While atlases of endoscopic sinus surgery are numerous, there is a serious knowledge gap created by the lack of a comprehensive, uptodate atlas dedicated to office diagnostic nasal endoscopy. The first and only such atlas, written in German and translated in 1978, is sadly out of date. Filling this gap, An Atlas of Diagnostic Nasal Endoscopy illustrates all variants of normal intranasal anatomy and pathologies seen through nasal endoscopy. Developed by an author with more than fifteen years of experience, the book features more than 600 pictures of normal and abnormal findings of nasal endoscopy. Captioned with arrows and legends, each photograph provides a clear and independent teaching message. This format allows the reader to easily find the information they need without wading through information they dont. The author also supplies clear, concise expository text that provides background information for each chapter. The user friendly format and comprehensive coverage of the normal variants of intranasal anatomy and the many abnormal pathologies encountered in clinical practice make An Atlas of Diagnostic Nasal Endoscopy an important resource for all trainees, practitioners, and teachers of otolaryngology, and practitioners and specialists interested in sinus disorders.
Trang 3This page intentionally left blank.
Trang 4Salah D.Salman, MD, FACS
Surgeon Director of the Sinus Center Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary
Lecturer, Department of Otology & Laryngology
Harvard Medical School Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Formerly Professor & Chairman, Department of Otolaryngology
Trang 5345 Park Avenue South, 10th Floor
New York
NY 10010 USAPublished in the UK and Europe by The Parthenon Publishing Group 23–25 Blades Court Deodar Road London SW15 2NU UKCopyright © 2004 The Parthenon Publishing GroupLibrary of Congress CataloginginPublication Data
Data available on applicationBritish Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Salman, Salah D.
An atlas of diagnostic nasal endoscopy.—(The encyclopedia of visual medicine series)
1. Nasoscopy—Atlases 2. Nose—Diseases—Diagnosis—Atlases
I. Title 616.2′1207545 ISBN 0203490606 Master ebook ISBN
ISBN 0203623932 (OEB Format) ISBN 184214233X (Print Edition) First published in 2004 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis eLibrary, 2005.
To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission from the publishers
except for the quotation of brief passages for the purposes of review
Composition by The Parthenon Publishing Group
Trang 8I am grateful to Rich Cortese of the Department of OtolaryngologyHead and Neck Surgery at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary for his help with image preparation
This Atlas would not have been possible without Linda Sheehan, RN, Jenecia George, medical assistant, and Mary Tassy, RN, whose dedication, patience, and friendship over so many years facilitated the taking of hundreds of endoscopic pictures, even during very busy clinics
I am also grateful for the editorial work graciously provided by Helena Kurban, Terry and Najla Prothro.
Trang 9My father Dr Daoud Salman gave daily at home and in his clinical work.
My mother Zahia Salman gave abundantly to six of us and later to the children of Lebanon.
Trang 10The introduction of the Hopkins fiberoptic telescope into offices and operating rooms must be credited for major advances in the diagnosis and the treatment of rhinological disorders. Their routine office use, which the author strongly advocates, has permitted the appreciation of the quite variable intranasal anatomy, and the early recognition and diagnosis of abnormalities and pathologies encountered in the practice of Otolaryngology and Rhinology.
Atlases of endoscopic sinus surgery and ENT endoscopy are numerous, but libraries are still lacking a comprehensive uptodate atlas dedicated to nasal
endoscopy. The first and only such atlas, written in German by Walter Messerklinger of Graz, Austria, was translated into English in 1978. It is hoped that this work fills the gap and becomes a base upon which to build, so that all possible variants and pathologies seen on nasal endosopy become recognizable.
The aim of this Atlas is to familiarize the readers with the numerous normal variants of intranasal anatomy, and with many abnormalities and pathologies encountered
in clinical practice. The emphasis is on recognition of the normal, the normal variants, and the pathology as well as on diagnosis. This Atlas does not discuss treatment. The pictures shown were all taken by the author over a 15year period, during his practice at a major tertiary care referral center, the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary in Boston, Massachusetts. Each picture, with its concise caption, carries a clear and independent teaching message. The format adopted allows leisurely reading.
Trang 11This page intentionally left blank.
Trang 12Normal and variants
Trang 13This page intentionally left blank.
Trang 14The anatomy of the nasal cavities is probably the most varied in the human body. Normal variants are numerous, and some of them have been suspected to play a role in the pathogenesis of sinusitis. It is not within the scope of this Atlas to debate this issue. The author, however, does not think that there is enough evidence to confirm this suspicion or hypothesis
Office nasal endoscopy and computed tomography scanning have allowed an adequate familiarization with the normal nasal cavities and their variations, and with the appearance of the various pathologies that may involve them
The variations involve the surface appearance of the mucosa and its thickness, and also the size, shape, and color of all the intranasal structures. Familiarization with all variations is necessary so that the examiner may recognize significant abnormalities and pathologies
The nasal mucosa is supplied with a rich network of blood vessels whose calibers change frequently under the influence of different internal and external factors, affecting the size of the airways available for air movement during nasal breathing. It is also supplied with a large number of minor saliva glands, to keep it wet and to facilitate the mucociliary clearance necessary for proper function. Allergies, infections, and other causes of inflammation do affect the volume, the color, and the consistency of the secretions, which may then become symptomatic.
Trang 15This page intentionally left blank.
Trang 16The nostrils and the anterior nasal cavities
The nostrils are usually symmetrical but their size varies in different individuals and races. They may be small or large, round or oval. Size does not seem to correlate with the patency of the nasal passages. Slightly more posterior pathologies are usually responsible for nasal blockage. Contraction of the small anterior facial muscles causes dilatation of the nostrils. In facial paralysis, the ipsilateral nostril may decrease in size and cause a feeling of blockage. However, nasal blockage is not a prominent symptom of facial paralysis
The angle between the septum and the upper lateral cartilage, the socalled nasal valve, plays an important role in maintaining patency during nasal breathing. The soft tissues lateral to it are more easily collapsible by the negative pressure generated by inspiration and sniffing, than are the stiffer nasal alae. The specially designed stainless steel strips (‘Breathe Right’, CNS, Inc., Chauhassen, MN, USA), when applied on the dorsum, widen the valve angles by their lateral pull and understandably result in a feeling of better nasal patency, even in normal subjects. This explains their popularity among football players. An anterior and superior septal deviation may contribute to the narrowing of the nasal valve
The anterior nasal cavities may likewise be narrowed by a dislocation of the septal cartilage from the vomer, or by lateral flaring of the medial crura of the alar cartilages, or even by enlarged tips of the inferior turbinates. The latter may be due to congestion, edema, thick mucosa, or a large cancellous turbinate bone.
Anterior rhinoscopy is usually adequate to evaluate the nostrils and the anterior nasal cavities. However, because of the superiority of the lighting system of
endoscopes, more details may be appreciated by endoscopy.
Trang 21This page intentionally left blank.
Trang 22The normal septum
The nasal septum is rarely straight in adults. Deviations and dislocations are very common. These may be unilateral or bilateral, and may involve the septal cartilage, the vomer, and/or the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid. They may be smooth, or sharp in the form of spurs. When severe, they interfere with nasal breathing. The line between deviations that need to be considered within normal limits, and those that require surgical correction to improve nasal breathing, is not always clearcut. The posterior part of the vomer is very rarely deviated
The color and the vascularity of the septal mucosa vary, as is the case elsewhere in the nose. Prominent vessels on the anterior septum are often the cause of anterior epistaxis. Posterior prominent vessels, usually veins, have not been suspected to cause nosebleeds
Mucosal grooves and folds are common. The latter may be prominent enough to look like septal turbinates. These may be primary, or secondary if they develop after turbinate resections. This phenomenon is most common after middle turbinectomies. Grooves may also involve the septal cartilage and/or bone, as is seen in cases
of severe contralateral spurs.
Trang 25Figure 2.13 A mild right septal deviation in a normal subject (short arrow). Note the circular candy (long arrow) that the patient kept in
her mouth while being scanned!
Figure 2.14 Bilateral nasal septal deviations (arrows) in an asymptomatic subject
Trang 28The olfactory slits
The olfactory slit is a narrow space between the middle turbinate and the septum. In its depth lies the olfactory mucosa that covers the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, through which the olfactory fibers pass to relay smell information from the nose to the brain. Some olfactory fibers spill into small areas of the adjacent upper parts of the septum and middle turbinate. The narrowness of the slit makes the olfactory mucosa not accessible to close direct evaluation, even by the smallest endoscopes available
Nasal polyps, or swellings of the mucosa from the edema of allergy, or the congestion of infection, block the slit and prevent the molecules carrying the smell from reaching the olfactory mucosa, even upon sniffing. The function of smell is thus partially or totally curtailed, as is seen in acute nasal allergies and in upper respiratory tract infections
In cases of anosmia from head injury or viral infections, the olfactory slits look normal on nasal endoscopy and on imaging, the damage being in the neurons themselves. These fail to be stimulated, and, therefore, fail to transmit the information to the brain for the perception of smell to occur. Scarring and adhesions from intranasal surgery have also been noted to cause anosmia or hyposmia. Neoplasms may also block the olfactory slit. They may invade from adjacent areas, or are intrinsic, as is the case with esthesioneuroblastomas.
Trang 31This page intentionally left blank.
Trang 32The floor of the nose and the inferior meati
The floor of the nose, a part of the palatine bone, is flat. Its mucosal lining is smooth and does not perceptibly become involved in the changes that allergies and infections cause to the rest of the sinonasal mucus membrane. The vomer separates the nasal floor into right and left. In clefts of the palate, and even in submucous clefts, the vomer may be short and the floor of the nose becomes continuous on both sides. This uncommon anomaly, usually discovered accidentally, is asymptomatic and of no clinical significance
The inferior meatus is the lateral continuation of the nasal floor and lies inferior and lateral to the inferior turbinate. It has a smooth surface, with an occasional vertical mucosal ridge. It is also rarely involved in pathologies of the nose and sinuses. A pediatric endoscope and even an infracture of the inferior turbinate may be needed for
an adequate evaluation of the inferior meatus
The nasolacrimal duct opens in the upper part of the inferior meatus, at about the level of the junction of the anterior and middle thirds of the inferior turbinate. A oneway valve (Hasner’s valve) at its end prevents retrograde flow. Performing a nasoantral window surgically is a safe procedure close to the floor of the nose and away from the valve. Hasner’s valve may be missing or incompetent in some subjects, and the circular or oval opening of the duct can then be seen well on endoscopy. Subjects with this variant can make the lacrimal sac balloon on a Valsalva maneuver, and can make air leak from the eyelid canaliculi on blowing the nose; blood can then also penetrate the nasolacrimal duct retrogradely and appear at the lacrimal puncta in cases of epistaxis, especially after nasal packing. The author has not observed multiple openings of the nasolacrimal duct in the inferior meatus. In addition, nasal endoscopy allows the visualizing of new nasolacrimal connections following various kinds of surgeries for epiphora, and following the medial maxillectomy for inverted papilloma or other pathology.
Trang 35Figure 4.14 The opening of a left nasolacrimal duct could be better seen because part of the inferior turbinate had been resected. The
long arrow points to the turbinate’s stump and the arrowhead to the septum
Figure 4.15 An unusually large opening of the left nasolacrimal duct
Trang 37This page intentionally left blank.
Trang 38The inferior turbinates
The inferior turbinate is a separate bone, unlike the rest of the turbinates which are parts of the ethmoid bone. It may be thin and lamellar or thick and cancellous. Its covering mucosa is the most variable mucosa in the sinonasal cavities. It may have different colors and thicknesses, depending on the degree of congestion and other factors such as allergies and age. It is usually smooth but may also be irregular, granular, polypoid, or even furrowed. A mulberrylooking posterior tip is common even
in nonallergic subjects, but rarely contributes to nasal obstruction. Congenital variations do occur, but not as commonly as with the middle turbinate.
The rich vascularity and glandular content of the inferior turbinate make it a major contributor to the nasal blockage and discharge of allergies and infections, and a major participant in the nasal cycle and in vasomotor rhinitis
In subjects of African heritage, the nasal tip tends to be elevated and the alae prominent. The anterior part of the inferior turbinates can be large enough bilaterally to
be seen on a close look without any instrumentation. This prominence may be to ensure an optimal crosssectional area of the nostril, necessary for the desired laminar flow of the inspired air. It has been mistaken for nasal polyps
A compensatory hypertrophy of the inferior turbinate occurs when there is an ipsilateral septal concavity, usually with a contralateral deviation. This enlargement may
be due to thick soft tissues and/or cancellous bone of the turbinate.
Trang 44Numerous anatomic variations may occur in the middle meatus. The examiner needs to be familiar with them all, so that no disease process is unnecessarily suspected. This chapter pictures the variations encountered by the author.
Trang 53This page intentionally left blank.
Trang 54The middle turbinates
In the nose, the middle turbinates are the structures that exhibit the highest degree of variability in size, color, and appearance. The covering mucous membrane is usually smooth. The bony component, a part of the ethmoid bone, may be thin, thick, and cancellous, or aerated and cellular (concha bullosa), as suspected
endoscopically and confirmed by imaging. The ostium of the concha bullosa may be seen endoscopically but rarely. The middle turbinates may have furrows, pits, and defects. They may be split in a parasagittal plane and twisted. Their convexity is usually medial, but may also be lateral, as is seen in the socalled paradoxic middle turbinates. One middle turbinate may exhibit more than one variation. Paradoxical and cellular middle turbinates have been suspected of contributing to, or causing sinusitis, but the evidence to date is far from convincing
When followed endoscopically posteriorly, their tail is identifiable anterior and superior to the vault of the posterior choana. The tail may have a violaceous discoloration, and a polypoid posterior tip, as is more often seen in the inferior turbinates. Incidental small polyps may be seen anywhere on a middle turbinate.