An analysis of lexical cohesive devices in functional food advertisements in english and vietnamese

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY M.A Thesis AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES IN FUNCTIONAL FOOD ADVERTISEMENTS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE Phân tích các

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY M.A Thesis

AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES IN

FUNCTIONAL FOOD ADVERTISEMENTS

IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE (Phân tích các phương tiện liên kết từ vựng trong quảng cáo thực phẩm chức năngtrong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt)

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report entitled

AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES IN FUNCTIONAL FOOD

ADVERTISEMENTS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE submitted in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in English Language Except where the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis

Hanoi, 2017

Pham Thi Huong

Approved by SUPERVISOR

Đỗ Kim Phương, Ph.D

A special word of thanks goes to my best friends, my colleagues and my students at Constructional and Industrial College where I have gathered information for my study Without whose support and encouragement it would never have been possible for me to have this thesis accomplished

Last but not least, I am greatly indebted to my family, my husband for the sacrifice they have devoted to the fulfillment of this academic work

ABSTRACT

This thesis mainly focuses on analyzing the lexical cohesive devices in functional food advertisements The study based on 30 samples of advertisements for Amway in English and Vietnamese The total of lexical devices are 145 lexical cohesive devices, including collocation and reiteration The deductive method, inductive method, qualitative method, quantitative method, and descriptive method The results show that both of advertisement in functional food the same in using 2 lexical cohesive devices The findings of the study help to find out some similarities and differences in using lexical cohesive devices between English and Vietnamese samples This thesis hopefully contributes to the general understanding of the notion

“functional food” and the language of advertising Moreover, learners, teachers, especially the copyrighters may benefit from this study to create an advertisement for a functional food product when comprehensively understanding the roles of lexical cohesive devices in the discourse of functional food advertisements

LIST OF TABLE AND GRAPHS

Page

Graph 3.1: The frequency of occurrence of lexical cohesive devices in

English and Vietnamese FFAs for Amway

34

Graph 3.2: The frequency of occurrence of reiteration in English and

Vietnamese FFAs for Amway

38

Graph 3.3: The frequency of occurrence of repetition in English

andVietnamese FFAs for Amway

40

Graph 3.4: The frequency of occurrence of collocation in Englishand

Vietnamese FFAs for Amway

45

Graph 3.5: The frequency of occurrence of grammatical collocationin

English and Vietnamese FFAs for Amway

47

Graph 3.6: Percentage of N-collocations and other types in EnglishFFAs

for Amway

48 Graph 3.7: Percentage of N-collocations and other typesinVietnamese

Table of contents

Page

Chapter 3 LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES IN FUNCTIONAL FOOD

ADVERTISEMENTS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

1.1 Rationale

Theoretically, It is noticeable that many researches on cohesive devices and particularly on lexical cohesive devices have been carried out in many discourses and genres Also, many studies of advertising discourse have focused on the language used in advertisements However, none of thoese has been done to functional food advertisements for Amway In the light of discourse analysis, cohesion and coherence are among major aspects studied Basing on the theory of these two terms, the linguistic features in terms of syntax of functional food advertisements will be analyzed In the study, the frequency of occurrence of lexical cohesive devices will be exploired and some noticeable findings will be drawn

Practically,functional foods are an emerging field in food science due to their increasing popularity with health-conscious consumers With its easy use, ability to support good health with nutrients and improve the immune system, functional food

is winning the hearts of more and more consumers As a matter of fact, functional foods seem to be sort of new to a large number of Vietnamese people There exist different ideas, even contrary ideas on this new kind of product The idea of investigating this kind of product to have a better understanding on it comes deeplyto my mind

As mentioned before, consumers’ interest in functional foods has been increasing during the late twentieth century as people's interest in achieving and maintaining good health increased People’s demand has increased; offering an opportunity for the age of advertising, advertising has been gaining its great popularity Different kinds of customers potentially demand different ways of presenting advertisements

1.2 Aims and objectives of the study

The main aims of the thesis are as follows:

Identify lexical cohesive devices in functional food advertisments for Amwayin English and Vietnamese in order to help learners of English use lexical cohesivedevices effectively

The study is objectived at:

- To examine lexical cohesive devices in funtional food advertisments for Amwayin English and Vietnamese

- To make a comparison between lexical cohesive devices in funtional food advertisments for Amwayin English and Vietnamese

- To give some suggestions to help learners of English use lexical cohesive devices

in funtional food advertisments for Amwayin English and Vietnamese effectively

1.3 Research questions

In order to achieve the aims stated above, the study is meant to find out the answers

to the following research questions:

- What are the ways of using reiteration and collocation in funtional foodadvertisments for Amway in English and Vietnamese?

- What are the similarities and differences usinglexical cohesive devices in

functional food advertisments for AmwaybetweenEnglish and Vietnamese?

- What are the evaluations on ways of using lexical cohesive devices in FFAs for Amway in English and their Vietnamese versions?

1.4 Methods of the study

In this study, the following methodsare used:

- Descriptive method: In the investigation of data, the descriptive method is employed to give a detailed description of data in terms lexical cohesion It is through this process that the significance level of each lexical cohesive device to the advertisements is specified

- Qualitative and quantitative methods: Qualitative method helps the study approach the advertising samples, then find out general features of these advertisements After the qualitative analysis, the data is also quantitatively analyzed This quantitative is exploited most of the time to search for what the lexical cohesive devices are used

- Contrastive analysis are used to find out the similarities and differences in FFAs for Amway

1.5 Scope of the study

In the framework of the study, the study is focused on the lexical cohesive devices

in the advertisements for only one kind of products namely FFAs for Amway The investigation on one of two main aspects of cohesion, grammatical one, is beyond

of the scope of this study, and this issue should be left for further study

The samples include 30 English FFAs for Amway and Vietnamese ones with equivalent number for the purpose of contrastive analysis All the data collected will

be analyzed to explore their contribution to the creation of the cohesive and coherent text with precision, unambiguity, and tightness

1.6 Significance of the study

Theoretical significance:

It is true that lexical aspect has been given little attention so far and teachers instead only pay attention to grammar or other aspects Thus, students are often not provided with full understandings towards English collocations some certain words and only learn their definitions A frequent difficulty is that students might find some common expressions complicated because they have no idea while a combination of the word with another one is not approved In order to overcome such a trouble, the research carried out in order to offer needed knowledge as to linguistic theories in discourse analysis by working on a certain kind of discourse in functional food advertisements for Amway.This study contributes to verify the correctness and significance related to linguistic theories in discourse analysis by working on a certain kind of discourse (Functional Food Advertisements for Amway)

Practical significance:

This thesis helps gaining an insight into the lexical cohesive devices in FFAs for Amway in English and Vietnamese.This study’s implications are to deal with these issues in hope that will help students overcome their troubles Findings of this study will provide information that can help learners and translators gain an insight into lexical cohesive devices in FFAs can be employed in discourse in English by Vietnamese and translators

First of all, when the students study about collocations, they might learn them by heart easily, however, the main problem will lie in applications of 20 FFAs in appropriate contexts Therefore, learning about lexical cohesive devices is the beginning of the whole process The main step is to understand comprehensively how they are applied in diverse situations and student can only do this by analyzing examples made by native speakers, not their own This research offers them a method to do this

Secondly, regarding translation students will have problems with understand the meanings if they learn lexical cohesive devices

1.7 Design of the study

Within the scope mentioned above, the thesis is structured as follows:

Chapter1 introduces the rationale, aims and objectives, research questions,methods, scope, significance, and the design of the study

chapter 2 consists of theoretical Background & Review of Related Literature which covers some theoretical knowledge on discourse analysis in general, on cohesive devices in particular

Chapter3 points out lexical cohesive devices in functional food advertisements for Amway in Englishand Vietnamese

Chapter 4 evaluation on ways of using lexical cohesive devices in FFAs for Amway

in English and their Vietnamese versions

Chapter 5makes a brief summary of the whole thesis, points out some limitations and gives recommendation as well as suggestions for a further study References and appendix come at the end of the study

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

The chapter begins with a brief view on discourse and discourse analysis

Being aware of the importance role of advertising in the daily communication in the society as well as in creating advertising texts and slogans, many researchers has taken studies on advertising language in various field such as syntax, semantics,

pragmatics, and translation, etc Then, the study investigates the notion cohesion”

This study is taken by the view of Halliday and Hasan as the theoretical framework

2.1.Previous studies

In English, there are a lot researches which have been conducted in every aspect

of the advertising in English, many of which cover the features of advertising language Some famous titles that can be mentioned here are "English in

advertising: A linguistic study of advertising in Great Britain" by Geoffrey

N.Leech (1966), "Advertising as communication" by Gillian Dyer (1982),

"English for sale: A study of the language of advertising" by Lars Hermeren (1999), or "The discourse of advertising" by Guy Cook (2001) There are also

some researches which only focus on some certain features in advertising

language Typical examples are "Selling America: Puns, language and adverting"

by Michel Monnot (1982), "Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising" by Char

Forceville (1998) There are also some contrastive studies which compare the

advertising language in English and that in other languages, e.g

"Advertisinglanguage: A pragmatic approach to advertisements in Britain and Japan” by Keiko Tanaka (1994)

According to Janalapsanska (2006) a Slovakian author, conducted a study: "The language of advertising with the concentration on the linguistic means and the analysis of advertising slogans" In the study, he scopes his attention to the

linguistic means used in advertising The study found out linguistic means used in advertising language in phonological, lexical and morphological, syntactic, and semantic aspect Although the thesis covers all aspects of linguistics, its result reflects only representatives of advertising slogan of many products It did not focus

on a specific product, thus its findings is advisable for references when studying language of advertising

In 2015, Be Adela Pilatova stated "The language of advertising: analysis of advertising slogans in fast food industry" by The study language strategies used in advertising slogan of fast food in terms of phonology, lexicology, syntactic, semantics and discourses The thesis of the analyzed slogans is limited to four companies and slogans were chosen subjectively Therefore, results of this analysis should not be generalized and applied to all slogans of all companies It is only a sample of slogans from fast food industry However, the playfulness of language and the importance of slogans for development of language can be still confirmed

Mehwish Noor et al (2015) carried out a study namely "the language of TV Commercials' Slogan: A Semantic Analysis" The study investigated on the linguistic means and devices used by copywriters of TV commercials to influence the viewers and highlight the semantic property of TV commercial slogans

In Vietnamese, some notable researches on the language of advertising include

two PhD theses done by Mai Xuan Huy (2001) on " Các đặc điểm của ngôn ngữ

quảng cáo dưới ánh sáng của lý thuyết giao tiếp" (Features of advertising language in the light of communicative theory) and Ton Nu My Nhat (2005) in

which she carried out a contrastive discourse analysis of travel advertisements based on the theory of Functional Grammar

Also, there are some MA theses carried out at institutional level For example, in Vietnam National University, Hanoi College of Foreign Languages, a thesis on advertising language used in trade was studied by Hoang Thi Thuy in 2005 and

another on “Presupposition and Implicature in English and Vietnamese Advertising Slogans" by Tran Thien Tu in 2007 All those books, articles and studies have

revealed typical and very interesting features of advertising language in general and slogans in particular

Mai Xuan Huy (2001) carried out a PhD study on language of advertising namely " Các đặc điểm của ngôn ngữ quảng cáo dưới ánh sáng của lý thuyết giao tiếp" (Features of advertising language in the light of communicative theory) The study

investigated on semantic and pragmatic structure of advertising slogan in Vietnamese at the time that the study was conducted This is the first project of Vietnam that has surveyed and researched on the characteristics of advertising language most comprehensively and completely Moreover, this is also the first study that has approached the language of advertising in the light of communicative theory and pragmatics By studying semantic and pragmatic structure of advertising language, the study defined mechanism of the activity of creating language in advertising slogan of advertiser Besides, the thesis discovered some interesting phenomena of semantics and pragmatics in Vietnamese

Nguyen Thi Thu Thao (2015) took "Acontrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese real estate advertising slogans printed advertisement” In the thesis,

she focuses on examining the phonological, lexical, and syntactic characteristics of advertising slogans of estate of the two varieties I he thesis' finding showed the similarities and differences in the linguistic features of real estate advertising

slogans in English and Vietnamese language

However, examining the above studies, the writer finds that many linguists, grammarians, have been absorbed in advertising language Many researchers have dealt with advertising language in many aspects but the language of advertising slogan of car is still an open subject which has given fully detailed analysis

So far, there have found no studies give fully detailed analysis of the linguistic features of advertising slogan of car Therefore, this thesis is being conducted to find the mentioned above features and together propose some possible applications for creating fascinating functional food advertisements in English and Vietnamese

2.2 Discourse and discourse analysis

The term discourse is defined under different linguists’ point of views Crystal (1992:25) considers discourse as a continuous stretch of spoken language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit, such as a sermon, argument, joke

or narrative In Nunan's viewpoint, (1993: 6) discourse is the interpretation of the communicative event in context To Halliday and Hasan (1985:3), discourse is functional language This fact suggests that linguists need more debates and discussion before an agreeable definition of discourse is made

However, the following definition of discourse suggested by Guy Cook seems to provide relatively sufficient information so that we can shape a clear image of discourse in our minds:

"Discourses are stretches of language perceived to be meaningful, unified, and purposive"(1989:156)

"Discourse may be composed of one or more well-formed grammatical sentences - and indeed it often is - but it does not have to be It can have grammatical "mistakes" in it, and often does."

"Discourse can be anything from a grunt or single expletive, through short conversations and scribbled notes right up to Tolstoy's novel, WAR AND PEACE,

or a lengthy legal case What matters is not its conformity to rules, but the fact that it communicates and is recognized by its receivers as coherent." (1989:7)

It can be inferred from this definition that advertisements and advertising slogans are undeniably discourses due to their communication function and they are recognized by their potential customers as coherent This is because advertisements themselves are messages from manufacturers or service providers to their customers and slogans are those messages in the most concise ways

2.2.1 The concept of discourse

Different linguists seek to define context from different point of view in order to

answer questions encountered in their own fields, and to support their own ideas and theories H G Widdowson, when focusing his study on language meaning,

thought "context" as " aspects of the circumstance of actual language use which are taken as relevant to meaning." He furtherpointed out, "in other words,

context is a schematic construct the achievement of pragmatic meaning is a matter of matching up the linguistic elements of the code with the schematic

elements of the context." (H.G Widdowson, 2000, p.126), When Guy Cook was

studying the relationship between discourse and literature, he took " into

consideration as well In his definition, context is “knowledge of the world outside language" which helps us to understand and use it to interpret the

messages both in spoken and written form and the term "context" can be used in

a broad and narrow sense In the narrow sense, it refers to (knowledge of) factors outside the text under consideration In the broad sense, it refers to (knowledge of) these factors and to (knowledge of) other parts of the text under

consideration, sometimes referred to as "co-text." (Guy Cook, 1999, p 24) When studying reference and inference, George Yule also took “context" into account

He provided us with a somewhat general definition, “Context is the physical environment in which a word is used." (George Yule, 2000, 128) According to Nunan (1993: 10), "context refers to the situation giving rise to the discourse and within which discourse is embedded" Although they are viewed from different perspectives for different purposes, these definitions have an important point in common: one main point of the context is the environment (circumstances or factors by some other scholars) in which a discourse occur From those ways of defining context, it can be concluded that context is something that we need to understand the discourse and there is no discourse without context

There are different ways of understanding and defining “discourse” A number of definitions of discourse have been offered It is a fact that the term “discourse” is very ambiguous This notion should be investigated along with the notion “text”, which will be presented below:

Discourse and text

Although many linguists have given different meanings to these two terms, there is

no clear cut definition between the two Some also use these two terms as synonyms

For example, Widdowson (1973) describes that text is made up of sentences and have the property of cohesion whereas discourse is made up of utterances and have the property of coherence But, these definitions have become ambiguous in his later works as he describes discourse as something that is made up of sentences, and omits any mention of text

Text refers to any object that can be read

Discourse has different definitions depending on the context In a broad and general sense, discourse is considered to be the use of spoken and written language in a social context

Text and discourse are two terms that are commonly used in linguistics, literature, and language studies There are many debates about the interchangeability of these two terms Some linguistics view text and discourse analysis as the same process whereas some others use these two terms to define different concepts Text can refer

to any written material that can be read Discourse is the use of language in a social context This is the key difference between text and discourse

A text can be defined as an object that can be read, whether it is a work of literature,

a lesson written on the blackboard, or a street sign It is a coherent set of signs that transmits some kind of informative message

In literary studies, text usually refers to the written material We use the term text when we are discussing novels, short stories, and dramas Even the content of a letter, bill, poster or similar entities that contain written material can be called a text

The term discourse has many meanings and definitions Discourse was first interpreted as dialogue – an interaction between a speaker and a listener Thus, discourse referred to authentic daily communications, mainly oral, included in the wide communicative context The term discourse was then also used to refer to the totality of codified language used in a particular field intellectual inquiry and of social practice (e.g medical discourse, legal discourse, etc.)

Michael Foucault defines discourse as “systems of thoughts composed of ideas, attitudes, courses of action, beliefs, and practices that systematically construct the subjects and the worlds of which they speak.”

In linguistics, discourse is generally considered to be the use of written or spoken language in a social context

The Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (1998) defines discourse as follows: “Discourse is a general term for example of language use, i.e language has been produced as the result of an act of communication.” Sharing the same concern, many other linguists have so far given definitions of discourse Widdowson (1979) states: “Discourse is a use of sentences to perform acts of communication which cohere into larger communicative units, ultimately establishing a rhetorical pattern which characterizes the pieces of language as a whole as a kind of communication.” Whereas Crystal (1992: 25) says: “Discourse is

a continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as a sermon, argument, joke or a narrative.” Quite differently from the others, Halliday and Hasan (1976) give a simple definition: “We can define text (discourse) in the simplest way perhaps by saying that it is language that is functional.”

Linguists have paid much attention to the distinction between a discourse and a text since confusion of these two terms may result in the failures of discourse analysis Even though that the distinction is not always clear and the two terms are used interchangeably by some linguists As in the above-mentioned definition of discourse by Halliday and Hasan, “text” is employed to refer to “discourse”; they sec “text” as a “semantic unit” characterized by cohesion The two authors state: “A text is a passage of discourse which coherent in these two regards: it is coherent with respect to the context of situation, and therefore consistent in register; and it is coherent with respect to itself, and therefore cohesive” (1976: 23) For some other linguists, “text” is used for writing and “discourse” for speech The third group of linguists like Brown & Yule, Nunan, Widdowson, and Cook see discourse as a process and text as a product Brown & Yule argue that text is the representation of discourse and the verbal record of a communicative act

In this study, we would like to take Widdowson's view point of the difference and the interrelationship between the two as the base: ‘'Discourse is a communicative process by means of interaction Its situational outcome is a change in state of affairs: information is conveyed, intentions made clear, its linguistic product is Text.” (1984: 100)

2.2.2 Spoken and written discourse

In discourse analysis a distinction is often made between spoken and written discourse Although there are typical differences between the two, there is also a considerable overlap and a frequent mixture, which has been accelerated by new technology Analysis of both modes encounters the problem of representing relevant context, but this problem is especially acute in the analysis and transcription of spoken discourse At present, opinion on the differences between written and spoken discourse is often speculative Systematic analysis of corpora is beginning to reveal actual differences, as well as those among the various written and spoken genres, and some of this information will be useful for the design of courses for language learners which wish to focus upon one mode or the other When the distinction between spoken and written discourse refers simply to a difference of mode, in that spoken discourse utilizes sound and written discourse is visual, it is both self-evident and unremarkable When, more interestingly, an attempt is made

to distinguish linguistic or discourses features peculiar to one mode or the other, the distinction becomes more complex (That differences are not merely determined by the channel of communication is demonstrated by the use of deaf sign languages in conversation.) Spoken communication is widely regarded as typically time-bound, ephemeral, informal log in or subscribe to read full text

Spoken and written discourses represent different modes for expressing linguistic meaning Despite some similarities, these two forms of discourse arc basically different from each other The major difference between them is taken from the fact that spoken discourse is changeable and written is permanent

Spoken discourse is often less planned and orderly, more open to intervention by the receiver while the written one is well structured and the possibilities for subordinate participants’ are very limited Brown and Yule (1983) suggest that spoken and written discourse serve various functions: the first is used for the establishment and maintenance of human relationship (interactional use); and the second for the working out of and transference of information (transactional use)

boundary' but also prefer to analyze 'naturally occurring' language use, not invented examples Text linguistics is a closely related field The essential difference between discourse analysis and text linguistics is that discourse analysis aims at revealing socio-psychological characteristics of a person/persons rather than text structure

Discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which it is used It grew out of work in different disciplines in the 1960s and early 1970s, including linguistics, semiotics, psychology, anthropology and sociology Discourse analysts study language in use: Written texts

of all kinds, and spoken data, from conversation to highly institutionalized forms of talk

2.2.4.Context in Discourse Analysis

Context

Different linguists seek to define context from different point of view in order to answer questions encountered in their own fields, and to support their own ideas and theories H G Widdowson, when focusing his study on language meaning,

thought "context" as "those aspects of the circumstance of actual language use which are taken as relevant to meaning” He further pointed out, "in other words, context is a schematic construct., the achievement of pragmatic meaning is a matter

of matching up the linguistic elements of the code with the schematic elements of the context" (H.G Widdowson, 2000, p.126) When Guy Cook was studying the

relationship between discourse and literature, he took "context" into consideration

as well In his definition, context is "knowledge of the world outside language"

which helps us to understand and use it to interpret the messages both in spoken and

written form and the term "context" can be used in a broad and narrow sense In the

narrow sense, it refers to (knowledge of) factors outside the text under consideration In the broad sense, it refers to (knowledge of) these factors and to (knowledge of) other parts of the text under consideration, sometimes referred to as

"co-text" (Guy Cook, 1999, p 24) When studying reference and inference, George Yule also took "context” into account He provided us with a somewhat general definition, “Context is the physical environment in which a word is used (George Yule, 2000, 128) According to Nunan (1993: 10), "context refers to the situation giving rise to the discourse and within which discourse is embedded" Although they are viewed from different perspectives for different purposes, these definitions have an important point in common: one main point of the context is the

environment (circumstances or factors by some other scholars) in which a discourse occur From those ways of defining context, it can be concluded that context is something that we need to understand the discourse and there is no discourse without context

Context in discourse analysis

There exist many definitions of discourse, but the following ones help to make clear understanding of discourse

To Halliday M.A.K & Hassan R„ (1976), "discourse is language that is language that is doing some job in some context as opposed to isolated words or sentences Discourse can be spoken, written or in other medium of expression."

functional-"Discourse is a unit of language in use It is not a grammatical unit, like a clause or

a sentence." "A discourse does not consist of sentences, it is recognized by, or encoded in sentences."

Nunan D., 1993 defines discourse as "a stretch of language consisting f several sentences, which are perceived as being related in some way Sentences can be related, not only in terms of the idea they share but terms of the job they perform within the discourse-that is in terms of their functions"

From above definition of discourse, we can see that discourse analysis studies language in use: both written texts of all kinds and spoken data from informal to formal speech and it also studies the language phenomena above the sentence level that are influenced by contexts, social phenomena, social relationships as well as cultural factors

Hymes (1962) sees contexts as a limit of the range of possible interpretations, and

on the other hand, a supporter of the intended interpretation He states as follows: Hymes (1962] sees contexts as a limit of the range of possible interpretations, and

on the other hand, a supporter of the intended interpretation He states as follows:

"The use of linguistic form identifies a range of meanings A context can support a range of meanings When a form is used in a context, it eliminates the meanings possible to that context other than those the form can signal; the context eliminates from consideration the meanings possible in the form other than those the context can support "(Hymes, 1962 quoted in Brown and Yules, 1983:38) The mode of

context can be represented as follow:

together with the purposive activity of the speaker or writer; it thus includes the

subject-matter as one element in it” (Halliday 1994, 22) The field describes activities and processes that are happening at the time of speech The analysis of this parameter focuses on the entire situation, e.g when a mother talks to her child

therefore both the channel taken by the language – spoken or written, extempore or prepared – and its [genre], or rhetorical mode, as narrative, didactic, persuasive,

role and function of language in a particular situation When analyzing the mode of

a text, the main question is ‘What is achieved by the use of language in this context?’ For example, a fairy tale (in written form) may have a narrative or entertaining function A spoken conversation can be argumentative (in a discussion)

or phatic (e.g to contact someone or to keep in touch with someone)

the people that take part in an event as well as their relationships and statuses “The tenor refers to the type of role interaction, the set of relevant social relations, permanent and temporary, among the participants involved” (Halliday 1994, 22.) There might be a specific hierarchy between the interlocutors, e.g when the head of

a business talks to an employee, or they may have only a temporary relationship, e.g when a person asks an unknown pedestrian for the time

All three variables (field, mode, tenor) taken together enable people to characterize the situational context specifically, and, thus, to recreate part of the language that is being used (Halliday 1994, 22) Halliday provides the following example to explain the significance of collective information about the three parameters:

“For instance, if we specify a field such as ‘personal interaction, at the end of the day, with the aim of inducing contentment through recounting of familiar events’, with mode ‘spoken monologue, imaginative narrative, extempore’ and tenor

‘intimate, mother and three-year-old child’, we can reconstruct a great deal of this kind of bedtime story […].” (Halliday 1994)

Different linguists give different concepts of register According to Halliday (1985: 12) “Register may be fined as the variety of a language used in particular situational context”

Moreover, Galperin (1977: 319) suggests that, “a functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication”

This study is concentrating on the concept of cohesion, which is usefully supplemented by that of register These two elements can be regarded together to effectively define a text

Discourse is a set of utterances which constitute any recognizable speech unit and it

is a behavioral unit which has pre-theoretical status in linguistics It is a general term used in pragmatics to refer to language that has been produced as the result of

an act of communication In another words, it stands for a stretch of language which

is unified, meaningful and purposive Example: conversations, interviews, compositions etc

Discourse can be both spoken and written The study of spoken and sometimes written discourse is called discourse analysis

To some extents, discourse analysis is considered with – The impact of the selection

of grammatical items The relationship between utterances/sentences in the discourse The speaker to change, introduce or assert a topic

2.3 Cohesion in English

2.3.1 The concept of cohesion

Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of any item in a text or discourse requires the making of a reference to some other item in the same text or discourse (Halliday

& Hasan 1994: 11) One item “presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text” (Halliday & Hasan 1994: 4) In other words, sentences are linked by relational elements which combine them to a unified whole that can be called a text This process, which combines sentences to a meaningful unit, is called cohesion and can be subdivided into the categories: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion “Each of these categories is represented in the text by particular features – repetitions, omissions, occurrences of certain words and constructions – which have in common the property of signaling that the interpretation of a passage in question depends on something else” (Halliday & Hasan 1994: 13)

However, cohesion does not only occur in what could be called a cohesive pair, where one only one element refers to another element in a preceding or subsequent sentence and thus forms a cohesive tie which connects the two sentences with each other So-called cohesive chains frequently occur within a text in which one element

of a sentence is cohesively connected to other elements of preceding or subsequent sentences In some of these cases one element is only indirectly linked to another one, and it is only through cohesive devices that these links become apparent

To summarize, cohesion refers to the linguistic elements that make a discourse semantically coherent; or as Hoa (2000: 23) indicated “cohesion refers to the formal relationship that causes texts to cohere or stick together”

Cohesion and text

The concept of cohesion is a semantic one It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the texts, and that defines it as a text

Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text For example: Time flies…

You can’t, they fly too quickly

The first sentence gives no indication of not being a complete text, in fact it usually

is, and the humor lies in the misinterpretation that is required if the presupposition from the second sentence is to be satisfied Here, incidentally, the cohesion is expressed in no less than three ties: the elliptical from you can’t, the reference item they and the lexical repetition fly

Cohesion is a part of the system of a language The potential for cohesion lies in the systematic resources of reference, ellipsis and substitution

The word “text” is exploited in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written,

of whatever length, that does construct a unified whole According to Widdowson (1979), “a text is a collection of formal objects held together by patterns of equivalence or frequencies or by cohesive devices”

A text may be prose or verse, dialogue or monologue It may be anything from a single proverb to a whole play, from a momentary cry for help to an all-day discussion on a committee That is, geographical length is not important for a text,

for example: A single word: “DANGER” on a warning sign A stretch of language even though not a sentence: “NO SMOKING” printed on a wall Plays or novels: Hamlet, Great Expectations, etc

A text is a unit of language in use It is not a lexico-grammatical unit like a clause or

a sentence, and it is not defined by size We cannot mathematically count that a text has two or three or… sentences A text does not consist of sentences It is realized

by, or encoded in sentences

A text is best regarded as a semantic unit, a unit not of form but of meaning Thus it

is related to a clause or sentences not by size but by realization, the coding of one symbolic system in another

2.3.2.Classification of cohesion

Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds

a text together and gives it meaning It is related to the broader concept

of coherence

There are two main types of cohesion: grammatical cohesion, which is based on structural content- and lexical cohesion, which is based on lexical content and background knowledge A cohesive text is created in many different ways

In Cohesion in English, M.A.K Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan identify five general categories of cohesive devices that create coherence in texts: reference, ellipsis, substitution, lexical cohesion and conjunction

Conjunction sets up a relationship between two clauses The most basic but least cohesive is the conjunction and Transitions are conjunctions that add cohesion to text and include then, however, in fact, and consequently Conjunctions can also be implicit and deduced from correctly interpreting the text Here are two referential devices that can create cohesion:

Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to someone or something that has been previously identified, to avoid repetition Some examples: replacing

"the taxi driver" with the pronoun "he" or "two girls" with "they" Another example can be found in formulaic sequences such as "as stated previously" or "the aforementioned"

Cataphoric reference is the opposite of anaphora: a reference forward as opposed to backward in the discourse Something is introduced in the abstract before it is

identified For example: "Here he comes, our award-winning host it's John Doe!" Cataphoric references can also be found in written text There is one more referential device, which cannot create cohesion:

Exophoric reference is used to describe generics or abstracts without ever identifying them (in contrast to anaphora and cataphora, which do identify the entity and thus are forms of endophora): e.g rather than introduce a concept, the writer refers to it by a generic word such as "everything" The prefix "exo" means

"outside", and the persons or events referred to in this manner are never identified

by the writer Halliday and Hasan considered exophoric reference as not cohesive, since it does not tie two elements together into in text

Ellipsis is another cohesive device It happens when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase must be repeated A simple conversational example:

(A) Where are you going?

(B) To dance

The full form of B's reply would be: "I am going to dance"

A simple written example: The younger child was very outgoing, the older much more reserved The omitted words from the second clause are "child" and "was"

A word is not omitted, as in ellipsis, but is substituted for another, more general word For example, "Which ice-cream would you like?" – "I would like the pink one," where "one" is used instead of repeating "ice-cream." This works in a similar way with pronouns, which replace the noun For example, "ice-cream" is a noun, and its pronoun could be "it", as in, "I dropped the ice-cream because it was dirty." The thesis can be examined under two subtypes, grammatical and lexical cohesion Here below illustrates subtypes of both grammatical and lexical cohesion from the viewpoint of Halliday and Hasan (1976:288, 1976:303-304) which will be taken as

the classification basis of the study

Table 2.1: Types of cohesion

Reference Exophoric Reiteration

repetition Endophoric - personal

synonym

- comparative

ordinates

Super-Substitution

Verbal substitution Collocation Noun + Noun

Halliday and Hasan( 1976:288, 1976:303-304)

Lexical cohesion refers to the way related words are chosen to link elements of a text There are two forms: repetition and collocation Repetition uses the same word, or synonyms, antonyms, etc For example, "Which dress are you going to wear?" – "I will wear my green frock," uses the synonyms "dress" and "frock" for lexical cohesion Collocation uses related words that typically go together or tend to repeat the same meaning An example is the phrase "once upon a time"

Lexical cohesion is about meaning in text It concerns the ways in which lexical items relate to each other and to other cohesive devices so that textual continuity is created Traditionally, lexical cohesion (along with other types of cohesion) has been investigated in individual texts With the advent of corpus techniques, however, there is potential to investigate lexical cohesion with reference to large corpora This collection of papers illustrates a variety of corpus approaches to lexical cohesion Contributions deal with lexical cohesion in relation to rhetorical structure, lexical bundles and discourse signaling, discourse intonation, semantic prosody, use of signaling nouns, and corpus linguistic theory The volume also considers implications that innovative approaches to lexical cohesion can have for

language teaching This volume was originally published as a Special Issue

of International Journal of Corpus Linguistics volume 11:3 (2006)

Reiteration involves the repetition of a lexical item, at one end of the scale, the use

of a general word to refer back to a lexical item, at the other end of the scale, and a number of things in between the use of synonym, near synonym, or super ordinate

Reiteration means either restating an item in a later part of the discourse by direct repetition or else reasserting its meaning by exploiting lexical relations

“Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of a lexical item, at one end of the scale; the use of a general word to refer back to a lexical item, at the other end of the scale; and a number of things in between- the use of a synonym, near-synonym, or super-ordinate”

Halliday and Hasan (1976: 278)

Let’s see the following examples

There is a boy climbing the old elm

a That elm isn’t very safe

b That tree isn’t very safe

c That old thing isn’t very safe

(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:280)

In (a), elm is repeated, (b) selects the super-ordinate tree, and (c) the general word thing is used

Here below is a brief overview of these subtypes of reiteration

Repetition is a far less serious fault than obscurity Young writers are often unduly

afraid of repeating the same word, and require to be reminded that it is always better

to use the right word over again, than to replace it by a wrong one-and a word which is liable to be misunderstood is a wrong one A frank repetition of a word has even sometimes a kind of charm as bearing the stamp of truth, the foundation of all

(Theophilus Dwight Hall, A Manual of English Composition John Murray, 1880)

Synonymy and Near- synonymy

A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language Words that are synonyms are said to

be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy An example

of synonyms is the words begin, start, commence, and initiate Words can be synonymous when meant in certain senses, even if they are not synonymous in all

of their senses For example, if one talks about a long time or an extended time, long and extended are synonymous within that context Synonyms with exact meaning share a seme or denotation sememe, whereas those with inexactly similar meanings share a broader denotational or convocational sememe and thus overlap within a semantic field Some academics call the former type cognitive synonyms to distinguish them from the latter type, which they call near- synonym Usually, words that are close in meaning are near-synonyms almost synonyms, but not quite; very similar, but not identical, in meaning; not fully intersubstitutable, but instead varying in their shades of denotation, connotation, implicature, emphasis, or register (DiMarco, Hirst, and Stede 1993) gives a more formal definition Indeed, near-synonyms are pervasive in language; examples are easy to find Lie, falsehood, untruth, fib, and misrepresentation, for instance, are near-synonyms of one another All denote a statement that does not conform to the truth, but they differ from one another in fine aspects of their denotation A lie is a deliberate attempt to deceive that is a flat contradiction of the truth, whereas a misrepresentation may be more indirect, as by misplacement of emphasis, an untruth might be told merely out of ignorance, and a fib is deliberate but relatively trivial, possibly told to save one’s own or another’s face (Gove 1984) The words also differ stylistically; fib is an informal, childish term, whereas falsehood is quite formal, and untruth can be used euphemistically to avoid some of the derogatory implications of some of the other terms (Gove [1984]; compare Coleman and Kay’s [1981] rather different analysis)

Super-ordinates

Superordinate terms (often also called 'hypernyms,' 'anaphoric nouns,' or organizing words') are nouns that can be used to stand for an entire 'class' or 'category' of things Thus, a superordinate term acts as an 'umbrella' term that includes within it the meaning of other words For example, 'vehicle' is the superordinate concept for 'lorry', 'automobile', 'bicycle', and 'tram'

'discourse-Superordinate terms play an important role in promoting 'cohesion' by providing writers with a more explicit means than would be possible using only pronouns (it, they, this, these, those) for linking their ideas either back to earlier pieces of text, or forward to upcoming information

Superordinate terms tell the reader what to expect when they occur before an idea

In this function, superordinate terms serve as the 'class' in definitions, and describe the items

The class of “general noun” lies between grammatical and lexical cohesion

A general noun in cohesive function is almost accompanied by the reference item

“the” or a demonstrative as an alternative These items are important sources when

analyzing cohesion of any text

The following is an illustration of using general word with cohesive function:

They are fixing the house I lived in that place during my childhood

“That place” is the general word We can understand this word only if we refer back to find out what “that place” generalizes for We can also see the reference item“that” before the word “place” which is the indication of cohesive

relations between twosentences

Collocation

The term “collocation” has been used in varied ways by different writers in different contexts As such, there is no common, agreed upon, definition of the term (Bartsch, 2004) Rather than get lost in competing definitions, the following section outlines the approach to be taken here and presents a working definition that will be used for the later corpus analysis This is followed by a brief discussion of the significance

of collocation for users of a language and the particular problems faced by learners trying to acquire competence in a second or foreign language

The definition of collocation still remains the subject of some debate Nation (2001), for example, lists some ten different criteria for classifying collocation In broad terms however, there are two main approaches, position and frequency (Nesselhauf, 2003) SFL theory generally takes the second approach (Plum, 2006) and, influenced by Firth‘s (1957) original, somewhat fuzzy, conception of collocation as mutual expectanciesǁ, defines collocation in its most elemental form

as lexical items that regularly co-occurǁ (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, p 284) or, in Sinclair’s (1991, p 71) terms, a tendency for words to occur together and identifiable by frequency of occurrence More recently within broader research on collocation, however, it has become apparent that simple frequency of occurrence is not sufficient to fully account for the 9 composition of collocation (Nation, 2001) For example, while two items may occur together frequently, for instance of the thesis, this is not to say they form a significant collocation As such, a more integrated approach is required This study will thus define collocation, adapted from Bartsch (2004), as significantly frequent combinations of two words, one of which is lexical, in a direct syntactic relationship

Collocation is, to some extent, problematic in doing discourse analysis In some cases, it is difficult to decide whether a cohesive relation exists or not between two lexical items in the discourse Also, there is no limit to the items that can be used to expresscollocation, which may lead to the difficulty in listing out regularly co-occurring words and phrases As a matter of fact, collocation patterns will only

be perceived by someone who knows something about the subject at hand, as well

as have the sensitive background knowledge

2.4.The functions of advertising

It has been agreed by many market researchers that an advertising should have four functions, which can be generalized by four words: Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action

Attention - a good advertisement should attract the consumer to direct their attention to the product of it To achieve this, advertisers always try to make their advertisements special in some ways, even stupid and awkward This is because striking things remain longer in human minds than normal ones

Interestthe introduction and publicity of an advertisement should arouse consumers great interest The interest may be caused by an eye-catching image, a pleasant jingle, a funny advertising plot or a surprising slogan When they are interested in the product advertised, they will learn more about it From this, the confidence in the product will be gradually achieved

Desire- the publicity of advertising should stimulate consumers’ desire to buy the product, and make them realize that this product is just what they want Previously, most advertisements aimed at promoting their products’ merits, which is called

product-oriented However, there has been a shift of focus from product-oriented to audience-oriented, which is primarily concerned with the needs and wants, the

hopes and fears of the target audience

Action - the advertising makes consumers to response to the advertising information and evokes them to take the action of purchasing It is here that the topmost task of advertising is fulfilled

2.4.1.The strategies of advertising

Advertising is the best way to communicate to the customers Advertising helps informs the customers about the brands available in the market and the variety of products useful to them Advertising is for everybody including kids, young and old It is done using various media types, with different techniques and methods most suited Advertisements in mass media are fascinating, exciting and creative in this world of globalization They are part and parcel of our day to day’s life It plays

a vital role for a company to promote its sales and increases revenues Almost all the ads use taglines to attract the customers Everything matters in an advertisement The kind of color, background, people who are appearing, the words used by the people are all matters in advertisements Above all, the culture depicted in advertisements plays a crucial role in promoting the particular product of a company It needs a lot of imagination and creativity Those who work hard and smart can excel in this field This paper critically analyses the language used in advertisements with reference to the products they shown in mass media, in papers and in journals

2.4.2 The language of advertising

The language of advertising language has a powerful influence over people and their behaviour This is especially true in the fields of marketing and advertising

The choice of language to convey specific messages with the intention of influencing people is vitally important Visual content and design in advertising have a very great impact on the consumer, but it is language that helps people to identify a product and remember it The English language is known for its extensive vocabulary Where many other languages have only one or two words which carry a particular meaning, English may have five or six

Moreover, the meanings of these five or six words may differ very slightly and in a very subtle way It is important to understand the connotation of a word Connotation is the feeling or ideas that are suggested by a word, rather than the actual meaning of the word Armchair, for example, suggests comfort, whereas chair arouses no particular feelings The target audience, of course, also puts its own meaning into certain words Different people sometimes interpret language in different ways Both the mass media, when reporting news items and marketing and advertising personnel have to consider the emotive power of the words they use First, they make a decision about what to communicate and what to withhold One way in which advertisers adapt language to their own use is to take compound words and use them as adjectives These compounds often later become widely used

in normal situations Examples of these compounds which have become part of the English language are: top-quality, economy-size, chocolate flavoured, feather-light and longer-lasting The language of advertising is, of course, normally very positive and emphasizes why one product stands out in comparison with another Advertising language may not always be "correct" language in the normal sense

Functional Food Advertisements

In the previous part, the notion is examined by “functional food” In this part, the

notion will be first have a brief look at “advertising” with the functions, strategies, and languages investigated Then, Functional Food Advertisements will be taken into consideration in terms of the context and the structure

2.5 Translation theory

2.5.1 Concepts of translation

There are so many concepts of translation, which are developed by lots of famous linguistic of translation Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language

(target language) (Catford – 1965)

Translation is the interpreting of the meaning of a text and the subsequent

production of an equivalent text, likewise called a "translation," that communicates

the same message in another language The text to be translated is called the "source

text," and the language that it is to be translated into is called the "target language";

the final product is sometimes called the "target text." (Wikipedia)

Translation is the process of finding a target language (TL) equivalent from a source

language (SL) utterance (Pinhhuck – 1977:38)

Translation is the process of changing something that is written or spoken into

another language (Advanced Oxford Dictionary)

10 Translation is a transfer process, which aims at the transformation of a written

SL text into an optimally equivalent TL text, and which requires the syntactic, the

semantic and the pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of the SL

(Wilss - 1982: 3)

Translation is the act of transferring through which the content of a text is

transferred from the SL into the TL (Foster - 1958:1)

Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or

statements in one language by the same message and/or statement in another

language

(Newmark, 1981:7) Translation is to be understood as the process whereby a message expressed in a

specific source language is linguistically transformed in order to be understood by

readers of the “target language” ( Houbert - 1998:1)

Translation is a text with qualities of equivalence to a prior text in another language,

such that the new text is taken as a substitute for the original (David Frank -

Wordpress.com)

Translation is an act of communication which attempts to relay, across cultural and

linguistic boundaries, another act of communication (Hatim and Mason - 1997:1)

These concepts support the idea that translation is a complex process I require theoretical knowledge as well as practical experiences

2.5.2 Types of translation

2.5.2.1 Word-for-word translation

This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words The SL word-order is preserved and the word translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context Culture words are translated literally The main use of word-for-word translation is either to understand the meaning of the SL or to construct a difficult text as a pre-translation process For example: Source text: When my young sister was a child, she learned very well

Target text: Khi em gái tôi còn nhỏ, nó học rất giỏi

Source text: Today the Vietnamese are, almost no exception, extremely friendly to Western visitors

Target text: Ngày nay, người Việt Nam, gần như không có ngoại lệ, đều rất thân thiện với khách du lịch người phương Tây

2.5.2.4 Semantic translation

Semantic translation differs from faithful translation only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text, compromising on “meaning” where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in finished version For example:

Source text: We hope you will enjoy your staying with us

Target text: Chúng tôi hy vọng ngài sẽ có một kỳ nghỉ tuyệt vời tại khách sạn này

2.5.2.5 Adaptation translation

This seems to be the freest form of translation It is used mainly for plays and poetry

in which the themes, characters and plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and text rewritten by an established dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations but other adaptation has “rescued” period plays For example:

Source text: Thà một phút huy hoàng rồi chợt tắt Còn hơn buồn le lói suốt trăm năm (Xuân Diệu)

Target text: It would rather the victorious brightness In an only moment the centenary twinkle

Idiomatic translation reproduces the “message” of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and the idiom where these do not exists in the original For example:

Source text: Follow love and it will flee thee, flee love and it will follow thee Target text: Theo tình thì tình chạy, trốn tình thì tình theo

2.5.2.8 Communicative translation

Communicative translation attempts to reader the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership For example:

Source text: Good morning!

Target text: bác đi đâu đấy ạ!

2.5.2.9 Other translation

Beside the above common the types of translation, some of the following types are sometime used during translation process They include: service translation, plum prose translation, information translation, cognitive translation, academic translation

Equivalence in translation

The dictionary defines equivalence as being the same, similar or interchangeable with something else In translation terms, equivalence is a term used to refer to the nature and extent of the relationship between SL and TL texts or smaller linguistic units The problem of equivalence is one of the most important issues in the field of translating It is a question of finding suitable counterparts in target language for expressions in the source language The comparison of texts in different languages inevitably involves a theory of equivalence According to Vanessa Leonardo

“equivalence can be said to be the central issue in translation although its definition, relevance, and applicability within the field of translation theory have caused heated controversy, and many different theories of the concept of equivalence have been elaborated within this field in the past fifty years”

In this part, we examine 10 FFAs in English and their Vietnamese translation versions in order to find out how lexical devices are used in FFAs in English and how they are used in their Vietnamese translation versions

2.6 Summary

In this chapter, literature review, a review of previous studies was made to see what researches of the same field both overseas and in Vietnamese has been done and what area in this field to which the present research can contribute In addition, theoretical background in which is directly relevant to the research was also deeply discussed

Moreover, the definition of discourse, discourse analysis, the concept of cohesion, the lexical and collocation are analyzed thoroughly in order to use as the background of analyzing the lexical cohesive devices in English and Vietnamese Finally, these features will be discussed in greater detail in the next chapters

Chapter 3

LEXICAL COHESIVEDEVICES IN FUNCTIONAL FOOD

ADVERTISEMENTS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

3.1 An overview of lexical cohesive devices between Vietnamese and English FFAs for Amway

This chapter is carried out to investigate the use of lexical cohesive devices

in FFAs in English and Vietnamese The analysis process is mainly based on the linguistic views of Halliday and Hasan (1976)

Grasping the uses and the functions of the lexical cohesive devices will help the writer create effectively cohesive and coherent texts Functional food advertisements are no exception Based on some theories mentioned in the theoretical background of the language of advertising, FFAs also take advantage

of the strengths of “block language”, particularly; words and phrases are

frequently used instead of clauses and sentences However, those single words and phrases are not separate from one another They cohere together tightly to partly create the stable structure of each FFA

Due to the limit of the minor thesis, the thesis mainly focused on investigating lexical cohesive devices which have a great contribution to effective and coherent texts in FFAs.After looking through all 30 FFAs for Amway (both

in English and Vietnamese) selected and careful investigating the written discourse of those data, the thesis can be presented an overall picture of the occurrence of lexical cohesive devices in graph 3.1 below:

Graph 3.1: The frequency of occurrence of lexical cohesive devicesin English and

Vietnamese FFAs for Amway

Collocation in FFAs for Amway in English occupies the first position among the six kinds of reiteration with up to 49.2% Repetition ranks the second with the percentage of 36.6% Synonyms, near-synonyms and super-ordinates account for nearly the same proportion which is respectively 5.1 %, 3.2 % and 4.2 % General words are of the smallest portion in English FFAs for Amway only (1.6 %)

The data shows that in Vietnamese FFAs for Amway, collocation also takes

up the highest portion 50% Repetition ranks the second with the of 31.7% Near- synonyms come next with 6.8% Super-ordinates are of a little higher percentage than near- synonyms with 6.3% and synonyms 3.3% General words are also of the smallest proportion 1.9% in Vietnamese FFAs for Amway

The figures can lead us to some similarities in the frequency of occurrence

of lexical cohesive devices in English and Vietnamese FFAs for Amway The graph shows the conclusion that collocation is by far the frequently used lexical cohesive devices, so it is considered the most effective one in both English FFAs for Amway and Vietnamese ones to create cohesive and cohesion In addition, it

is undeniable that the other lexical cohesive devices also play an indispensable

role in the creation of cohesive and cohesion in English FFAs for Amway and Vietnamese ones

3.2 Lexical cohesive devices in functional food advertisements for Amway in English

After investigating the data, we found out that FFAs for Amway in English denoting:

1 Foods / Meals:

+ (…)essential amino acids from plant sources namely – soy, wheat and

yellow peas (…) (E.2)

+ Nutrilite Meal Replace Shake

Breakfast – 2 Slimmetry supplements, 1 Glucose Health supplement, 1

Invisifiber and a Better Balance Shake

Snack – Nutrilite Snack Bar, 1 cup of vegetable juice and 1 string cheese Lunch – 2 Slimmetry supplements, 1 Glucose Health supplement, and apple

& cheddar salad, 10 saltine crackers and 1 cup of carrots

Snack – Nutrilite meal bar and 6 almonds

Dinner – 2 Slimmetry supplements, 1 Glucose Health supplement, Veggie

Beef Stir Fry, 1 cup of brown rice, PB Banana Dream (E.9)

( ) help you get more fiber in your diet and to help you feel full (E.10)

2 Ingredients:

+ Nutrilite® Digestive Enzyme supports the 22 enzymes found naturally in our bodies, enzymes that help break down the foods we eat When our digestion has the help it needs, we experience less bloating, gas, heartburn, and discomfort after eating.(E.7)

Amway says: a powdered protein drink (non- alcoholic ready-to-serve beverage- proprietary food) Original natural flavor, no sugar added

It’s your body- Protein plays a leading role in your body’s growth and

maintenance.(E.5)

3 Others:

+ Research shows thathelp increase lean muscle tissue if taken in conjunction with a regular strength-training routine.Supportsyour results

from diet and exercise.Because it helps reduce body fat and supports lean muscle retention, Nutrilite® Lean Muscle can be a big boost for anyone trying to get into shape

(+) Mỗi viên cung cấp 250 mg vitamin C, Bổ sung vitamin C giúp tăng

cường sức để kháng cho cơ thể, chống ô-xy hóa, hỗ trợ các liệu pháp điều trị

bệnh do thiếu vitamin C.(V2)

(+) Thực phẩm bảo vệ sức khỏe Sắt và A-xít folic Nutrilitebổ sung sắt hữu

cơ và a-xít folic giúp phòng ngừa thiếu máu do thiếu sắt.(V1)

(+) Mỗi viên chứa 10 mg sắt và 226 mg folate Ngoài ra, sản phẩm còn chứa bột đông khô rau bi-nacó lợi cho việc bổ sung sắt.(V3)

(+) Một viên Sắt và A-xít folic Nutrilite cung cấp cho bạn 11 loại vitamin

cần thiết (A, B1, B2, niacin, B6, folate, B12, C, D, E và pantothenate) đáp

ứng trên mức khuyến nghị nhu cầu dinh dưỡng.(V1)

(+) Viên nén Nutrile bổ sung 7 khoáng chất thiết yếu (can-xi, phốt-pho, i-ốt, sắt,magie, đồng, kẽm) và hỗn hợp các bột đông khô từ cỏ linh lăng, cải

xoong, ngò tây, rau bina, cà rốt và bột đông khô Acerola có lợi cho sức

khỏe.(V7)

(+) Sản phẩm cung cấp Coenzyme Q10 giúp cơ thể tăng cường chuyển hóa năng lượng, hỗ trợ nâng cao sức khỏe tim mạch Cung cấp chất chống o-xy hóa, giúp trung hòa các gốc tự do có hại cho cơ thể.(V4)

2 Health problems:

(+) giúp hỗ trợ kiểm soát cân nặng bằng cách giảm chuyển hóa và hấp thu chất béo trong bữa ăn Tinh chất trà xanh hỗ trợ kiểm soát cân nặng khi