The use of English vocabulary learning strategies among university students

Faculty of English Language ------ RESEARCH REPORT The use of English vocabulary learning strategies among university students: Lac Hong university December 2019 Name: Nguyen Thi Thu

Faculty of English Language

- -

RESEARCH REPORT The use of English vocabulary learning strategies among university students: Lac Hong university

December 2019 Name: Nguyen Thi Thuy Trang

Class: 15AV112

The use of English vocabulary learning strategies

among university students

Faculty of English Language

- -

RESEARCH REPORT The use of English vocabulary learning strategies among university students: Lac Hong university

December 2019

Name: Nguyen Thi Thuy Trang

Class: 15AV112

Advisor: Trinh Dieu Hien, MA

Nguyen Van Tan, PhD

among university students

I, Nguyen Thi Thuy Trang, certify that the thesis entitled “The use of English

vocabulary learning strategies among university students” is my work and has not

previously been submitted for a degree or similar award at another institution Dong Nai, 2019

Nguyen Thi Thuy Trang

This research would have not been completed without the invaluable help of many people, to whom my grateful acknowledgments are extended

First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to my advisors, Mrs Trinh Dieu Hien, MA, Mr Nguyen Van Tan, PhD., for their helpful guidance, practical suggestion, precious advice, great encouragement, and enthusiastic supervision They helped and supported me all the ways, so that I could meet the research deadline

I am also extremely grateful to lecturers of Faculties at Lac Hong University who wholeheartedly supported me during my conduct of the survey Without their facilitation, I could hardly keep up with the research schedule Besides, my special thanks are addressed to Lac Hong university students who take the time to complete the questionnaires

Finally, my appreciation for the support, understanding, and sympathy are sent to

my beloved family and friends

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ABSTRACT

Learning vocabulary has become an integral part of students' English language learning, and vocabulary learning strategies have been considered as approaches greatly facilitating the vocabulary learning process of students This study, therefore, with the aims of identifying the types of vocabulary learning strategies currently used by university students and investigating differences (if any) in vocabulary learning strategies use according to gender, university year groups and academic majors, hope to provide a better understanding to fully support students in this journey

This is quantitative research and research design is under the form of a survey Data has been collected through the questionnaire and for analysis purposes, SPSS software has been used The results reveal that students use various strategies in their vocabulary learning processes Among them, learning spellings of the words to remember them and using dictionaries to find new English words’ meanings to remember the words are greater use Besides, significant differences in the use of specific vocabulary learning strategies based on gender, university year groups, and

academic majors are found

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introductory paragraph 1

1.2 Statement of the probem 1

1.3 Purposes of the study 2

1.4 Significance of the study 2

1.5 Scope of the study 3

1.6 Research Questions 3

1.7 Research Hypothesis 3

CHAPTER 2 4

LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Language Learning Strategies 4

2.1.1 Definitions of Language Learning Strategies 4

2.1.2 Classification of Language Learning Strategies 5

2.1.2.1 Language learning strategies’ classification of Bialystok 1978 5

2.1.2.2 Language learning strategies’ classification of Carver 1984 6

2.1.2.3 Language learning strategies’ classification of O'Malley et al 1985 8

2.1.2.4 Language learning strategies’ classification of O’Maley and Chamot 1990 9

2.1.2.5 Language learning strategies’ classification of Oxford 1990 11

2.2 Vocabulary Learning Strategies 18

2.2.1 Definitions of Vocabulary Learning Strategies 18

2.2.2 Classification of Vocabulary Learning Strategies 19

2.2.2.1 Vocabulary learning strategies’ classification of Schmitt and Schmitt 1993 19

2.2.2.2 Vocabulary learning strategies’ classification of Gu and Johnson 1996 22

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2.2.2.4 Vocabulary learning strategies’ classification of Schmitt 1997 25

2.2.3 Studies on vocabulary learning strategy use of students 28

CHAPTER 3 32

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE 32

3.1 Aims and Objectives 32

3.2 Methodology 32

3.3 Population and sampling 32

3.4 Data collection 33

3.5 Procedure 34

3.6 Analysis plan 35

CHAPTER 4 36

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 36

4.1 The characteristics of respondents 36

4.1.1 The vocabulary learning questionnaire 36

4.1.1.1 Participants’ gender 36

4.1.1.2 Participants’ university year groups 36

4.1.1.3 Participants’ academic majors 37

4.2 Findings and discussion of research questions 38

4.2.1 Research question 1 38

4.2.2 Research question 2 41

4.2.2.1 Gender differences in vocabulary learning strategy use 41

4.2.2.2 University year group differences in vocabulary learning strategy use 45

4.2.2.3 Major differences in vocabulary learning strategy use 51

CHAPTER 5 71

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 71

5.1 The summary of the main findings of the study 71

5.1.1 Vocabulary learning strategies currently used by students 71

5.1.2 The difference in vocabulary learning strategy use 73

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5.1.2.1 Gender differences in vocabulary learning strategy use 73

5.1.2.2 University year group differences in vocabulary learning strategy use 74

5.1.2.3 Major differences in vocabulary learning strategy use 74

5.2 Contributions of the study 75

5.3 Implications of the study 76

5.4 Limitations and recommendations for further research 77

REFERENCES 79

APPENDIX A 82

APPENDIX B 87

APPENDIX C 91

APPENDIX D 97

APPENDIX E 100

APPENDIX F 104

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Bialystok’s (1978) language learning strategies classification 6

Table 2 Carver’s (1984) language learning strategies classification 7

Table 3 O'Malley et al (1985) language learning strategies classification 8

Table 4 O’Maley and (Chamot 1990) language learning strategies classification 9

Table 5a Oxford (1990) language learning strategies classification 12

Table 5b Oxford (1990) language learning strategies classification 15

Table 6 Schmitt and Schmitt’s (1993) vocabulary learning strategies classification 20

Table 7 A summary of Gu and Johnson (1996) vocabulary learning strategies classification 23

Table 8 Lawson and Hogben (1996) vocabulary learning strategies classification 24 Table 9 Schmitt (1997) vocabulary learning strategies classification 26

Table 10 Frequencies of participants’ gender 36

Table 11 Frequencies of participants’ university year groups 37

Table 12 Frequencies of participants’ academic majors 37

Table 13 Means of vocabulary strategy use 39

Table 13 Means of vocabulary strategy use (cont) 39

Table 13 Means of vocabulary strategy use (cont) 40

Table 13 Means of vocabulary strategy use (cont) 40

Table 14 Other vocabulary learning strategies used by students 40

Table 15 Independent samples test on vocabulary use by gender 43

Table 16 Means of the vocabulary learning strategies use by gender 44

Table 17 ANOVA tests on vocabulary learning strategy use by university year group 45

Table 18 Post Hoc Tests on DET1 by university year group 46

Table 19 Means of DET1 by university year group 47

Table 20 Post Hoc Tests on SOC1 by university year group 48

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Table 21 Means of SOC1 by university year group 49

Table 22 Post Hoc Tests on SOC3 by university year group 50

Table 23 Means of SOC3 by university year group 51

Table 24 ANOVA tests on vocabulary learning strategy use by academic major 52

Table 25 Post Hoc Tests on DET1 by academic major 54

Table 26 Means of DET1 by academic major 55

Table 27 Post Hoc Tests on DET2 by academic major 56

Table 28 Means of DET2 by academic major 57

Table 29 Post Hoc Tests on DET3 by academic major 57

Table 30 Means of DET3 by academic major 58

Table 31 Post Hoc Tests on DET4 by academic major 59

Table 32 Means of DET4 by academic major 60

Table 33 Post Hoc Tests on SOC1 by academic major 60

Table 34 Means of SOC1 by academic major 61

Table 35 Post Hoc Tests on SOC3A by academic major 62

Table 36 Means of SOC3A by academic major 63

Table 37 Post Hoc Tests on MEM1 by academic major 64

Table 38 Means of MEM1 by academic major 64

Table 39 Post Hoc Tests on MEM3 by academic major 65

Table 40 Means of MEM3 by academic major 66

Table 41 Post Hoc Tests on MEM7 by academic major 67

Table 42 Means of MEM7 by academic major 67

Table 43 Post Hoc Tests on MET2 by academic major 68

Table 44 Means of MET2 by academic major 69

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introductory paragraph

Learning a new language requires students to make a great effort because “it entails learning many aspects, including pronunciation, writing system, syntax, pragmatics, rhetorical modes for reading and composition, culture, and spelling, but the most important aspect is vocabulary." (Folse, 2004, p.1) In the same vein, Grass and Selinker (1994, p.270) also point out that “lexicon is the most important component for learners.” Discussing the reasons why vocabulary is thought to be the most vital factor of the language learning process, Lewis (1993, p.89) states, “lexis is the core

or heart of language.” Moreover, “without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed, and there is not much value in being able to produce grammatical sentences if one has not got the vocabulary that is needed to convey what one wishes to say” (Wilkins 1972, p.111)

Although the importance of vocabulary has been recognized, learning vocabulary is considered as a very difficult task for students Being aware of this, researchers in many countries conduct various studies on strategies that learners use when they learn vocabulary Researchers believe that students can gain a vast quantity of vocabulary easily with the help of vocabulary learning strategies, and that these strategies are useful to students at different language levels (Nation, 2001) Furthermore, “vocabulary learning strategies develop the autonomy of the students

by allowing self-directed involvement and helping them gain control of their learning.” (Wanpen et al., 2013, p.313) By determining the vocabulary learning strategies used by students, researchers hope for giving some suggestions on how to facilitate students in vocabulary acquisition

1.2 Statement of the problem

Being one of the most popular languages in the world, English seems to be the first choice for students who intend to learn a new foreign language In that general

to fill these gaps, the researcher undertakes a study on the topic: “The use of English vocabulary learning strategies among university students”

1.3 Purposes of the study

The purposes of this study are (1) to investigate the use of vocabulary learning strategies among university students overall, and (2) to explore the differences in vocabulary learning strategy use of students according to specific factors

1.4 Significance of the study

Once the present research is completed, its findings are expected to benefit people who are interested in this topic and fill the gaps in the field Particularly, the significance of this study will be:

First, university students will become aware of the vocabulary learning strategies they are using, and know more about some other vocabulary learning strategies Base on these facts, they, themselves, can consider and choose the appropriate vocabulary learning strategies as well as related activities for better vocabulary learning outcomes

Second, teachers will know what vocabulary learning strategies students currently use, and acknowledge differences in vocabulary learning strategy use according to gender, university year groups, and academic majors (if any) In this way, they can make adjustments to teaching vocabulary in classes Besides, they can encourage or

Fourth, the researcher hopes that this study will fill the gaps in the field; thereby it provides the extension of literature

1.5 Scope of the study

This study investigates the use of vocabulary learning strategies among university students overall, and explore the differences in vocabulary learning strategy use of students according to specific factors 917 students at Lac Hong University are selected as sample for this research Data is collected via questionnaires from October 31, 2019 to November 24, 2019

1.6 Research Questions

The present study seek to answers the following research questions:

1 What vocabulary learning strategies currently used by university students?

2 Are there any differences in vocabulary learning strategies use in terms of gender, university year groups, and academic majors?

1.7 Research Hypothesis

It is hypothesized that there are differences in vocabulary learning strategies use according to gender, university year groups, and academic majors

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Language Learning Strategies

As a branch of language learning strategies is Vocabulary learning strategies, it is vital to know how language learning strategies are defined and classified first

2.1.1 Definitions of Language Learning Strategies

Researchers define language learning strategies in different ways The early definition is given by Rubin (1975, p 43), who regards language learning strategies

as “techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge.” In Bialystok's (1978) definition, language learning strategies were optional means that learners use to exploit information with the aim of make competence in a second language better Oxford and Crookall (1989) have the same idea as Bialystok (1978) about language learning strategies They state that language learning strategies are

“the behaviors used by learners to move toward proficiency or competence in a second or foreign language” (Oxford & Crookall, 1989, p 404) From Oxford’s

(1989) perspective, language learning strategies are “behaviors or actions” used by

the learners to make the language learning process “more successful, self-directed, and enjoyable” (p.235) Similarly, “specific actions which were taken by the learner

to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (p 8) are the definition of language

learning strategies provided by Oxford (1990)

Maclntyre (1994) also contributes to language learning strategies’ definition by saying that techniques and tricks the learners use for making the target language learning easier are called language learning strategies Ghani (2003) provides another definition of language learning strategies The author writes that language learning strategies are “specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use for improving their progress in developing L2 skill,” and assumes that these strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or

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use of the new language" (Ghani, 2003, p.31) According to Cohen’s (2014) definition, language learning strategies are “strategies for (1) identifying the material that needs to be learned, (2) distinguishing it from other material if need be, (3) grouping it for easier learning, (4) having repeated contact with the material, and (5) formally committing to memory whatever material is not acquired naturally through exposure” (p.12) From definitions of language learning strategies above, it can be concluded that there are various language learning strategies’ definitions The following discussion is definitions of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

2.1.2 Classification of Language Learning Strategies

From many definitions of language learning strategies, there are also various language learning strategies’ taxonomies suggested by researchers This part respectively presents the language learning strategies taxonomies suggested by some researchers They are Bialystok (1978), Carver (1984), O'Malley et al (1985), O’Maley & Chamot (1990), Oxford (1990), and Intaraprasert (2000)

2.1.2.1 Language learning strategies’ classification of Bialystok 1978

Bialystok (1978) divided language learning strategies into three groups (1) practicing, (2) monitoring, and (3) inferencing strategies The practicing strategy group is thought-about as actions concentrating on understanding the meaning and properties of the target language This group consists of two sub-strategies, specifically formal and functional strategies Formal strategies are actions concentrating on remembering spellings of words Functional strategies, meanwhile, are actions focusing on messages' meanings The two next strategies groups are called monitoring and inferencing The former refers to learners' actions learners take to convey the messages' meanings effectively The latter covers learners' actions to deduce unknown information based on the information they have known Table 1 below presents a summary of Bialystok's (1978) language learning strategies classification

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Table 1 Bialystok’s (1978) language learning strategies classification

A Practicing strategies 1 Formal

2 Functional

B Monitoring strategies

C Inferencing strategies

2.1.2.2 Language learning strategies’ classification of Carver 1984

Language learning strategies, in Carver's (1984) opinion, are classified into four main groups, particularly strategies for (1) coping with target language rules, (2) organizing learning, (3) receiving performance, and (4) producing performance The first strategy group includes some strategies such as transfer from mother language, simplification, reinterpretation, hypercorrection, generalization The second ones involve some strategies like repetition, cognition, revision, peer group, contact with teachers

In the next two strategies groups called receiving and producing performance, the researcher proposes their subgroups together with their subsets The first group covers inferring from probability and knowledge of the world, checking by asking for simplification, or by rereading, predicting from contextual clues and identifying key terms from chance or frequency These strategies, in general, refer to deal with language performance The second group relates repeating sentences, labeling by function lifting of ideas/sentences, and monitoring reception by requesting comment/ question tags Below is the detailed outline of Carver’s (1984) language

learning strategies

5 Peer group

6 Whole or part learning

7 Using reference material

8 ‘Cheating’

9 Trying out and practicing

10 Concentrated or spaced learning

2 Checking -by asking for simplification

-by rereading/replaying/asking for repetition

-by asking for confirmation of one’s own interpretation

3 Predicting -from contextual clues

4 Identifying key terms -from chance -from frequency

-from knowledge of context

C Strategies

for producing

language

1 Repeating -sentences -key elements

2 Labelling -by function -by enumeration

-by phatic elements

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4 Monitoring reception - by question tags, and other feedback

2.1.2.3 Language learning strategies’ classification of O'Malley et al 1985

In the article named Learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate ESL students published in 1985, O'Malley et al (1985) create a list of language learning strategies under three categories: (1) metacognitive strategies, (2) cognitive strategies, and (3) social mediation Metacognitive strategies are actions derived from the personal awareness of learners, about the learning process of themselves or those around them, thereby they can adjust, evaluate and, deal with problems in their learning process (Brown & Palincsar, 1982) Next, cognitive strategies relate actions learners take to solve learning tasks requiring direct analysis, transformation,

or synthesis of learning materials (Brown & Palincsar, 1982) Finally, social mediation concerning individual learner interaction with others is mentioned Besides, researchers also provide subcategories of each In subcategories of the first one, advance organizers directed attention, and selective attention are actions listed The subclass of the second one covers repetition, resourcing, directed physical response The final category has just one subcategory called cooperation The following table will describe the language learning strategies taxonomy of O'Malley et al.’s (1985) in more detail

Table 3 O'Malley et al (1985) language learning strategies classification

C Social mediation 1 Cooperation

2.1.2.4 Language learning strategies’ classification of O’Maley and Chamot

1990

O’Maley and Chamot (1990) provide their language learning strategies classification basing on language learning strategies taxonomy of O'Malley et al (1985) Language learning strategies, according to their viewpoints, consist of three classes: (1) metacognitive strategies, (2) cognitive strategies, and (3) social/affective strategies The first category refers to language learners' selective attention, planning, monitoring, and evaluation in their learning processes The two following classes are cognitive strategies that include such devices as transfer, imagery, deducing, and social/affective strategies that relate to self-talk, cooperation, or questioning for clarification The next table summarizes fully subclasses and sets of each subclass

Table 4 O’Maley and (Chamot 1990) language learning strategies

2 Evaluation - checking comprehension after completion of a

receptive language activity, -evaluating language production after it has

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taken place

3 Monitoring -reviewing attention to a task

-reviewing comprehension of information that should be remembered

-reviewing production while it is occurring

4 Selective attention

- focusing on special aspects of learning tasks, e.g planning to listen for key words or phrases

B Cognitive

strategies

Transfer -using known linguistic information to facilitate

a new learning task

Imagery -using visual images (either generated or actual)

to understand and remember new verbal information

Deducing -applying rules to the understanding of

language

Rehearsal -repeating the names of items or objects to be

remembered

Inferencing -using information in text to guess meanings of

new linguistic items, predict outcomes, or complete missing parts

Elaboration - linking ideas contained in new information, or

integrating new ideas with known information Organization -grouping and classifying words, terminology,

or concepts according to their semantic or syntactic attributes

Summarizing -intermittently synthesizing what one has heard

to ensure the information has been retained

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C Social/affective

strategies

Self-talk -using mental redirection of thinking to assure

oneself that a learning activity will be successful

or to reduce anxiety about a task

Cooperation -working with peers to solve a problem, pool

information, check notes, or get feedback on a learning activity

Questioning for clarification

-eliciting from a teacher or peer additional explanation, rephrasing, or examples

2.1.2.5 Language learning strategies’ classification of Oxford 1990

Oxford (1990) proposes two versions of language learning classification, one for

“foreign language learners whose native language is English”n and one for “learners

of English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL)” (Oxford, 1995, p.4) In both versions, the researcher divides language learning strategies into two main categories: direct and indirect strategies and then, list three subcategories of each Three subclasses of the indirect strategy include (1) memory strategies, which facilitate language learners remembering processes more easily, (2) cognitive strategies, which enhance language learners' learning processes, and (3) compensation strategies, which are aimed at filling and dealing with language learners' gaps in the target language

The indirect strategy category consists of (1) metacognitive strategies, which involve the ways language learners organize their learning process, (2) affective strategies, which language learners use to control their emotions in learning processes; and (3) social strategies, which are designed for interaction with other people to make language learning more effective Within each subcategory, Oxford also indicates several activities The main difference between the two versions is the activities the researchers deem appropriate for each research subject Below is the detailed table of the two versions of Oxford’s (1990) VLS taxonomy

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Table 5a Oxford (1990) language learning strategies classification

For foreign language learners whose native language is English

A Direct

strategies

Memory strategies -Creating mental linkages

+ grouping + associating/elaborating + placing new words in to context -Applying images and sounds + using imagery

+ semantic mapping + using keywords + representing sounds in memory

- Reviewing well + structured reviewing

- Employing action + using physical response or sensation + using mechanical techniques

Cognitive strategies

-Practicing + repeating + recombining + practicing naturalistically

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+ recognizing and using formulas and patterns + formally practicing with sounds and writing systems -Receiving and sending messages

+ getting the idea quickly + using resources for receiving and sending messages -Analyzing and reasoning

+ translating + transferring + reasoning deductively + analyzing contrastively(across languages), -Creating structure for input and output + taking notes

+ summarizing + highlighting Compensation

strategies

-Guessing intelligently + using linguistic clues + using other clues -Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing + getting help

+ selecting the topic + coining words + using mine or gesture + switching to mother tongue

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+ using a circumlocution or synonym + adjusting or approximating the message + avoiding communication partially or totally

B Indirect

strategies

Metacognitive strategies

-Centering your learning + paying attention + delaying speech production to focus on listening + overviewing and linking with already known material -Arranging and planning your listening

+ organizing + setting goals and objectives + planning for a language task + seeking practice opportunities + finding out about language learning + identifying the purpose of a language task (purposeful listening/reading/speaking/writing)

-Evaluating your learning + self-monitoring + self-evaluating Affective strategies -Lowering your anxiety

+ using laughter + using music + using progressive relaxation + deep breathing, or mediation -Encouraging yourself

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+ take risks wisely + rewarding yourself + making positive statements -Taking your emotional temperature + using a checklist

+ listening to your body + writing a language learning diary + discussing your feelings with someone else Social strategies -Asking questions

+ asking for clarification or verification, asking for correction

-Cooperating with others + cooperating with peers + cooperating with proficient users of the new language -Empathizing with others

+ developing cultural understanding + becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings

Table 5b Oxford (1990) language learning strategies classification

For learners of English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL)

A Direct

strategies

Memory strategies -Creating mental linkages + grouping

-Applying images and sounds + rhyming

+ using imagery

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-Reviewing well + structured reviewing Cognitive

strategies

- Analyzing and reasoning + reasoning deductively, analyzing contrastively(across languages)

- Creating structure for input and output + summarizing

-Practicing + repeating + recombining + practicing naturalistically + recognizing and using formulas and patterns + formally practicing with sounds and writing systems Compensation

strategies

- Guessing intelligently + guessing meanings from the context in reading and listening

- Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing + using synonyms and gestures to convey meaning when the precise expression is not known

B Indirect

strategies

Metacognitive strategies

-Centering your learning + paying attention -Arranging and planning your listening + consciously searching for practice opportunities + planning for language tasks,

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-Evaluating your learning + self-evaluating one's progress + monitoring error Affective strategies -Lowering your anxiety

+ using music + using laughter + using progressive relaxation + deep breathing, or mediation -Taking your emotional temperature + listening to your body

+ using a checklist + writing a language learning diary + discussing your feelings with someone else -Encouraging yourself

+ take risks wisely + rewarding yourself + making positive statements Social strategies -Asking questions

+ asking for correction + asking for clarification or verification -Cooperating with others

+ with native speakers of the language -Empathizing with others

+ becoming culturally aware

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Based on the classification of vocabulary learning strategies above, it can be said that each researcher has a different classification And over time, the vocabulary learning strategies are increasingly categorized in more detail

Above are the description of the language learning strategies’ definitions and

classifications The next part is the discussion of vocabulary learning strategies including definitions, classifications and related studies of vocabulary learning

strategies

2.2 Vocabulary Learning Strategies

2.2.1 Definitions of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Based on the definitions of language learning strategies, a good deal of vocabulary learning strategies’ definitions is proposed by researchers First, Nation (2001) offers a board definition of vocabulary learning strategies Nation says vocabulary learning strategies are “a part of language learning strategies which in turn are a part

of general learning strategies.” (p.352) Vocabulary learning strategies under Cameron’s (2001) definition are learners’ actions performed for understanding and remembering vocabulary In the intention of contributing to a concrete vocabulary learning strategies’ definition, Catalan also provides her definition Catalan (2003, p.56) defines them as “(1) knowledge about the mechanisms (processes, strategies) used in order to learn vocabulary as well as (2) steps or actions taken by students to find out the meaning of unknown words to retain them in long-term memory, to recall them at will, and to use them in oral or written mode.” In the same vein, Hamzah et al (2009) say vocabulary learning strategies are, “(1) any action taken

by the learner to aid the learning process of new vocabulary, (2) actions which improve the efficiency of vocabulary learning and (3) conscious (as opposed to unconscious) actions taken by the learner in order to study new words” (p.42)

In 2001, Naveh et al conducts a study on vocabulary learning strategies and propose another vocabulary learning strategies’ definition They state that vocabulary learning strategies are, “special instructional tools and ways of going about directly or explicitly as well as the independent word-learning skills required

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to learn words independently.” (Naveh et al., 2011, p.105) A later year, 2012, there

is one vocabulary learning strategies’ definition is given Vocabulary strategies, according to Tılfarlıoğlu & Bozgeyik’s (2012) definition, are learners’ actions aim

to “foster vocabulary learning in the target language” (p.93) To sum up, vocabulary learning strategies can be defined in three aspects They can be considered as (1) learners’ actions to facilitate the learning process of new vocabulary, (2) learners’ actions to make vocabulary learning efficient, and (3) learners’ actions to study new words (Hamzah, Kafipour, & Abdullah, 2009) Generally, vocabulary learning strategies can be viewed as ways language learners use to make learning vocabulary process effective The following section of this paper is the vocabulary learning strategies’ classification

2.2.2 Classification of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

According to many language learning strategies’ taxonomies, researchers, including Schmitt and Schmitt’s (1993), Gu and Johnson’s (1996), Lawson and Hogben’s (1996), Schmitt’s (1997), Nation’s (2001), also classify vocabulary learning strategies in many ways The vocabulary learning strategies classifications of these authors are discussed respectively

2.2.2.1 Vocabulary learning strategies’ classification of Schmitt and Schmitt

1993

Schmitt and Schmitt (1993) in the research on the use and usefulness of vocabulary learning strategies list vocabulary learning strategies into two main groups: (1)

“strategies for initial learning of a new word's meaning” (14 strategies) and (2)

“strategies for studying and remembering a word's meaning once, it is known” (28 strategies) Each group covers specific actions learners can do in vocabulary learning processes Using reference materials, asking others for information or working with others, analyzing words from available information are some actions that researchers mention in the first group In the latter group, actions like repetition, creation, use of study aids Table 6 will illustrate the vocabulary learning strategies classification of Schmitt and Schmitt (1993) clearly

-bilingual dictionary -monolingual English dictionary

2 Ask others for information/ work with others

-ask classmates -ask teacher for translation -learn meaning during group work -ask teacher for a sentence using the new word -ask teacher for English paraphrase of synonym

3 Analyze words from available information

-guess meaning from reading context -check part of speech (noun, verb, etc.) -look at pictures or gestures to understand meaning

-check prefixes, suffixes, and word roots to discover meaning

4.Create system to analyze words

-attempt to guess where a new word's meaning lies along a 'scale' of gradable adjective

meanings freezing)

-study the spelling of the word -study the way the word sounds -study the word's part of speech -study the word's root, prefixes, and suffixes

3 Make and use study aids

-take notes in class about new words -use the vocabulary section in your textbook -use the configuration technique to remember word form

-use word lists to study new words use flash cards to study new words

4 Perseverance strategy

-continue to study the word often over a period

of time

5 Use physical actions

-say the new word aloud when studying it -use physical action when studying words (do throwing action when studying the word 'throw')

6 Manipulation of meaning

-use the new word in sentences -paraphrase the meaning of the new word

7 Create system

of associations

-study the word's synonyms and antonyms -use 'scales' to study gradable adjective sets -learn the new words in an idiom together at the same tine

-connect the new word to some situation in your mind

-associate the word with others in the same topic

-study words with a group of students -have your teacher check your word lists and flash cards for correctness

9 Imaging -make an image of the word's meaning

-imagine the word form and its spelling in your mind

-use the keyword approach (think of a el word that sounds similar to the new l2 word then make a single mental image combining the meanings of both words when you hear the new l2 word, this linking image can be remembered, bringing with it a prompt for the l2 word's meaning)

10 Use of knowledge of other languages

-cognates

2.2.2.2 Vocabulary learning strategies’ classification of Gu and Johnson 1996

Gu and Johnson (1996) make a list of vocabulary learning strategies under eight categories, namely (1) beliefs about vocabulary learning, (2) metacognitive regulation, (3) guessing strategies, (4) dictionary strategies, (5) note-taking strategies, (6) rehearsal strategies, (7) encoding strategies, and (8) activation strategies To make the classification clearer, they also suggest subcategories for each A detailed description in the following table provides an overview of vocabulary learning strategies' categorization from Gu and Johnson

1 Words Should Be Memorized

2 Words Should Be Acquired in Context: Bottom-Up

3 Words Should Be Studied and Put to Use: Top-Down

B Metacognitive

Regulation

1 Selective Attention

2 Self-Initiation

2 Using Background Knowledge/ Wider Context

2 Extended Dictionary Strategies

3 Dictionary Strategies for Comprehension

2 Meaning-Oriented Note-Taking Strategies

2 Repetition Visual Repetition

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7 Association/ Elaboration

2.2.2.3 Vocabulary learning strategies’ classification of Lawson and Hogben

1996

In the same year, 1996, Lawson and Hogben also produce a list of vocabulary learning strategies, falling into four board categories, namely repetition, word feature analysis, simple elaboration, and complex elaboration Within each category, the subcategories are indicated by the researchers The next table will summarize four board categories and their subcategories

Table 8 Lawson and Hogben (1996) vocabulary learning strategies

classification

2 Simple rehearsal

3 Cumulative rehearsal

4 Reading of related words

5 Writing of word and meaning

B Word Feature

Analysis

1 Suffix 2.Spelling 3.Word classification

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2 Mnemonic

3 Complex use of context

2.2.2.4 Vocabulary learning strategies’ classification of Schmitt 1997

Schmitt (1997) uses language learning strategy classification of Oxford (1990) for learners of English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL), as a basis to develop his vocabulary learning strategies taxonomy For this choosing, Schmitt reasons that Oxford's (1990) language learning strategies classification enables him

to organize a wide variety of vocabulary learning strategies in the best way, and that

is the most comprehensive classification system until now (Schmitt, 1997)

In his view, he categorizes vocabulary learning strategies into two main strategy groups: (1) groups of strategies for discovering the meaning of a new word and (2) group of strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encountered The former has two sub-strategy groups, namely determination strategies (DET), which

is created and added by him, and social strategies (SOC1) DET covers strategies learners use to deal with discovering a new word's meaning without any help from others, and SOC1 includes ways learners employ to increase interaction with those around for discovering meanings of words (Schmitt, 1997)

The later has four sub-strategy groups, which are social strategies (SOC2), memory strategies (MEM), cognitive strategies (COG), and metacognitive strategies (MET) These fourth strategies groups use for consolidating vocabulary learners encountered SOC2 are strategies helping individuals consolidate vocabulary by interacting with others; MEM remind learners about vocabulary by decoding them

or connecting them with knowledge the have known, COG, in some situations, are the same as MEM, but these strategies, the degree of mental processing of learners

is increased; MET allows learners manage and assess their vocabulary learning process (Schmitt, 1997) In each sub-strategy group, Schmitt also lists out specific actions Table 9 below shows Schmitt’s (1997) vocabulary learning strategies classification in detail

4 Check for L1 cognate

5 Analyze part of speech

6 Analyze affixes and roots

7 Guess from textual context

8 Analyze any available pictures or gestures SOC1 1 Ask classmates for meaning

2 Ask teacher for L1 translation

3 Ask teacher for paraphrase or synonym of new word

4 Ask teacher for the sentence including the new word

5 Discover new meaning through group work activity

SOC2 1 Interact with native speakers

2 Study and practice meaning in a group

3 Teacher checks students’ flashcards and word lists for accuracy MEM 1 Peg method

2 Loci method

3 Configuration

4 Affixes and roots

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5 Part of speech

6 Image word form

7 Use semantic maps

8 Use cognates in study

9 Image word’s meaning

10 Use Key word method

11 Use semantic feature grids

12 Use new word in sentences

13 Study the spelling of a word

14 Paraphrase the word’s meaning

15 Learn the words of idiom together

16 Say new word aloud when studying

17 Use “scales” for gradable adjectives

18 Group words together to study them

19 Underline the initial letter of the word

20 Connect word to a personal experience

21 Associate the word with its coordinates

22 Use physical action when learning a word

23 Group words together within a storyline

24 Group words together spatially on a page

25 Connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms

26 Study word with a pictorial representation of its meaning COG 1 Word lists

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2 Flash cards

3 Verbal repetition

4 Written repetition

5 Take notes in class

6 Listen to tape of word lists

7 Keep a vocabulary notebook

8 Put English labels on physical objects

9 Use the vocabulary section in your textbook MET 1 Skip or pass new word

2 Use spaced word practice

3 Testing oneself with word tests

4 Continue to study over time

5 Use English-language media (songs, movies, newscasts, etc.)

In short, researchers classify vocabulary learning strategies in various ways These researchers’ classifications of language learning strategies may come from “ (1) their own experience as language learners, or language teachers; (2) their own language learning strategy investigation, and (3) their reviews of other researchers' work.” (Intaraprasert, 2000, p.23) However, “most of their attempts to classify language learning strategies reflect more or less the same categorizations of language learning strategies without any radical changes.” Hardan (2013, p.1718) Next, some Studies on vocabulary learning strategy use of students are discussed

2.2.3 Studies on vocabulary learning strategy use of students

The use of vocabulary learning strategies among students is commonly identified in terms of factors such as gender, university year groups, academic majors, and students’ utilization of vocabulary learning strategies can be similar or different

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according to each factor Some researchers consider just one factor when discovering strategies students use the vocabulary learning process, while others investigate vocabulary learning strategies students employ in more than one factor

to find if there are any differences in the choice of vocabulary learning strategies Catalan (2003) researches gender differences in the use of vocabulary learning strategies among students Adopting Schmitt’s (1997) vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire as the instrument, Catalan finds considerable differences in the quantity and types of vocabulary learning strategies that students use The result reveals that female students use more vocabulary learning strategies than male students and the types of these strategies that male and female students use are not like each other Particularly, females intend to use formal rule strategies, input elicitation strategies, rehearsal strategies, and planning strategies, whereas males use image vocabulary learning strategies

In another study, Seddigh (2012) researches to find out the vocabulary learning strategies that medical students use and the difference in the choice of these strategies in terms of gender The students of the first, second and third year are invited to complete the questionnaire The outcomes of this study indicate that students commonly use guessing, dictionary, memory, note-taking strategies, and they do not commonly use study preference strategies Also, two facts that female students use more vocabulary learning strategies than male students, and there are differences in the students’ choice of vocabulary learning strategies according to their gender, are pointed out in the research result Specifically, according to the order of male choice, strategies are ranked as follow: guessing, dictionary, selective attention, memory, note-taking, social, autonomy and study preferences, while the order of female choice on vocabulary learning strategies is listed as guessing, dictionary, note-taking, memory, autonomy, selective attention, social and study preferences (Seddigh 2012)

Similarly, Hashemi and Hadavi (2015) also conduct a research on vocabulary learning strategies use of medical students Using Gu and Johnson questionnaire as