Research methods in sport studies and sport managemenr a practical guide a j veal, simon darcy, routledge, 2014 scan

Introduction 31Approaches, dimensions, issues, terminology 34 Positivist, post-positivist, interpretive and critical approaches/paradigms 36 Descriptive, explanatory and evaluative resea

RESEARCH METHODS IN

SPORT STUDIES AND SPORT MANAGEMENT

A Practical Guide

Research Methods in Sport Studies and Sport Management

A Practical Guide

A J Veal and Simon Darcy

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© 2014 Anthony J Veal and Simon Darcy

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Veal, Anthony James.

Research methods in sport studies and sport management : a practical guide /

A. J. Veal and Simon Darcy.

Summary contents

1 Introduction to research: what, why and who? 3

3 Starting out – research plans and proposals 57

9 Qualitative methods: introduction and data collection 251

10 Questionnaire surveys: typology, design and coding 277

13 Sampling: quantitative and qualitative 387

16 Analysing quantitative and survey data 455

18 Research reports and presentations 549

Detailed chapter contents

1 Introduction to research: what, why and who? 3Introduction 3

Descriptive, explanatory and evaluative research 6

Books 21

Introduction 31

Approaches, dimensions, issues, terminology 34

Positivist, post-positivist, interpretive and critical approaches/paradigms 36 Descriptive, explanatory and evaluative research 37

Pragmatism 40

Reflexivity 41

Validity, reliability and trustworthiness 49

Summary 51

Exercises 52Resources 52References 53

3 Starting out – research plans and proposals 57Introduction 57

Detailed chapter contents ix

Responsive proposals – briefs and tenders 91Summary 97

Exercises 98Resources 98References 99

Introduction 105Institutional oversight of research ethics 106

Honesty/rigour in analysis, interpretation and reporting 120

Summary 123

Exercises 124Resources 124References 125

Scholarship 128

Existing sources 1: using the literature/systematic reviews 129

Observation 130

Validity, reliability, trustworthiness and generalisability 153 Ethics 153

Summary 154

Exercises 156Resources 156References 159

Detailed chapter contents xi

Compiling and maintaining a bibliography 174

Summarising 178 Meta-analysis/interpretation/evaluation/review 179

Introduction to secondary sources 204

Advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data 205

National sport participation surveys 207

The national sport participationsurvey phenomenon 207 Validity and reliability of national sport participation surveys 210

Main question – participation reference period and duration 211

The importance of sport participation surveys 214

Opportunism 219Summary 219

Exercises 220Resources 220References 222

Introduction 225

Types of observational research: quantitative and qualitative 226

Possibilities 226

Main elements of observational research 233

Step 3: Choice of observation time-period(s) 235 Step 4: Continuous observation or sampling? 235

Detailed chapter contents xiii

9 Qualitative methods: introduction and

Introduction 251

The range of qualitative methods – introduction 255

Nature 263 Purposes 263 Methods 263

Nature 264

Film 265 Internet 265

Biographical research 265

Nature 265 Biography/autobiography/personal narrative 266

Validity and reliability, trustworthiness 267Summary 268

Exercises 269Resources 270References 271

10 Questionnaire surveys: typology, design and coding 277Introduction 277

Roles 278 Merits 279 Limitations 280

Interviewer-completion or respondent-completion? 282

Nature 283 Conduct 284

Nature 288 Conduct 288

Nature 290

Mail and user/site/visitor survey combos 295

E-surveys 295

Nature 296

Detailed chapter contents xv

Conduct 297

User/site/visitor and mail/e-survey combo 300

Nature 300 Conduct 300

Validity of questionnaire-based data 328

Summary 336

Exercises 337Resources 338References 339

Experimental methods in sport research 349

Training/coaching 349 Sport policy/management experimental projects 352

Introduction 369Definitions 370

Scale 371

Introduction 387

Representativeness 389

Sampling for site/user/visitor surveys 391 Sampling for street surveys and quota sampling 392

Sampling and random assignment in experimental research 394

Detailed chapter contents xvii

1 Level of precision – confidence intervals 395

2 Level of detail of proposed analysis 398 Budget 399

Confidence intervals applied to population estimates 400

Weighting 401

Summary 404Resources 405References 405Exercises 405

Introduction 409

Summary 422Resources 423Exercises 423References 424

Introduction 425

Introduction 430 Reading 430

Mechanics 432 Analysis 432

Qualitative analysis using computer software – introduction 434

Saving 436 Attributes 436

Introduction 455Survey data analysis and types of research 456

Overlaps 458 Reliability 458

Mean, median and mode – measures of central tendency 478 Presenting the results: statistical summary 481 Crosstabulation 481 Weighting 483 Graphics 485

Detailed chapter contents xix

Summary 489

Exercises 490Resources 490References 491

Introduction 497

Significance 501

Chi-square 504

A number of means: one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) 513

A table of means: factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) 517 Correlation 518

Report components 550 Main body of the report – technical aspects 555 Main body of the report – structure and content 560

Index 569

List of figures

1.4 Examples of policies, plans and management 101.5 The rational-comprehensive planning/management process 111.6 Example of planning/management tasks and associated research 12

2.1 Disciplines and examples of research questions 33

3.2 Examples of research topics from different sources 593.3 Reasons for revisiting theories/propositions/observations

3.7 Exploration of relationships between concepts – example 70

3.9 Examples of concepts – definition and operationalisation 723.10 Conceptual framework as quantifiable model 733.11 Exercise – fitness – stress – hardiness and health 74

3.12 Conceptual framework: performance evaluation 743.13 Conceptual framework: market research study 753.14 Conceptual framework: customer service quality study 76

3.19 Example of research programme diagrammatic representation 83

3.22 Research proposal checklist: self-generated research 883.23 Research proposal checklist: responsive research 93

4.2 Information for research participants: checklist 114

4.4 Ethics guidelines for anonymous questionnaire-based surveys 116

5.4 Subsidiary, cross-cutting and multiple techniques/methods 136

5.7 Examples of psychographic/lifestyle categories 145

5.11 Considerations in selecting a research method 151

6.4 Questions to ask when reviewing the literature 177

6.8 Reference systems: features, advantages, disadvantages 1897.1 Typology of individual engagement with sport 200

List of figures xxiii

7.12 Measures of national performance in multi-sport international

8.3 Pattern of conflict at the Bathurst ‘Bike Races’, 1985 231

9.3 Questions, responses and interview types 2579.4 Example of a checklist for in-depth interviewing 2599.5 Interviewing interventions – Whyte (1982) 26110.1 The use of questionnaire surveys compared with other

10.2 Interviewer-completion compared with respondent-completion 28210.3 Types of questionnaire survey – characteristics 284

10.8 Questionnaire design process 30210.9 Question wording: examples of good and bad practice 30710.10 Open-ended vs pre-coded questions – example 30710.11 Example of range of replies resulting from an open-ended

question 30910.12 Range of information in sport questionnaires 31010.13 Economic status/occupational/socio-economic groupings 315

10.22 Questionnaire surveys: threats to validity 330

11.4 Types and contexts of experiments in sport research 349

11.6 Survey respondent groups – Hammitt and McDonald 35812.1 The case study method: demographic and geographic levels 371

12.3 Trends in swimming participation, Australia, 2001–10 37813.1 The normal curve and confidence intervals 396

14.1 Income inequality and sport participation, European

List of figures xxv

15.4 Developed conceptual framework for qualitative study of

15.11 Linking documents and cases – procedure 440

16.1 Research types and analytical procedures 45616.2 Questionnaire survey data: spreadsheet analysis 45916.3 Questionnaire survey data: spreadsheet analysis steps 461

16.7 Blank Variable View and Data View windows 46916.8 Variable View window with variable names and labels 47016.9 Data View window with data from 15 questionnaires/cases 471

16.12 Frequencies for one variable: procedure and output 475

16.16 Campus Sporting Life Survey 2011: statistical summary 482

17.1 Drawing repeated samples and the normal distribution 500

17.3 Types of data and types of statistical test 504

17.5 Chi-square test – procedures 50617.6 Distribution of chi-square assuming null hypothesis is true 50717.7 Presentation of chi-square test results 509

17.9 Comparing means: t-test: paired samples: procedures 51117.10 Comparing means: t-test: independent samples – procedure 512

17.13 One-way analysis of variance – procedures 516

17.15 Factorial analysis of variance – procedures 519

17.21 Regression line – curve fit – procedure 52717.22 Regression: curve fit, non-linear – procedures 528

18.3 Example list of contents for a research report on student sport 554

List of tables

10.1 Participation in sport/physical recreation activities

12.1 Trends in swimming participation, adults aged 15+,

13.2 Necessary sample sizes to achieve given

13.3 Sample size and population size: small populations 400 13.4 Interview/usage data from a site/visitor survey 401

14.1 Inequality and sport participation data, European

14.5 Medals, population and GDP, London 2012 Olympic

14.6 Scores on nine measures of national performance,

14.7 Nine measures of performance rank, London 2012

15.1 Psychological contract framework classification 449

2.1 Tennis vs golf – inductive and deductive approach 443.1 Example of successful self-generated research proposal 893.2 Example of a successful response to a research brief 944.1 Examples of ethical issues in sport research 109

11.4 Sport participation promotion projects: review 353

11.10 Discrete choice experiment: sport facility preferences

12.3 Leisure, sport, lifestyle and the new middle class 380

14.2 Estimating likely demand for a sport facility 411

List of case studies xxix

15.2 Using psychological contract to understand volunteer management in community sport clubs 448

The preparation of this book was prompted by the growing significance of courses in sport studies and sport management, both as stand-alone degrees and as majors in broader degrees The aim is to introduce research methods both as a skill required by students planning a professional career in the pub-lic or private sport sector and as initial preparation for those embarking on research degrees We seek to provide a ‘how to do it’ text and also to offer an understanding of how research findings are generated in order to assist stu-dents and practising managers to become knowledgeable consumers of the research of others.

Three software packages are used to demonstrate quantitative and tive data analysis (Excel, SPSS and NVivo) The particular packages selected did not arise as the result of a ‘consumer test’ of available packages, but are simply the packages with which we are familiar and which have been available

qualita-to the students in the universities where we have taught We can vouch for the usefulness of the packages demonstrated but are not in a position to compare the packages used with others available

Regarding presentational style: we have sought, in the interests of readability,

to reduce the amount of overt referencing in the body of the text, with references

to literature offering examples of the use of various methods and techniques being provided in case studies or in the Resources sections at the end of each chapter

The book is modelled on an existing text, Research Methods for Leisure and

Tourism: A Practical Guide (Veal, 2011), following the same chapter structure,

with much generic material in common and demonstration data sets and cises adapted to apply to sport An advantage of this is that in those institutions where sport studies students are taught together with leisure and tourism stud-ies students, the specialist students can use their own subject-specific version of the text with relevant examples and source material

exer-Readers may wish to consult the online material available which includes:

● copies of all diagrams, tables and some dot-point lists in PowerPoint files;

● copies of statistical and qualitative data sets used in the book, plus others;

Preface xxxi

● extended versions of some case studies;

● errata – which will be corrected in reprints following discovery

A J VealSimon DarcySydney, December 2013

Reference

Veal, A J (2011) Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide,

Fourth edn Harlow, UK: Financial Times Prentice Hall.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:

Figures

Figure 7.10 from Shibli, S., & Bingham, J (2005) Measuring the sporting success

of nations In Henry, I (ed.), Transnational and Comparative Research in Sport (pp 59–81) London: Routledge.; Figure 17.24 adapted from Principles and Practice of

Structural Equation Modelling, Second Edition, Guilford Press (Kline, R B 2005).

Tables

Table 14.1 from The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always do Better,

Allen Lane (Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K 2009), Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd

In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright rial, and we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so

mate-This part of the book contains six chapters:

● Chapter  1, ‘Introduction to research: what, why and who?’ and Chapter 2, ‘Approaches to research in sport’, set the context, for research generally and for the background to research in the field

of sport

● Chapter 3, ‘Starting out – research plans and proposals’, ers the all-important process of designing a research project and provides a framework for the various components of research dis-cussed in the rest of the book

consid-● Chapter 4 introduces the topic of the ethical conduct of research, which relates to moral as well as legal and administrative issues

● Chapter 5, ‘The range of research methods’, provides an overview

of the range of social science research methods and techniques used in sport contexts, and which are discussed in more detail in the rest of the book

● Chapter  6 discusses the fundamental task of reviewing the erature, that is, examining existing published and unpublished research relevant to the project in hand

Part

COLLECTION ANALYSIS RESULTS

Information, knowledge and understanding concerning the natural, social and economic environment have become the very basis of cultural and material development in contemporary societies and economies Recent controversies over the research basis of global climate change predictions offer a dramatic demonstration of this An understanding of how information and knowledge are generated and utilised and an ability to conduct or commission research relevant to the requirements of an organisation can therefore be seen as key skills for managers in any industry sector and a key component of the educa-tion of the modern professional Research is, however, not just a set of dis-embodied skills; it exists and is practised in a variety of social, political and economic contexts The purpose of this book is to provide an introduction to the world of social research in the context of sport, as an industry sector, a pub-lic policy concern and a field of academic enquiry and reflection The aim is to provide a practical guide to the conduct of research and an appreciation of the role of research in the policy-making, planning and management processes of the sport sector and to foster a critical understanding of existing theoretical and applied research

The focus of the book is sport While research methodology can be seen as universal, various fields of research – including sport studies – have devel-oped their own methodological emphases and bodies of experience In some fields of enquiry scientific laboratory experiments are the norm, while in others social surveys are more common While most of the principles of research are

1 Introduction to research: what, why and who?

universal, a specialised text such as this reflects the traditions and practices in its field of focus and draws attention to examples of relevant applications of methods and the particular problems and issues which arise in such applica-tions.

The field of sport is a large one, encompassing a wide range of individual and collective human activity Sport can be defined as physical activity which

is rule-based and competitive Competition can be between individuals or teams or between individuals/teams and the environment, as in mountain-eering and hunting However, it overlaps with exercise activity, such as jog-ging or recreational swimming, which is neither rule-based nor competitive Furthermore, some public policies and related research are concerned with the idea of exercise more broadly conceived, including exercise undertaken in non-leisure contexts, including domestically based work (e.g gardening), travel (walking and cycling) and physical activity in workplaces (e.g walking or lift-ing), as indicated in Figure 1.1 Sport can be viewed as an activity engaged in

by individuals and groups, but also as a service industry involving public tor, non-profit and commercial organisations and facilities as diverse as small commercial gyms and major sport stadia There is also a major overlap with

sec-the emerging field of events studies, with sporting events such as sec-the Olympic

Games and the soccer World Cup being among the largest peacetime events in

the world This is a major component of the phenomenon of sport tourism which

covers active involvement in sporting activity – as in a skiing holiday – and passive involvement, such as travelling to attend a major sporting event as a spectator or fan

Figure 1.1 Physical exercise and sport

Physical work – domestic

Physical work – employment

Physical exercise

Work/domestic/

personal time Leisure time

What is research? 5

Most of the book is concerned with how to do research, so the aim of this

open-ing chapter is to introduce the ‘what, why and who’ of research What is it? Why study it? Who does it?

discovery Elias (1986: 20)

Discovery – making known something previously unknown – could cover a number of activities, for instance the work of journalists or detectives Elias, however, also indicates that research is a tool of ‘science’ and that its purpose

is to ‘advance human knowledge’ – features which distinguish research from other investigatory activities

Scientific research

Scientific research is conducted within the rules and conventions of science This means that it is based on logic and reason and the systematic examina-tion of evidence Ideally, within the scientific model, it should be possible for

research to be replicated by the same or different researchers and for similar

conclusions to emerge (although this is not always possible or practicable)

It should also contribute to a cumulative body of knowledge about a field

or topic This model of scientific research applies most aptly in the physical or natural sciences, such as physics or chemistry, and in the biological sciences

In the area of social science, which deals with people as individuals and social

beings with relationships to groups and communities, the pure scientific model must be adapted and modified, and in some cases largely abandoned

Social science research

Social science research is carried out using the methods and traditions of social science Social science differs from the physical or natural sciences in that it

deals with people and their social behaviour, and people are less predictable

than non-human phenomena People can be aware of the research being ducted about them and are not therefore purely passive subjects; they can react

con-to the results of research and change their behaviour accordingly While the fundamental behaviour patterns of non-human phenomena are relatively con-stant and universal, people in different parts of the world and at different times behave differently The social world is constantly changing, so it is rarely pos-sible to produce exact replications of research at different times or in different places and obtain similar results

Descriptive, explanatory and evaluative research

Elias’ term discovery can be seen as, first, the process of finding out – at its plest, therefore, research might just describe what exists But to ‘advance human

sim-knowledge, to make it more certain or better fitting’ requires more than just the

accumulation of information or facts The aim is also to provide explanation – to

explain why things are as they are, and how they might be In this book, we

are also concerned with a third function of research, namely evaluating – that is,

judging the degree of success or value of policies or programmes Three types

of research can be identified corresponding to these three functions, as shown

in Figure  1.2 In some cases particular research projects concentrate on only one of these, but often two or more of the approaches are included in the same research project

1 Descriptive research

Descriptive research is very common in the sport area, for three reasons: the relative newness of the field, the changing nature of the phenomena being studied, and the frequent separation between research and action

Since sport is a relatively new field of study, there is a need to map the tory Much of the research therefore seeks to discover, describe or map patterns

terri-of behaviour in areas or activities which have not previously been studied in the field or for which information needs to be updated on a regular basis It

might therefore be described as descriptive In some texts this form of research

is termed exploratory But because the other categories of research, including

explanatory and evaluative, can also at times be exploratory, the term tive is used here

descrip-Figure 1.2 Types of research

1 Descriptive research finding out, describing what is

2 Explanatory research explaining how or why things are as they are

(and using this to predict)

3 Evaluative research evaluation of policies and programmes

What is research? 7

One of the reasons why descriptive research is required is that sport is stantly changing over time, for example:

con-● the popularity of different sports changes;

● the sporting preferences of different social groups (for example young ple or women) change;

peo-● new forms of sport are introduced, such as indoor versions of sports such as soccer and cricket;

● new technologies are introduced, for example hi-tech swimsuits;

● new/additional facilities are provided; and

● new policy initiatives are taken, for example in marketing or training of coaches

A great deal of research effort in the field is therefore devoted to tracking – or monitoring – changing patterns of behaviour Hence the importance in sport

of secondary data sources, that is, data collected by other organisations, such

as government statistical agencies (see Chapter 7) A complete understanding

and explanation of these changing patterns would be ideal, so that the future could be predicted, but this is only partially possible, so providers of sport ser-vices must be aware of changing social and market conditions whether or not they can be fully explained or understood; they are therefore reliant on a flow

of descriptive research to provide up-to-date information

Descriptive research is often undertaken because that is what is

commis-sioned For example, a company may commission a market profile study or a local council may commission a sport and recreation needs study from a research

team – but the actual use of the results of the research, in marketing or ning, is a separate exercise with which the research team is not involved: the research team may simply be required to produce a descriptive study

plan-2 Explanatory research

Explanatory research moves beyond description to seek to explain the patterns and trends observed; for example, explanations might be required for:

● the falling popularity of a particular sport;

● community opposition to the hosting of a major sporting event;

● the fact that some social groups have particularly low levels of participation

in sport

Such questions raise the thorny issue of causality: the aim is to be able to say, for

example, that there has been an increase in A because of a corresponding fall in

B It is one thing to discover that A has increased while B has decreased; but to

establish that the rise in A has been caused by the fall in B is often a much more

demanding task To establish causality, or the likelihood of causality, requires