinitely

by Lemma I Thus for somek , a = PIP2 •• • PkCko where Ckis a unit Since

We now want to define a n ord funct ion as we ha ve done in Sect ions Iand 2

Lemma 2.Let P be a prime and a #- O.Then there is an integer n such that pilia but P"+I,t a.

PROOF.If the lemma were false, then for each integerm > 0 there would be

an elementb; such that a = pmbm Then pbm+1 = bmso that (bl ) C (b2)C

(b 3 ) C wo uld be a n infinit e ascending cha in of ideals that does not

The integern, wh ich is de fined in Lemma 2, is uniquely determined by

Pa nda.We setn= ord,a.

Lemma 3 Ifa, bER with a, b #-0,then ord, ab = ord,a + ord,b.

PROO F. Let ex = ord ,a a nd f3 = ord,b Then a= p' c and b = pfJd with p,t c a nd p r d. Thus ab = p2+fJcd Since p is prime p r cd. Consequently,

We a re now in a position to formulate and prove the main theorem of thissection

Let S be a set of primes in R with the following two properties :

(a) Every pr ime inR is assoc iate to a prime inS

(b) No two pr imes inS a re associ ate

To obta in such a set ch oose one prime out of each class of assoc iate

pr imes There is clearly a great deal of arbitrariness in th is choice In 7L

andk[x]there were natural ways to make the choice In7L we choseS to be

12 I Unique Facto rization

the set of positive primes Ink[x]we chose Sto be the set of monic irred uciblepolynomials In general there is no neat way to make the choice and thisoccasionally leads to complications (see Chapter 9)

Theorem 3.Let R be aPIDandSa set ofprimes with thepropertiesgiven above ThenifaER, a #- 0,we can write

Now, from the definition oford,we see thatord,u = 0 and thatord,p =

oifq#- pand 1 ifq = p.Thusord, a= e(q).Since the exponentse(q)areuniquely determined so is the unitu.This completes the proof 0

As an application of the results in Section 3 we shall consider two examplesthat will be useful to us in later chapters

Let i = ,j=t and consider the set of complex numbers 1:[i] defined

by{a +bi/a , b E 1:}.This set is clearly closed under addition and tion Moreover, if a+ bi, c+ diE 1:[1], then (a+ bi)(c+dO =ac+

subtrac-adi + bci+ bdi?=(ac - bel) + (ad+ bc)iE1:[1] Thus 1:[1] is closedunder multiplication and is a ring Since 1:[i] is contained in the complexnumbers it is an integral domain

Proposition 1.4.1.1:[1] is a Euclidean domain.

PROOF Fora+biEiQli] define ).(a+ bi) =a 2 + b',

Let ex = a+bi and y = c+ diand suppose that y #- O ex jy = r+si,

where rands are real numbers (they are, in fact , rational) Choose integers

m, nE1:such that Ir - ml ~ t and Is - nl~ t.Set f> = m +ni. Then

ex - yf> Then pE 1:[1] and either p = 0 or ).(p) = ).(y«cxjy) - (j» =

).(y»).« exjy ) - (j)~ V (y) < ).(y).

It follows that ) makes1:[1]into a Euclidean domain 0

Notes 13

The ring £:[/Jis called the ring of Gaussian integers after C F Gauss,who first stud ied its arithmetic properties in detail

The numbers ±I, ±iare the roots ofx 4

= lover the complex numbers.Consider the equation xJ = I Since x 3

the roots of this equation are I, ( - 1± F3)/2. Letw = (-1+ F3)/2.

Then it is easy to check that w2= (-I - F3)/2 and that I + w +w2

We remark that £:[w] is closed under complex conjugation In fact, since

J=3 = J3i = -J3i = -F3 we see that iiJ= w 2 • Thus if a =

a+bwE£:[w],then (i =a+bw=a+bw2=(a - b) - btoE£:[w].

Proposition 1.4.2.£:[w] is a Euclidean domain.

PROOF For a. = a+ bwE £:[w] define ).(a) = a2 - ab + b2. A simplecalculation shows that).(a)= ali

Now, let a, [3E£:[w] and suppose that [3 :/= O Then al[3 = aPI[3p=

r+ sea, where rand sare rat ional numbers We have used the fact that

F ind integers mand nsuch that Ir - ml =:; 1and Is - n\ =:; 1.Thenput y=m + nw ).«al[3) - y)=(r - m)2 - (r - m)(s - n)+ (s - n)2

We have shown that every PIO is a UFO The converse is not true Forexample, the ring of polynomials over a field in more than one var iable is a

14 I Unique Factorization

UFO but not a PIO P Samuel has an excellent expository art icle on UFO's

Rademacher and O Toeplitz [65]

The reader may find it profitable to read the introductory material in

introduct ion to H Stark [73] are particularly good There is also an earlylecture by Hardy [39] that is highly recommended

biquad-ratic reciprocity [34] G Eisenstein considered the ring lew] in connectionwith his work on cubic reciprocity He mentions that to investigate the

modify the proofs [28 ] A thorough treatment of these two rings is given inChapter 12 of Hardy and Wright [40] In Chapter 14 they treat a generaliza-tion, namely, rings of integers in quadratic number fields Stark's Chapter 8deals with the same subject [73] In 1966 Stark resolved a long-outstand ingproblem in the theory of numbers by showing that the ring of integers (seeChapter 6 of this book) in the field{l(Jd),withdnegative, is a UFO when

values ofd.

The student who is familiar with a little algebra will notice that a "generic"

EXERCISES

1 Let II and bbe nonzero integer s We can find nonzero integersq and r such that

II =qb +r ,wher e 0 ~r <h Prove that (a, h) =(h, r)

2 (continuation) Ifr '"0, we can find ql and r l such thatb= q1r +r l with 0 ~

r1< r.Show that(a, h) =(r,rI)' Th is process can be repeated Show that it must end

in finitely many steps Show that the last nonzero remainder must equ al(a, b).The process look s like

Exercises 15

4 Letd= (a b).Show how one can use the Euclidean algorithm to find numbers m and nsuch thatam+bn=d (Him :In Exercise 2 we have thatd= 'UI ' Express

'k+1 in terms of r, and 'k_t then in terms of 'k-I and'k-2'etc.)

5 Find m andnfor the pairsaand bgiven in Exercise 3.

6 Let a, b.C E7L.Show that the equation ax+by = c has solutions in integers iff

(a b)lc.

7 Letd=(a, b)and a=do'and b=db'.Show that (d, b')=I.

8 Let X o and Yo be a solution toax+by= c Show that all solutions have the form

x =X o+ t(bld), Y= Yo - t(ald),whered=(a, b)and tE7L.

9 Suppose that u,vE7Land that(u, v) = I.IfuInand vln,show thatuv/n.Show that this

is false if(u v)"# I.

10 Suppose that(u v) = I Show that(u+v u - v)is either I or 2.

II Show that(a, a+k)lk.

12 Suppose that we take several copies of a regular polygon and try to fit them evenly about a common vertex Prove that the only possibilities are six equilateral triangles, four squares, and three hexagons.

13 Let nI'nz• • n,E7L.Define the greatest common divisor dof nl ,n2• , n,and prove that there exist integers mi. m2• •m, such that nlm l+n2m2+ +

16 If (u,v) = I and uv=aZ,show that bothuand vare squares.

17 Prove that the square root of 2 is irrational i.e.• that there is no rational number

r=albsuch that,z =2.

18 Prove thatyr,;;is irrational if m is not the nth power of an integer.

19 Define the least common mult iple of two integersa and b to be an integer m such that dim blm,and m divides every common multiple ofaand b.Show that such an m exists It is determined up to sign We shall denote it by [a b].

20 Prove the following:

(a) ordp[a b) = rnaxtord,«,ordpb).

(b) (a, b)[a, b)= abo

16 1 Unique Factorization

23 Suppose that a 2 +b 2= c2 with a, b,C E?L For example , 32+42 = 52 and 52+

122 = 132 Assume that (a, b)= (b, c)= (c,a)= 1 Prove that there exist integersu

and vsuch thatc - b= 2u2and c+b= 2v2and (u, v)= 1 (there is no loss in generality in assuming that band C are odd and thatais even) Consequentlya= 2uv,

b=v2 - u2,and c=v2+u2.Conversely show that ifuand vare given, then the three numbersa, b,and cgiven by these formulas satisfya2+b2= c2.

24 Prove the identities

(a) x" - .I= (x - y)(x·- I +x· - 2y+ +.I-I).

(b) Fornodd,x"+ I= (x+y)(x·- I - x·- 2y+X·- 3y2 _ +y - I ).

25 Ifa" - 1 is a prime , show thata = 2 and thatnis a prime Primes of the form2 P - I are called Mersenne primes For example, 2 3

- 1 = 7 and 2 5

- 1 = 31 It is not known if there are infinitely many Mersenne primes

26 If a·+I is a prime , show that a is even and that n is a power of 2 Primes of the

form 22'+I are called Fermat primes For example, 221+1= 5and22'+1=17.

It is not known if there are infinitely many Fermat primes

27 For all odd nshow that 81n2 - 1 If3%n,show that 61n2 - 1.

28 For allnshow that 30ln 5

- nand that 421n7 - n.

29 Suppose thata, b, C, d~?Land that(a, b)= (c,d)= Uf(a/b) +(e/d)= an integer, show thatb= ±d.

30 Prove that! + ! + + ~ is not an integer.

31 Show that 2 is divisible by (I +i)2in?L[i).

32 For IX =a+biE?L[i]we defined ,t(IX) =a2+b2.From the properties of ,t deduce the identity(a2+b 2)(e 2+d2)= (ae - bd)2+(ad+be)2

33 Show that IX E?L[i]is a unit iff ,t(IX) = 1 Deduce that I, -I ,i,and - iare the only

un its in7L.[i]

34 Show that 3 is divisible by (1 - W)2 in?L[w].

35 For IX=a+bwE?L[w] we defined ,t(ex)=a2 - ab+b2.Show that ex is a un it iff ,t(IX)= 1 Deduce that 1, -I,w, -w, w2,and _w 2are the only units in?L[w).

36 Define?L[j=2]as the set of all complex numbers of the forma+bj=2,where

a, bE?L,Show that?L[j=2]is a ring Define,t(ex)=a2+2b2forex=a+bj=2.

Use I to show that ?L[j=2]is a Euclidean domain.

37 Show that the on ly units in?L[ j=2]are 1 and - 1.

38 Suppose that nE?L [i]and that ,ten)= p is a prime in ?L.Show that nis a prime in

?L[i).Show that the corresponding result holds in?L[w]and ?L[j=2).

39 Show that in any integral domain a prime element is irreducible.

Chapter 2

Applications of Unique

Factorization

The importance of the not ion of prime number should be

evident from the results of Chapter I.

I n this chapter we shall give several proofs of the fact

that there are infinitely many primes in 71 We shall also

consider the analogous question for the ring k[x].

The theorem of unique prime decomposition is

some-times referred to as the fundamental theorem of

arith-metic We shall begin to demonstrate its usefulness by

using it to invest igate the properties of some natural

number-theoretic functions

§ 1 Infinitely Many Primes in Z

Theorem I (Eucl id).III the rinq 71 there are infinitely mallY prime numbers.

PROOF Let us consider positive primes Label them in increasing orderPI' Pz, P3, Thus PI= 2,pz = 3,P3 = 5, etc Let N =(PIPZ Pn) +l

Nis greater than I and not divisible by anyPi 'i = 1,2, , n On the other

hand,N is d ivisible by some prime,p,and Pmust be greater than Pn'

We have shown that given any positive prime there is another prime that

The analogous theorem fork[x] is that there are infinitely many monic,irreducible polynomials.Ifk is infinite, this is trivial since x - a is monic and

irreducible for allaEk.This proof does not work ifkis finite, but Eucl id'sproof may easily be adapted to this case We leave this as an exercise.Recall that in a n integral domain two elements are called associate if theydiffer only by multiplicat ion by a unit We now know that in71.andk[x]thereare infinitely many nonassociate primes Itis instructive to consider a ringwhere all primes are associate, so that in essence there is only one prime.Let PE71. be a prime number and let71 pbe the set of all rational numbers

alb, where P.{ b.One easily checks using the remark following Corollary 1 toProposition 1.1.1 that 71 p is a ring alb E71.p is a unit if there is acid E71 p

such that alb - cit! =1.Then ac=bd, which implies p.{ a since p.{ band

p.{ d Conversely, any rational number alb is a unit in Il pifP { a and p.{ b.

17

18 2 Ap p lica tio ns o f U n iq ue Fact orizat ion

IfalbEZp,writea = pia', where p,/' a' Then alb = pla'lb Thus every element

ofZpis a power ofptimes a unit From this it is easy to see that the onlyprimes inZphave the form pcjd,whereckl is a unit Thus all the primes of

Zpare associate

EXERCISE

IfalbE7L pis not a unit prove thatalb + I is a unit This phenomenon shows why Euclid'sproof breaks down in general for integral domains

In the remainder of this chapter we shall give some applications of the uniquefactorization theorem

An integeraEZis said to be square-free if it is not divisible by the square

of any other integer greater than 1

Proposition 2.2.1 IfnEZ,n can be writt en in the form n =ab" , wher e a, bEZ

and a is square-fr ee.

PROOF. LetII = p~lp~' pf' One can write a,= 2b j +r i , wherer,= 0 or 1depending on whether a, is even or odd Set a=p~lp'i2 p? and b=

This lemma can be used to give another proof that there are infinitelymany primes in Z Assume that there are not , and letPI ' P2 " '" P,be a com-plete list of positive primes Consider the set of positive integers less than orequal toN Ifn ~ N,then n =ab l wherea is square-free and thus equal to

one of the 2' numbers p~lp~2 pf', where I: j = 0 or 1,i= 1, , I Noticethatb ~ ft. There are at most 2'ft numbers satisfying these conditionsand so N s 2'ft ,or ft s 21, which is clearly false for N large enough.

This contradiction proves the result

Itis possible to give a similar proof that there are infinitely many monicirreducibles ink[x], where kis a finite field

There are a number of naturally defined functions on the integers Forexample, given a positive integerIIlet ~(II)be the number of positive div isors

ofII and a(i1)the sum of the positive divi sors of n For example,v(3) =2,

~(6) = 4, and v(l2) = 6 and a(3) = 4, 11(6) = 12, and a(12) = 28 Usingunique factorization it is possible to obtain rather simple formulas for thesefunctions

§2 Som e Arithmetic Funct ion s 19

Proposition 2.2.2 If n is a positive inteqer, let n= p~'pi' p~' be its prime decomposition Then

(b) O'(n) =«p~1 + I - I)/(PI - I»«pi'+I - 1)/(1'2 - I»· · ·

({pf'+ I - 1)/(1', - I»

PROOF To prove part (a) notice thatmin iff m=P~ ' p~' pr' and 0:s; b,:s;a i

for i = I, 2, ,I.Thus the positive divisors ofn are one-to-one

correspon-dence with the n-tuples(b l , b 2 , ••• , h,)with 0 :s; hi:s; a, fori = I, ,I,andthere are exactly (al + 1)(a2+ I)·· ·(a,+ I) such n-tuples

To prove part (b) not ice that O'(n) = Lp~ lp~' pr', where the sum is over

the above set of n-tuples Thus,O'(n) = (D : =0p~')(D~=0p~') .(D: =0pr'),

from which the result follows by use of the summation formula for the

There is an interesting and unsolved problem connected with the function

0'(/1).A numbernis sa id to be perfect ifO'(n) = 2n.For example, 6 and 28 areperfect In general, if2 m

+ I - I is a prime, thenn = 2 m(2m+ I - I) is perfect ,

as can be seen by applying part (b) of Proposition 2.2.2 Th is fact is already inEuclid L Euler sho wed that any even perfect number has this form Thusthe pr oblem of e ven perfect numbers is reduced to that of finding primes ofthe form 2 m

+I - I Such primes are called Mersenne primes The two stand ing problems invol ving perfect numbers ar e the following: Are thereinfinitely many perfect numbers? Are there any odd perfect numbers?The multiplicative ana log of this problem is trivi al An integern is called

out-multiplicatively perfect if the product of the positive divi sors ofn is n 2 •Such

a number cannot be a prime or a sq ua re of a prime Thus there is a properdivisor d such that d ¥- njd The product of the divisors I, d, nld, and n is

a lread yn 2

•Thusn is multiplicatively perfect iff there are exactly two proper

di visors The onl y such numbers are cubes of primes or products of twodistinct primes For example, 27 and 10 are multiplicatively perfect

We now introduce a very im po rt a nt arithmetic function , the MobiusJ1

function FornE1.+, p(l) = I,p(n) = 0 ifnis not sq ua re-free, andP(PIP2' " P,)= ( - I )', where the Piare distinct positive primes

Proposition 2.2.3 If /I > I.Ldln J1(d) =O

PROOF Ifn = p~ 'pi" " P~',thenL.tlnJl(d) = L([, [11 p(p~' PI') 'where the

I;jare zero or I.Thus

Th e full sign ificanc e of the Mobius p function can be understood mostclearly when its co nnect io n with Dirichlet multipl ication is brought to light

20 2 Applicat ions o f Unique Fact ori zation

Let f and 9 be complex valued functions on Z" , The Dirichlet product off and 9 is defined by the formulaj'» yen)= Lf(d )y(dz), where the sum is over

all pa irs (d., d z) of positive integers such that d1dz=n. Th is product is

associative, as one can see by checking that f " (g0h)(n) =(f0 y) " hen) = Lf(d dy(d z)h(dJ), where the sum is over all 3-tuples (dI ' dz,dJ) of positiveintegers such that d dzdJ = n.

Define the function 0 by 0(1) = I and O(n) =0for n > 1 Thenf 0 0=

Oof=f Define I by I(n) = I for all nEZ+ Then f oI(/I) =I of(n) =

Lln!(d)

Lemma 1 0/l= /l0 I = O

PROOF /l0 I(l) =/l(I)I(1) = 1 If n> I, /l o/(n) = Lin/led)= o.The same

Theorem 2 (Mobius Inversion Theorem) Let F(n)=Ldlnf(d) Thenf(n) =

Lin /l(d)F(n/d).

PROOF F = f 0 I Thus F0 /l=(f0 l)0J1 = f 0(l0 /l)= f 0 0= [. This shows

Remark We have considered complex-valued functions on the positiveintegers It is useful to notice that Theorem 2 is valid whenever the functionstake their value in an abelian group The proof goes through word for word

If the group law in the abelian group is written multiplicatively, thetheorem takes the following form: If F(n) =ndln!(d), then fen) = nd,n

F(II/d),,(d ).

The Mobius inversion theorem has many applications We shall use it toobtain a formula for yet another arithmetic function , the Euler ¢ function.For nE7L+, ¢(n) is defined to be the number of integers between I and n

relatively prime to n For example, ¢(I) =I, ¢(5)=4, ¢(6)=2, and

¢(9) =6.Ifpis a prime, it is clear that¢(p) =p - 1

Proposition 2.2.4 Ldln ¢(d) =n.

PROOF Cons ider the n rational numbers I/n, 2/n, 3/11, , (n - I)/n, nin o

Reduce each to lowest terms ; i.e., express each number as a quotient ofrelatively prime integers The denominators will all be divisors of n.Ifdin , exactly ¢(d) of our numbers will have d in the denominator after reducing to

Proposition 2.2.5 Ifn = p~ lp~' pf' , then

¢(n) =n(1 - (l /p.»(1 - (I /pz» ·· · (I - (I /p,»

PROOF Sincen=Ldln¢(d)the Mobius inversion theorem implies that ¢(n)=

Ld ln/l(d)n/d =n - 'Iin/Pi+ 'Ii <j n/PiPj · · ·=n(1 - (I /PI»(I - (I /pz»·· ·

~3 Ll ip Diverges 21

Later we shall give a more insightful proof of this formula We shall alsouse the Mobius function to determine the number of monic irreduciblepolynomials of fixed degree ink[x] ,wherekis a finite field

We began this chapter by proving that there are infinitely many primenumbers in7L.We shall conclude by proving a somewhat stronger statement.The proof will assume some elementary facts from the theory of infinite series.Theorem 3.I l /p diverges, where the sumisover all positive primes in 7L.

PROOF Let PI' P2, , Plln) be all the primes less than nand define ,1,(n)=

m(~ll (I - I /p;) -I.Since (I - I/p;) -1 =I~=0IIp?' we see that

where the sum is over all I-tuples of nonnegative integers (a a2, , al)'

In particular, we see that I + ! + ! + + I/n < ,1,(n). Thus ,1,(n)-> 00 as

n-> 00 This already gives a new proof that there are infinitely many primes Next, consider log,1,(n).We have

Now, I:'" 2(mp'f'}-I <I :'=2Pi- m =Pi- 2 (1 - Pi-I)-I ~ 2Pi-2 Thus log,1,(n)

< p ~1 +pit + +p,-l +2(p~ 2 +Pi.2+ +p,-2). It is well knownthat I :'=t n -2 converges It follows that I ;X;1Pi-2 converges Thus if

I P- I converged, there would be a constant At such that log,1,(n)< M, or

,1,(n) < e", This, however, is impossible since ,1,(n) -> 00 as /I -> 00 Thus

Itis instructive to try to construct an analog of Theorem 3 for the ring

k[x] ,where kis a finite field with qelements The role of the positive primes

Pis taken by the monic irreducible polynomialsp(x). The" size" of a monicpolynomialf(x) is given by the quantityqdeg/(x).

This is reasonable because for a positive integer n, n is the number of

nonnegative integers less than n, i.e., the number of elements in the set

{O, I, 2, ,n - I } Analogously,qdeg/{x} is the number of polynomials ofdegree less than deg f(x) This is ea sy to see Any such polynomial has the

formQoX m+atx m - t + ' " +am where m=degf(x) - 1 and aiEk There

areq cho ices for ai and the choice for each index is independent of the others.

Thus there areq"+ 1=qdeg /(x )such polynomials

22 2 Applications of Unique Factorization

Theorem4.Lq-deIlP(x/diverges, where the sum is over all monic irreducibles

PROOF We first show that Lq-dCIl!(X)diverges and that Lq-2dellf(xI verges, where both sums are over all monicpolynomialsf(x) ink[x]. Bothresults follow from the fact that there are exactlyq" monic polynomials of de-

con-green in "[x] Consider~CIl!(X/"" q-dCIl!(XI.This sum is equal toL~=oqmq-m

= n+ 1. Thus '\'1 q-dCIl!(X) diverges. Similarly, '\'1 dell!(X/ '; nq-2dell!(x) =

~=oqmq-2m < (I - I/q)-I ThusLq-2dell!(x)converges

The rest of the proof is an exact imitation of the proof of Theorem 2

In the introduction to Chapter 1 we defined n(x)as the number of pr imesP,

I < Ps;x The study of the behavior of n(x) for large x involves analytictechniques We will prove in this section several results that require a mini-mum of results from analysis In fact only the simplest properties of thelogarithmic function are used

We begin with the following simple consequence of Euclid's argument(Theorem I) which gives a weak lower bound for n(x). Throughout logx

denotes the natural logarithm ofx.

Proposition 2.4.1 n(x) ~ log(log x),x ~ 2

PROOF LetPn denote the nthprime Then since any prime dividingPIP2 Pn

+ 1 is distinct from Pl ' p;it follows that Pn+I ~PI' " Pn + 1 Now

PI < 2(2 ') , P2 < 2(2 '1 and ifP« < 2(2")then Pn+I S; 2(2 ') 2(22) • • • 2(2 ") + 1=

2 2" + I - 2 + 1< 2(2"' ' ). It follows that n(2(2") ~ n. For x > e choose anintegernso thate le" - ') < x ~ e le" ).Ifn > 3 then e n - I > 2n

so that

n(x) ~ n(e(e"-') ~ n(e 2 " ) ~ n(2 2 " ) ~ n~ logtlogx)

This proves the result forx > e'.If x ~ e' the inequality is obvious 0The method employed in the paragraph following Proposition 2.2.1 toshow that n(x) + 00 can also be used to obtain the following improvement

of the above proposition Ifnis a positive integer let yen) denote the set ofprimes dividingn.

Proposition 2.4.2.n(x) ~ logx/2log 2

PROOF For any set of primes S definefs(x)to be the number of integers n,

1S;n~ x, with yen) c S Suppose that S is a finite set with t elements.Writing such annin the form n=m 2s

withssquare free we see thatm~fi

§4 The Growth ofll(x) 23

while s has at most2 1choices corresponding to the various subsets ofS.Thus

fs(x) ::; 2/fi Put n(x) =m so that Pm+1> x If S = {PI> , Pm} thenclearlyfs(x) = x which implies that x s 2m

fi = 2"(.>:)fi The result follows

It is interesting to note that the above method can also be used to giveanother proof to Theorem2.For ifL I/p.converged then there is an n such

positive integersm ::;x with y(m)a; S That is, there exists a primePj,j> n

such thatpjlm For such a pr ime there are[x /Pj]multiples ofPjnot exceeding

Proposition 2.4.3.O(x)< (4log2)x.

PROOF Consider the binomial coefficient

+ 1 - 2)

< (log2)2 m + I

~ (log,fi)(n:(x) - n:(fi»

~ (log,fi)n:(x) - ,filog,fi.

-p 11 - logp

Proposition2.4.4.There is a positive constant c 2 such that n:(x) > c2(x/logx ).

PROOF By the above we have

2n s (211) s npIP

II p< 2n

as n-+ co, so that 0(2n)> Til for some T > 0 and all nsufficiently large.Writing, for large x , 2n:o::;x < 2n+ I we have O(x) ~ 0(2n)> Tn >

such that O(x)> ('2X for all x ~ 2 To complete the proof we observe that

O(x)= I log p:0::; n(x) log x ,

Ch d e la Valle Poussin established th e result independently Their proofsutilize complex an al ytic properties of the Riemann zeta function In 1948Atle Selberg was able to pro ve the result without the use of complex analysis

pro-It is not known wheth er th ere exi st in fin itely many p rimes of the form

2 N + I, the so-ca lled Fermat primes, o r if there are infin itely many primes of

th e form 2 N

An other outstanding problem is to dec ide whether there a re a n infinitenumber of pr imes psuc h thatp +2 is also prime.It is kn own th at the sum

26 2 Applications or Un iqu e Factorizat ion

of the reciprocals of the set of such primes converges, a result due to ViggoBrun [52]

Good discussions of unsolved problems about primes may be found in

W Sierpinski [71] and Shanks [70] Readers with a background in analysisshould read the paper by P Erdos [3 I] as well as those of Hardy [38] and[39]

The key idea behind the proof of Theorem 2 is due toL.Euler A pleasantaccount of this for the beginner is found in Rademacher and Toeplitz [65].Theorem 3 gives a proof in the spirit of Euler thatk[x]contains infinitelymany irreducibles This already suggests that many of the theorems in classicalnumber theory have analogs in the ring k[x] This is indeed the case Aninteresting reference along these lines isL.Carlitz [10]

The theorem of Dirichlet mentioned above has been proved fork[x], kafinite field, by H Kornblum [50] Kornblum had his promising career cutshort after he enlisted as Kriegsfreiwilliger in 1914 The prime numbertheorem also has an analog in k[x] This was proved by E Artin in hisdoctoral thesis [2]

A good introduction to analytic number theory is Chandrasekharan [I 12]

In the last chapter of this very readable text a proof of the prime numbertheorem is given that uses complex analysis Proofs that are free of complexanalysis (but not of subtlety) have been given by A Selberg [215] and

P Erdos [133] For an interesting account of the history of this theorem see

L J Goldstein [139] Finally we recommend the remarkable tract zahlen by E Trost [229] ; this 95 page book contains, in addition to manyelementary results concerning the distribution of primes, Selberg's proof ofthe prime number theorem as well as an "elementary" proof of Dirichlet'stheorem mentioned above See also D.J.Newman [198]

Prim-EXERCISES

I Show thatk[x] ,with ka finite field, has in finitely many irreducible polynomials.

2 Let PI'P2, , P,E Z be primes and consider the set of all rat ional numbersr= alb,

a, b z.,such that ord , a~ ord, b for i = 1,2, , t Show that this set is a ring

and that up to taking associatesPI' P2 , " " P,are the only primes.

3 Use the formula for ¢(n) to give a proof that there are infinitely many primes.

[Hint :IfPI'P2," " P,were all the pr imes, then ¢(n) = 1, where n=PtP2' " P,,]

4 Ifa is a nonzero integer, then forn> mshow that (a 2 + 1, a2~ +1) = 1 or 2 depend ing on whetherais odd or even (Hint :IfPis an odd prime and pla2~+1, then pla 2

" - 1 forn> m.)

5 Use the result of Exercise 4 to show that there are infinitely many primes (This proof

is due to G Polya )

6 For a rat ional numberrlet[r] be the largest integer less than or equ al tor,e.g.,

m =0, [2] =2, and [3D =3.Pro ve ord;»! =[n Ip] +[n j p 2] +[lI jp J ] + "

7 Deduce from Exercise 6 that ord,n !S;n/(p - 1) and thatyr,;! S; nPI.'p l /CP-I).