Professional support beyond initial teacher education pedagogical discernment and the influence of out of field teachin

Professional Support Beyond Initial Teacher Education Anna Elizabeth Du Plessis Pedagogical Discernment and the Influence of Out-of-Field Teaching Practices Teacher Education, Learning

Professional Support Beyond Initial

Teacher Education

Anna Elizabeth Du Plessis

Pedagogical Discernment and

the Influence of Out-of-Field

Teaching Practices

Teacher Education,

Learning Innovation and Accountability

Series Editor: Claire Wyatt‐Smith

and Accountability

Series Editor

Claire Wyatt-Smith, Institute for Learning Sciences and Teacher Education,Australian Catholic University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

This book series offers research-informed discussion and analysis of teacherpreparation, certification and continuing professional learning and the relatedpractice and policy drivers for change and reform The series fosters anddisseminates research about teaching as a profession of choice while offering aunique link to the realities of pre-service experience in workforce preparation Ittakes account of research on teacher formation that opens up issues not routinelyconnected: what teachers need to know and be able to do, and who they are, namelythe person of the teacher and their capabilities in contributing to students’ personaldevelopment and wellbeing This goal provides a current, practical and internationalview of the future of initial teacher education programs.

More information about this series athttp://www.springer.com/series/15485

Professional Support Beyond Initial Teacher Education

Pedagogical Discernment and the In fluence

of Out-of-Field Teaching Practices

123

Anna Elizabeth Du Plessis

Australian Catholic University

Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Teacher Education, Learning Innovation and Accountability

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9722-6

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd 2019

This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part

or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this

the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

… higher mental function was external and social before it was internal It was once a social relationship between two people.

We can formulate the general genetic law of cultural development in the following way Any function appears twice or on two planes.

It appears first between people… and then within …

Vygotsky (1960, p 197 –198)

For my father and mother … Ubuntu

In the last decade, international concerns about the preparedness of young teachers

to teach have been raised by researchers Among other factors, this attention hasbeen prompted by the high attrition rates of early career teachers in many parts

of the world The burning question currently is about possible approaches toentering into teaching and the instructional quality of these early career teachers aswell as experienced teachers teaching unfamiliar subjects

Internationally, there exist many models for the introduction of early careerteachers into teaching, such as observational learning, internships, micro-teaching,field experiences, self-evaluations and mentoring However, little empirical evidenceexists about the effect of these approaches and especially their efficacy in preparingearly career teachers and experienced teachers in challenging teaching positions.Combining a bottom-up and top-down approach, this book provides the per-ceptions of early career and experienced teachers about their preparedness to teachspecific subjects and year levels and their reflections on the possibilities to growoffered to them To complement this view, school leaders’ perspectives on theoffered professional support are included

This book has the potential to offer new directions for the induction of earlycareer teachers into teaching practice, analysing the pitfalls of current approachesand offering insight into new possibilities Teacher preservice and in-service edu-cation need to be changed worldwide This book offers a description of the state

of the art and proposes further developments, which has the potential to developnew models for early career teachers’ induction into teaching

Prof Gabriele Kaiser, Ph.D is a full professor of mathematics education at the Faculty of Education, University of Hamburg and a professorial fellow at the Institute of Learning Sciences and Teacher Education, ACU Until recently, she held the position of Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Education (2010 –2016).

ix

Dialogue is the‘reservoir’ of our understanding and development Language bringslife-worlds into presence Noticing and understanding the everydayness of teachers’life-worlds inform professional support Interaction between those who experiencebeing in the world of teaching and those who are on the outer sphere of educationaldecision-making is the umbilical cord of effective professional support and devel-opment for teachers However, sharing truths about professional support needsgenerates a space where teachers acknowledge their vulnerability and are offeredthe chance to work out solutions Educational leaders and decision-makers have aduty of care to ensure teachers’ well-being Van Manen (2016) claims that teachers’weariness is a symptom of hopelessness Professional support then has theresponsibility of restoring hope that embraces‘patience, tolerance and belief in thepossibilities of our children’ (Van Manen, 2016, p 82) Targeted professionaldevelopment strategies have the potential to change teachers’ and students’ lives.The Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) conducted in 2013,mentioned ‘teaching staff need to be able to innovate and adapt their practicecontinuously; this includes having critical attitudes which enable them to respond

to students’ outcomes, use of new evidence from research and practice, and fessional dialogue’ (TALIS, 2014, p 23) This book offers an in-depth conversationaround individually and situationally focused professional support, deeplyembedded in a context-conscious theoretical framework, the context-consciousunderstanding development (C-CUD) theory I developed this theory to encourage

pro-a deeper understpro-anding of the support tepro-achers pro-and their school lepro-aders need toachieve the expected level of educational quality Teacher development and growthare not done and dusted by the completion of an initial teacher education program,they continue well beyond the university into the workforce The level of accep-tance of this fact greatly impacts beliefs about professional learning and profes-sional development

Acknowledging the value of a close connectedness to the classroom contextreveals the complexities and the real-life teaching challenges which teachers face.These include out-of-field teaching practices, diverse student cultures and beha-viours, contextual factors (e.g remote schools and large student cohorts) and the

xi

pressure to achieve expected results Noticing and knowing these challenges guidedecision-making about professional support to develop strategies to effectivelymanage these challenges Furthermore, there is global attention to issues such as(i) the quality of initial teacher education and how it effectively prepares futureteachers for the workforce, (ii) the preparedness of graduate teachers to apply andadjust their knowledge according to diverse contexts of schools and classrooms and(iii) the vacuum around ongoing quality professional learning and developmentprograms offered once teachers enter the workplace (Ludlow, et al., 2008) Thisbook steps into this space emphasising the (i) real-life experiences that awaitteachers in the workforce, (ii) accountability and responsibility to carry forwardwhat was started in the initial teacher education phase of teacher preparation and(iii) essence of teacher well-being embraced by focused professional support.Teaching and learning are social encounters This has been accentuated byVygotsky’s social constructivism views which acknowledge the value of enthusi-astically engaged teachers who know their students’ capacities The atmosphere ordispositions embedded in the teaching and learning environment influence students’

cog-nitive application in different contexts Teachers have the responsibility to guidestudents through their learning experience Teachers’ initial teacher education(ITE) describes the preliminary, beginning phase of prospective teacher preparationand refers to thefirst step in preparing teachers for what it means to be sensitivelyand enthusiastically engaged in students’ development This leaves the expectationthat more preparation will follow

This book links ITE to the workplace and highlights the challenges teachers face

at work and the support that is offered as an addition or extension to ITE, especiallyfor those assigned to complex teaching positions Who takes accountability andresponsibility for the quality of ‘ongoing professional education’ or the develop-ment of teachers? Luke, Luke and Mayer (2000) discuss the debate surrounding thereinvention and re-envisioning of teacher education The significant expectationthat ITE will be able to prepare prospective teachers for the teaching profession sothat they will be ready for what is waiting for them in the workplace is under themagnifying glass This implies that stakeholders in education are responsible forbecoming actively engaged in ongoing professional support for teachers, of whichteacher encouragement (collegial and collaborative) is an integral part The extent towhich they do so influences the success of professional learning and development(Power, 2011) Focused and connected professional supports build a well-preparedand well-maintained teaching workforce This book gives prominence to classroomrealities and professional growth beyond ITE I urge decision-makers involved inteachers’ professional support to reflect on the truths from the field

Chapter1focuses on education quality improvement, accountability and the role

of initial teacher education linked to further professional support I discuss targetedprofessional support and its primary aim and objectives, underpinned by supportingtheories and concepts of capacity building

Chapter 2 investigates how professional support in the workplace is deeplyembedded in a context-conscious theoretical frame Decisions disconnected fromthe truths from the school context are destructive rather than supportive Chapter3

turns attention to educational leadership and the power of decision-making Thepower of decision-making and the discourse of professional learning and devel-opment within school contexts are highlighted Ingersoll (2003) accentuated that

‘high quality elementary and secondary teaching is highly complex work’ (p 24),but teaching rarely receives recognition as a highly demanding task

Chapter4emphasises the strong link between ITE and the professional supportthat is offered in the workplace The encouragement to be life-long learners begins

in teachers’ ITE This discourse is then built on in the workplace by engagedleaders with a vision for the development of their teachers as human resources.Teachers are inclined to accept programs of change more readily if the schoolleadership actively supports them in implementing the change (Basson, Van derWesthuizen, & Nieman, 2004) This chapter concludes Part I of the book.Chapter5 invites the reader into the complexities of the teaching context andwhat it means for teachers’ professional support, learning and development Theculture, climate and atmosphere impact the development and growth of teachers.Chapter6acknowledges the teaching and learning context as a whole, while it turnsfocus to smaller parts that construct the whole, for example, workforce planning,out-of-field teaching practice and leadership styles and the professional identity ofteachers and what these mean for quality education

Chapter7unpacks the modalities of professional support against the background

of the challenges of the teaching profession and implications for stability in theteaching workforce Looking towards the future through a lens of cultivated hopethat effective professional support strategies transform the quality and stability of ateaching workforce is argued for in Chap.8

References

Basson, C., Van der Westhuizen, P., & Nieman, G (2004) Organisational theory In P Van der Westhuizen (Ed.), Effective educational leadership (12th ed) Cape Town: ABC Press Ingersoll, R (2003) Who controls teachers ’ work Massachusetts: Harvard University Press Luke, A., Luke, C., & Mayer, D (2000) Redesigning teacher education Teaching Education, 11(1),

Van Manen, M (2016) The tact of teaching: The meaning of pedagogical thoughtfulness New York: Routledge.

Re flection

Professional Support beyond Initial Teacher Education is an outstanding volume thathighlights the key role targeted professional support plays in helping teachers toacquire the knowledge, skills and dispositions needed to be able to think critically,creatively andflexibly as they respond to the complexity of various teaching situa-tions Quality teaching is critically important if students are to engage and learn atschool, yet teachers often are not well prepared for the challenges that teachinginvolves nor do they have regular opportunities once they enter the workforce toengage in ongoing professional learning that is negotiated and targeted to theirprofessional needs Other issues that need to be addressed in developing a strongteaching workforce include ensuring that there is a clear link between theory, researchand practice so that teachers can see the relevance of what they are learning topractical classroom situations The importance of support from leadership within theadministration in developing a culture of professional learning where teachers feelvalued, have a voice and are supported within the organisation is another issue thatneeds to be tackled This volume addresses these issues and provides some very clearguidelines on how to prepare beginning teachers as well as support practising teachersthrough continuing professional learning This is an invaluable volume for all thosewho wish to deepen and broaden their understanding of the complexities and benefits

of ongoing professional learning The volume is compelling and analytical in itstreatment of current issues within thefield, and I strongly recommend it to researchersand practitioners interested in the very latest thinking and recent developments withinthis important area of targeted professional support for teachers

Prof Robyn M Gillies, Ph.D currently holds a professorial position at the University of Queensland, School of Education, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Professor Robyn Gillies ’ major research interests are in the learning sciences, classroom discourses, small group processes, classroom instruction, student behaviour and disability Professor Robyn Gillies has worked extensively in both primary and secondary schools to embed STEM education initiatives into the science curriculum.

xv

Part I Introduction to Professional Support Considerations

1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support

Cultivating Pedagogical Thoughtfulness 3

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Quality ITE Programs: Expectations to Reach Beyond… 9

1.3 ITE and Classroom Realities: Reflecting the Nexus? 12

1.4 Teacher Support Beyond the Dimensions of ITE 14

1.5 Professional Support and Leadership Decisions 18

1.6 The Alignment of Theory and Practice: Workforce Preparedness 22

1.7 Conceptualising Professional Support 23

1.7.1 Approaches to Professional Support 24

1.7.2 Professional Development and Systemic Efforts to Develop Teacher Capacity 26

1.8 Conclusions 27

References 28

2 A Context-Conscious Theoretical Framing of the Teaching Space 35

2.1 Introduction 35

2.2 Contextual Factors: Essence for Support Strategies 39

2.3 Context-Conscious Understanding Development (C-CUD) Theory 40

2.3.1 ‘How’ Is the Issue Linked to a Specific Teaching Situation? 43

2.3.2 ‘Where’ Is the Root of the Issue? What Is the Contextual Interdependency? 45

2.3.3 ‘Why’ Is Understanding of the Issue Important? 46

2.3.4 ‘What’ Needs to Be Understood? 47

xvii

2.4 Educational Effectiveness and Context-Consciousness 51

2.5 Conclusion 54

References 55

3 School Leaders and Professional Support: The CANNAS Leadership Model 59

3.1 Introduction 59

3.2 A Professional Support Discourse: Power and Decision-Making 60

3.3 School Leaders: Expectations, Support Responsibilities and Strategies 61

3.4 Internal Strategies to Maintain Quality Education: The Cannas Leadership Model 62

3.4.1 Connectedness 63

3.4.2 Awareness 64

3.4.3 Needs Analysis 66

3.4.4 Negotiation 67

3.4.5 Action 68

3.4.6 Support 69

3.5 Conclusion 71

References 73

4 The‘Footprint’ of Initial Teacher Education: Influencing the Workplace and Beyond… 77

4.1 Introduction 77

4.2 The Impact of ITE on the Teaching Workforce and Workplace 79

4.3 When Teaching Becomes a Reality: ITE, Expectations and‘Real’ Classrooms 83

4.3.1 ITE Impacts Graduate Teachers’ Professional Profile 84

4.3.2 The‘Metamorphosis’ of a Teacher 86

4.3.3 Teachers’ Professional Identity Development 87

4.4 Acknowledge‘Truths’ from the Field: Conceptualise Multifaceted Teaching Challenges 88

4.4.1 The Embodied Nature of Complex Teacher Placements and What This Means for Professional Support 90

4.4.2 The Missing Link? Theory and Practice 92

4.5 Conceptualising Professional Support in the Workplace 93

4.5.1 Mentoring as a Means of Progressing Pedagogical Introspection 96

4.5.2 Peer Coaching and Understanding Teachers and Students 97

4.5.3 More Than Induction 98

4.6 Conclusion 99

References 100

Part II From ITE to the Workplace

5 The Meaning of Complex Teaching Contexts for Support

Approaches 109

5.1 Introduction 109

5.2 Complex Teaching Positions and Teachers’ Life-World 115

5.2.1 Teachers’ Self-image 116

5.2.2 Improvising in Challenging Teaching Situations 117

5.2.3 Trust Relationships 119

5.3 Expectations and Reality 120

5.3.1 Respect 122

5.3.2 CANNAS in Action 123

5.4 Professional Learning and Development: Social Relationships 127

5.5 Committed to Support but then Again… 128

5.5.1 Dictated by Budgets 128

5.5.2 Beginning Teachers: Reluctance to Share Difficulties 129

5.5.3 Conceptualise Targeted Support 131

5.6 Managing a Global Teaching Phenomenon Through Targeted Professional Support 132

5.7 Conclusion 134

References 135

6 Organisational Culture’s Impact on Professional Opportunities and Teaching Quality 141

6.1 Introduction 141

6.2 Restricted Content Knowledge Confines the Knowledgeable Other 143

6.3 Contextual Factors and Organisational Cultures 148

6.3.1 Leadership Models’ Fit Within Organisational Cultures 148

6.3.2 Beliefs and School Leaders’ Perceptions of Professional Support Needs 150

6.3.3 Restricted Professionalism and Teacher Identity 153

6.3.4 Implications of Organisational Cultures for Students and Parents 158

6.4 Organisational Support to Preserve Quality Education 159

6.4.1 Organisational Impact on Quality Teaching 160

6.4.2 School Culture and Effective Teaching Characteristics 160

6.4.3 Productivity: Investment in Teachers 163

6.5 Complexities in the Classroom: Impact on the Wider Educational Community 165

6.5.1 Connectedness: School Context and the Wider Community 166

6.5.2 Teachers’ Vocational Rights and Occupational Conditions: Equitable Performance Appraisal 167

6.5.3 Organisational Culture and Scepticism 168

6.5.4 Teacher Attrition and Subject Dropout Rates of Students 169

6.5.5 Influence of Professional Support Academic Structures in a Schools: The Voice of Teachers 170

6.5.6 Organisational Culture Constructed by Two-Way Leadership Styles Influences Targeted Support 172

6.5.7 Complex Classrooms Reform Professional Learning and Development 174

6.6 Strategising Targeted Professional Learning and Development to Stabilise Employment 175

6.7 Conclusion 177

References 178

7 Modalities of Professional Support and Their Impact 185

7.1 Introduction 185

7.1.1 Improvement of Competence Defines Professional Support 187

7.1.2 Professional Learning and Support: Dispositions and Morale 188

7.2 Strategise a Professional and Competitive Workforce 189

7.2.1 The Impact Sphere of Meaningful Professional Support 191

7.2.2 Self-critique Replaced by Self-leadership 194

7.2.3 Modelling Professional Learning and Development 195

7.2.4 Continuing Professional Support and Policy Implementation 198

7.3 Professional Support and the Teaching Workforce 199

7.3.1 Impact on Teachers’ Professional Responsibility and Professional Growth 199

7.3.2 Workforce Understanding and Awareness 200

7.3.3 Context-Conscious‘Hands-On’ Professional Learning 201

7.3.4 A Workforce that Values the‘Art of Teaching’ 202

7.4 Professional Support Improves Deep Learning 204

7.4.1 Focus on Content Knowledge 205

7.4.2 Advance the Impact of Expert Staff 205

7.4.3 Ripple Effect of Professional Learning on Non-expert Teachers 206

7.4.4 Individualism Versus Collegialism: Encouraged and Self-assured Teachers 207

7.5 Professional Support: Impacting Achievement

and Performance 207

7.5.1 Achievements Embedded in Effective Teaching and Learning 208

7.5.2 Noticing Individual Needs 210

7.6 Human Resources and Ongoing Professional Support 211

7.6.1 Professional Support and Leadership Styles and Skills 211

7.6.2 Professional Support Encourages Transformation Processes 212

7.6.3 Open Communication Enhances Capacity Building 213

7.6.4 Perceptions Within the School Context 214

7.7 Professional Support and Transformation 217

7.7.1 The Need to Achieve: Keeping the Balance 218

7.7.2 The Value of Career Development 219

7.7.3 Teacher Empowerment for Educational Transformation 219

7.8 Conclusion 221

References 222

8 The Way Forward… 229

8.1 Introduction 229

8.2 Turning Focus to Where It Belongs… 230

8.3 Key Arguments in a Nutshell 235

8.3.1 Specialist Teacher Shortages: A Vicious Circle 237

8.3.2 Schools as Professional Development Centres 237

8.3.3 Formation of Effective Professional Development Practices 239

8.3.4 (Non)existence of Appropriate Professional Support 242

8.4 Evidence-Informed Decision-Making and Policies 246

8.4.1 Transformation in Education: Transform Professional Support 247

8.4.2 The Out-of-Field Phenomenon: Noticed and Managed 248

8.4.3 Assess the Financial Implications of Professional Support 250

8.4.4 Researching Fit-for-Purpose Professional Support Models 250

8.4.5 Professional Support: Online Options 251

8.5 Recommendations 252

8.5.1 Needs Analyses: Focus on Out-of-Field Teachers 252

8.5.2 Negotiation: Ongoing Interaction and Discussions 254

8.5.3 Action: Collaborative Decision-Making 254

8.5.4 Adjustments: Support from C-CUD and CANNAS 255

8.5.5 Stabilise the Teaching and Learning Environment 256

8.5.6 Conceptualise and Illuminate School-Based Mentor Programs 257

8.5.7 Advancing Organisational Effectiveness 2578.5.8 Contextual Awareness in Action 2598.6 Concluding Remarks: Shaping a Quality Teaching Workforce 262References 263

Appendix: Research Projects that Inform Empirical Data

andTruths from the Field 267Glossary 269

Part I

Introduction to Professional Support

Considerations

Education Quality, ITE and Further

Professional Support Cultivating

Pedagogical Thoughtfulness

1.1 Introduction

There is little that teacher educators and teacher education can do to modify the conditions that ECTs (early career teachers) will face in their school We can, however, prepare them for such circumstances and support and assist them in managing their expectations (Buchanan

et al., 2013 , p 126)

Teaching is a profession that differs from any other profession because it entails

teachers to step into an in loco parentis role (Van Manen,2016a,2016b) The in locoparentis status of teachers summarises accountability to guide their students’ devel-opment in totality This book purposefully connects initial teacher education and itsrole to prepare teachers for the realities in the workplace with empirical evidence toemphasise professional support as a golden thread that runs through every stage of

being a teacher, from the initial education towards becoming a teacher to the stage of

staying a teacher with a focus on ongoing improvement and growth The followingchapters highlight a strong theoretical advanced practice in teaching from the initialteacher education process to the workplace (see Fig.4.1) The focus of this book is onlinking theory and practice, noticing the significant impact of context-consciousness(see Sects.2.2and2.3) The learning and development that take place during initialteacher education spill over into professional learning and development in the work-place and influence specific needs for professional support to grow into a specialistteacher High expectations for teacher quality and teaching quality make it necessary

to reassess targeted professional support for teachers during their initial teacher cation and beyond, with a special awareness of the complex and challenging teachingpositions that might become part of their professional journey In my view, teachers’professional identity development commences during their initial teacher educationwhile beginning teachers’ placements in the workplace often challenge these fragileprofessional identities Professional support in the workforce has a significant role

edu-to step in and carefully further develop teachers’ professional identity, capacity andability (see Glossary) to reach their full potential as teachers

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd 2019

A E Du Plessis, Professional Support Beyond Initial Teacher Education,

Teacher Education, Learning Innovation and Accountability,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9722-6_1

3

4 1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support …

The ‘unique pedagogical way of seeing’ students are embedded in ‘who and how

we are in the world’ and is ‘dependent on our relationship’ with students (Van Manen,

2016b, p 23) Teaching is complex, and its multi-layered factors influence its ity (Givvin & Santagata, 2011) Van Manen (2016a) unpacks these multi-layered

qual-characteristics of teaching as ‘pedagogical moments’, ‘pedagogical thoughtfulness’ and ‘pedagogical tact’ (p 11) that put an extraordinary demand on teachers’ cogni-

tive awareness and teaching skills Teachers’ abilities to embrace unique

pedagog-ical approaches as ways of seeing their students in their classroom contexts need

to be developed during initial teacher preparation programs and in the workplace.Cochran-Smith (2001) claimed that the preparation of prospective teachers as ‘agents

of change’ (p 179) was not the priority of previous teacher education programs.

The expectation that initial teacher education (ITE) programs will prepare ity and classroom-ready graduate teachers is a global phenomenon Conceptualisingthe classroom readiness of graduate teachers seems to ruffle the feathers of educa-tion leaders Some argue that classroom readiness develops over time and is onlypossible with on-the-job learning Some dispute the fairness of expecting graduateteachers to be classroom ready when entering the workforce, while others turn tothe official professional standards for teachers to define classroom readiness Suchprofessional standards demonstrate specific expectations for quality teaching whichare then to be achieved through the support of effective and targeted professionaldevelopment and professional learning programs to support the capacity building ofteachers In this book, teachers’ professional learning is defined as in-context, mostly

qual-internal collegial and collaborative professional support to grow a teacher to reach

full potential in a current teaching position King (2016) suggests that professionaldevelopment enhances professional learning Professional development opportuni-ties are perceived as mostly external and focused on general aspects of factors of

a subject area, curriculum transformation or systemic changes Consequently, it isnecessary to embed a process of reflection on teachers’ progress to identify theirneeds and to provide assistance as a response to these needs (Hall & Hord,2001)

The key message in this book is that teachers assigned to complex teaching tions and situations have needs for support and that contextual challenges influence the manner in which professional development and professional learning programs beyond ITE are designed and conducted.

posi-The art of teaching is embedded in knowledge described by Shulman’s (1986) ory of content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and pedagogical knowl-edge I argue that these three kinds of knowledge prepare prospective teachers’ cogni-

the-tive readiness for the workforce I also argue that their readiness foundation crumbles

the moment teachers get assigned to subjects and year levels for which they are notsuitably qualified Do we really expect teachers to be classroom ready after 4–5 years

of training in an area when they are then placed in a position outside these trainingareas? Fives and Buehl (2008) suggested that both preservice teachers’ and practis-ing teachers’ own beliefs influence their approaches to teaching and learning andhow they value various aspects of teaching knowledge and ability for the classroomcontext These aspects include ‘pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of children, con-tent knowledge, management and organisational knowledge and knowledge of self

and others’ (Fives & Buehl,2008, p 142) Graduate teachers are carefully guided

towards readiness and preparedness to teach over an extensive period through

atten-tively designed ITE programs A significant expectation is placed on ITE programs todevelop quality, classroom-ready and well-prepared graduate teachers Van Manen(2016b) suggested that the ‘way we stylise subject matter is a tell-tale expression of the way we hold it’ (p 63) This emphasises the difference teacher embodied know-

ing and passion for the subjects or year levels they teach make to the quality of their

teaching The efforts to develop teachers’ skills to hold subject matter involve the

embodiment of knowledge ITE programs develop a sound foundation for tive teachers’ subject matter and pedagogical thoughtfulness A sound foundationensures teachers entering the workplace are able to connect this prior knowledgewith a context-consciousness of the teaching and learning space where they functionwhile they further develop, with support, the capacities and skills to attend to theirstudents’ learning needs

prospec-Is it realistic to expect beginning teachers to meet the same standards as tising teachers? Why is teacher readiness framed in terms of such standards? Does

prac-a set of stprac-andprac-ards reflect the full prac-art of teprac-aching? Furlong (2015) accentuates thathigher education providers need to offer ITE courses based on empirical evidence,with university and school placement components cleverly integrated High expec-

tations are placed on ITE programs to develop classroom readiness and workforce preparedness in preservice teachers This book argues for a holistic analysis when

frameworks for education quality improvement and teaching quality become part ofthe quality debate The value of this debate is impacted by its connectedness to therealities of the workplace

This book offers teachers, school leaders and subject specialists about the

reali-ties of the teaching workforce experience Workplace realireali-ties include the quick-fix placement or utilisation of teachers to fill vacancies as soon as possible This stim-

ulates classroom-related challenges (Steyn & Du Plessis,2007) Quick-fix teacher placement is defined in this book as a school leaders’ decision to assign teachers in

positions outside their field of qualification or expertise as long as they can have ateacher in a vacant classroom These teacher assignments are often perceived as tem-porary appointments (a crisis-management situation), but these teachers have sharedthat school leaders will assign them to unfamiliar teaching positions and then leavethem to manage the situation on their own (Du Plessis,2017)

I question the status quo that exists around the utilisation and placement of teachersand the related expectations placed on them for their performance and student out-come achievements ITE programs are often the focus of quality education improve-ment frameworks with a continuous search for inadequate practices, and in some

countries, additional national assessment to ensure the best teaching candidates

enters the workforce, for example, additional numeracy and literacy assessment ofpreservice teachers in Australia, the Educative Teacher Performance Assessment(edTPA) of preservice teachers’ skills in some states in the USA

I acknowledge the role ITE plays in quality education, but this book moves beyondthis initial phase to link preservice teachers’ expectations during ITE to the realities

of the teaching workforce The empirical evidence (see Appendix) offered mirrors

6 1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support …

a holistic stance on classroom readiness and workforce preparedness and movesbeyond the ITE debate of quality teacher education Furlong (2015) discusses inter-national research evidence and how it defines quality ITE, with a strong alignmentbetween theory and practice and strong links between ITE and the continuing pro-fessional development of teachers in the school context, practice-focused and under-pinned by relevant research The current scrutiny of ITE programs’ effectiveness

to equip prospective teachers with in-depth content knowledge, capacity, skills and

pedagogical knowledge to take ownership of their classrooms and teaching strategies and practices often overlooks the impact of teacher placements out of their field of

expertise or how teachers are utilised in the workforce on a contractual basis.Professional development can significantly improve teachers’ capacity.Williamson McDiarmid and Clevenger-Bright (2008) conceptualise teacher capac-

ity as capturing the potential for growth, while teacher ability reflects ‘the power

to learn or retain knowledge; mental ability’ (p 135) They claim that capacity is

always in association with a purpose or goal

The development of quality and stability in the teaching workforce is an tional objective of governments Building quality in teaching is not only the respon-sibility of teacher education but a collaborative, balanced effort among all the stake-holders However, strong leadership is necessary to reframe education Bahr andMellor (2016) underlined that such a reshaping of education means alignment ‘to the needs of the next generation of learners, the profession must be reconceptualised as knowledge managers who are called upon to facilitate learning’ (pp v and vi) This

interna-by no means implies that teachers no longer require the content knowledge, gogical content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge appropriate for their subjectareas or year levels

peda-The teaching profession is complex and involves multi-layered challenges, ities, skills and demands In a global evidence hungry educational arena, the achieve-ments of teachers and their students become a tool to assess quality The qual-ity of education systems, schools, classrooms and teachers is constantly assessedand compared Sachs (2003) wondered if professional teacher standards control ordevelop teaching, stating that governments use standards as regulatory frameworksand bureaucratic controls Darling-Hammond (1999) noted that ‘professional stan- dards for teaching hold promise for mobilizing reforms of the teaching career’ (p 39).

capac-Furlong (2015) suggested that standards for graduate teachers have significant

mean-ing for ITE programs as they have become ‘a de facto curriculum’ (p 12) in teacher

education programs I argue that professional teacher standards have to reflect therealities of the classroom in order to be sustainable and to add value to the professionand hence turn my focus to the extent to which global professional teacher standardsfail to acknowledge the widespread out-of-field teaching phenomenon

With the notable exception of Finland, the teaching profession is becoming lessdesirable as a career option for undergraduates Sutcher, Darling-Hammond andCarver-Thomas (2016) raise red flags about teacher graduates dropping by 23%.This trend means a movement towards acute shortages of teachers in certain fieldswith significant implications for an increasing out-of-field phenomenon and higherexpectations for professional support programs to rectify quality teaching issues

Ball (2013) shared that teachers need to be equipped to confront with competencethese underlying workplace issues, through a sound collaboration between schoolsand higher education institutions The foundation laid by teacher education and howconnected it is to classrooms and the teaching workplace’s expectations and needsimpact teachers’ outlook on the teaching profession and their beliefs about the value

of life-long learning Schools need the flexibility to manage their internal workforce,local needs and unforeseen events I argue that initial teacher education programshave the opportunity to develop prospective teachers’ cognitive readiness, makingthem well-rounded and confident

However, educational leaders and school leaders need to carry this effort through

once teachers enter the workforce The taken-for-granted attitude that the music stops with ITE (Du Plessis,2018) while overlooking the complexities of teacher utilisationand placement and teachers’ professional support as a career-long process and notone-off incidents needs attention This has become an integral part of the teacherpreparedness debates The concept of teachers as the most important resource ineducation (Hattie,2009) refers to the role of teachers as in loco parentis to guide and

support student centred learning In this book, the concept of personnel resources willrefer to the teachers in the school environment who are involved in the developmentand achievement of students through their teaching capacity

Teacher education’s effectiveness to develop a strong link between theory andpractice greatly impacts teachers’ lived experiences during their early years of teach-ing and needs to be reassessed (Du Plessis et al.,2018) Teacher education’s strengthlies in how successfully it provides candidates with sound theoretical foundationsthey could apply in various contexts while grounding their teaching confidence in

an ever-changing education arena Due to the constant changes which teachers face(positions or placements—subject- or year-level responsibilities), their success isgreatly vested in how quickly and how well they can adapt to new school and class-room contexts ITE programs, as well as postgraduate teaching programs, are oppor-tunities to cultivate skills and the capacity to notice the constant transformation ofeducation and to develop an awareness of the importance of being prepared to adjust,adapt and explore These are teaching characteristics that need to be nurtured Aware-ness of the essential role teachers’ beliefs and characteristics plays in the improve-ment strategies for professional learning and professional development impacts theeffectiveness of support for teachers who experience transition and adjustment tothe teaching context When we acknowledge the strain which a tradition or culture

of teacher placements outside their subject areas or outside familiar year levels has

on teacher identity, beliefs and characteristics, this is a step towards positive formation that is grounded in a commitment to addressing these demands and chal-lenges which graduate or beginning teachers experience in the teaching and learningcontexts This is preparation for taking on these new challenges also needs to beprovided This theme is explained in this book in several ways (recurring themes arealso identified and outlined for the readers in the preface)

trans-To improve quality in ITE as a strategy to build a strong, stable and sustainableteaching workforce is the beginning What happens in the workplace reaches beyondteacher education into the teaching and learning environments The research in this

8 1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support …book unveils empirical data obtained from years of my transnational research, bring-ing realities from the field to the discussion around quality education and the stability

of a teaching workforce (see Appendix)

I argue that the concern surrounding the quality of teachers should not be built on higher education providers’ effectiveness to offer workforce tailored programs while the implications of employment conditions get overlooked Collaboration between

higher education providers, school leaders, regulatory bodies and the educationalleaders involved in policy-making has the potential to develop sustained support toimprove the quality of education in our schools Research has clearly demonstratedthat leaders and teachers need such support to reach the expectations of how to createquality teaching and learning environments (Du Plessis,2014)

Continuous transformation processes in education systems put teacher educationand policy strategies to improve teacher quality under extreme pressure Teaching isbased on deeply entrenched beliefs, emotion and passion Changes to the curriculum,assessment processes and teacher standards have the capacity to place teachers in anunfamiliar teaching space Global educational changes and expectations have created

a high premium on learning involving individual teachers and academic institutions(Cascio,2001; Hoppers,2000)

However, school leaders’ in-the-moment decision-making to continuously assignteachers to positions for which they are not suitably qualified as solutions for work-force issues create problematic quality issues for individual teachers Efforts toaddress quality concerns in education without acknowledging the evidence-baseddata about the issues that impact teacher development impact the success of theseprofessional development strategies

Moreover, such ill-considered decision-making not only has an impact on theimage of the teaching profession but makes teachers rethink the suitability of teach-ing as a career The danger of a growing gap between the carefully designed tertiarytraining programs for prospective teachers and the preparedness for their employ-ment conditions once they enter the workforce has implications for the quality ofteachers and the effectiveness of their teaching (Carroll, Forlin, & Jobling,2003).Nevertheless, educational change generates far-reaching implications for ITE, schoolleaders and teachers in the workforce Complicated teaching situations, for exam-ple, unfamiliar curricula, curriculum transformation and a restricted knowledge orawareness of cultures and traditions within a school community can cause teachers

to doubt their competence to take ownership of a specific teaching situation.Bourdieu and Passeron (1994) cautioned that achieving real change in education

entails acknowledgement of teaching as a system, suggesting it will ‘continue to operate as a system only so long as the functional links between student and teacher attitudes and the material and institutional conditions underpinning them are main- tained’ (p 3) Acting upon global concerns of declining teaching quality means

attention to concerns about resourcing and teacher dispositions, which need to beinvestigated, analysed and managed Teacher dispositions (see Glossary) influencestudents beyond the classroom walls because they reflect teachers’ values, com-mitments and professional ethics that influence teachers’ behaviour towards theirstudents (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, NCATE,2001)

1.2 Quality ITE Programs: Expectations to Reach

Beyond …

Beginning teachers are motivated and enthusiastic Empirical evidence illustrates thatprospective teachers choose the teaching profession because of intrinsic motivation(Gore, Holmes, Smith, & Fray,2015) Teachers’ intrinsic motivation involves theirpassion for a specific field or area and their desire to make a difference Thus, theychoose to study a specific program linked to their passion, interest and personalattributes or love for a specific field I conceptualise quality ITE as programs thatare well connected to the realities of the teaching workplace and programs that offersound content and pedagogical content knowledge foundation Quality ITE programsprovide preservice teachers with the deep cognitive knowledge that is fundamentalfor the effective in-the-moment decision-making of teachers

The effective development of teacher capacity during initial teacher educationentails the availability of options to assess these programs’ effectiveness (Ludlow

et al.,2008) Teachers’ capacity, ability and preparedness for their teaching sibilities and dispositions significantly impact the culture and climate in classrooms

respon-It is, however, significant that efforts to build a culture of evidence and inquiry intoteaching capacity development go beyond ITE into the workforce (For the separatedefinitions of capacity, ability and disposition, please see the Glossary.)

Building professionalism and retaining teachers impact the teaching workforce’sstability It is immensely valuable for teacher educators to listen to the voices ofteachers and it has been suggested that this should happen through the infrastructure

of individual schools (Ewing & Manuel,2005) This point is elaborated on in Chap

4 A focus on evidence and extended research into teacher education’s effectivenessand teaching practice without noticing workforce needs and the best approaches tomanage these needs causes a disconnection between expectations and realities.Especially for teachers in challenging teaching positions, how professional sup-port beyond ITE is framed or approached depends on the expectations placed onteacher performance and student achievement Recent research completed in Queens-land, Australia, shows that what happens during ITE programs has implications forthe various efforts schools employ to support and address transitions into the work-force (Du Plessis et al.,2018) Expectations and perceptions of beginning teachers

in relation to ITE programs demonstrate the potential for these programs have toaddress the needs of the teaching workforce if program developers embrace empir-ical evidence Beginning teachers perceive gaps between ITE programs and work-place expectations as influential in their capacity to manage the realities of their role,their ability to manage diversity in their classrooms and their personal professionaldevelopment

The objective to retain teachers in spite of complex teaching situations and lenging teaching positions highlights key factors that affect the quality of teachingand the stability of the teaching workforce: (i) the quality of ITE programs, (ii)teachers’ teaching context and placements, (iii) targeted professional learning, (iv)

chal-‘fit-for-purpose’ professional development and (v) the type of school leadership

10 1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support …and the school improvement strategies it incorporates However, teaching workforceimprovement policies and strategies without a focus on quality teaching development

is problematic (Pillay, Goddard, & Wilss,2005)

Empirical evidence shared in this book demonstrates and explains the challengesteachers experience in complex teaching positions and the impact professional sup-port approaches have on their career decisions (retention, attrition and turnover).Hence, an in-depth understanding of the complex influences which teacher capac-ity in the classroom has on student achievement outcomes makes it essential toreconsider the potential of professional support programs Strategically, tailoringprofessional learning and development programs to teachers’ needs beyond ITE isfundamental This arises from a clearer understanding of the ‘fit’ between teachers’needs and the impact these targeted programs have to enhance teaching capacity.School leaders underline that specialists involved in professional support need tolisten to the needs of teachers, communicate, get in the field and get ‘dirty’ Oneschool leader had this request for professional developers, subject specialists andfacilitators:

Leave the office and come and have a look at what happens in the classrooms Then go back and develop functional professional support programs in collaboration (Project 5: School

A, School principal)

There exists a mismatch between the supply of teachers and the demands withinthe teaching workforce, noted, among others, by Rickards (2016) This mismatch hasimplications for the professional support, learning and development of teachers todevelop into specialists for the fields in which shortages are experienced Continuingprofessional learning and development are a necessity for positive career develop-ment (Loucks-Horsley et al.,2003) I underline the importance of teacher education

as a period of training in which preservice teachers should have an intense exposure toeducational theories and diverse pedagogies They also need exposure to opportuni-ties to align these theories with practice, while they engage in their school placements.Wienk (2016) suggested that the ‘commonly accepted definition of being qualified

in a discipline is to have completed methodology training in the area’ (p 15) Yet

workplace concerns persist about quality teaching, student achievement and results,the preparedness of beginning teachers and attrition rates

Bandura (1982) highlighted that individuals’ own judgements of their personal

capabilities are embedded in ‘self-perceptions of efficacy’ (p 122) which impact

motivation and behaviour The concept of teacher self-efficacy refers to personalbeliefs about teachers’ abilities and capacity to help students learn (Pintrich &Schunk,2002; Vieluf, Kunter & Van de Vijver,2013) I conceptualise teacher self-efficacy, in this book, as a life-long process of adjustment and capacity building tomaintain quality teaching in specific positions and contexts Teachers’ confidenceand self-efficacy are influenced by their workplace contexts (Kleinsasser, 2014).Teachers impact their students’ self-efficacy perceptions Van Manen (2016a) noted

that teachers ‘create a shared space’ (p 33) where learning takes place within a

specific climate influenced by teachers’ activities, effort, persistence and attention tostudents’ individual needs to offer a quality teaching and learning experience

In order to develop appropriate professional support strategies, it is important to

be aware of the multi-layered aspects of becoming a quality teacher while effectivelynavigating complexities in the workplace Employment conditions and opportunities

to access support have a high impact on the teaching profession Research (Du Plessis,

2005; Loveys,2011; McConney & Price,2009; Törner & Törner,2012) showed thatteachers are assigned to positions for which they are not suitably qualified more oftenthan commonly recognised The question arises: what happens to the theories andpractical knowledge acquired during ITE when beginning teachers have to cope withcomplex employment conditions (Ludlow et al.,2008)?

Beginning teachers are challenged to develop their teaching practices amid istic expectations, transition issues, collegial relationships and classroom behaviourmanagement issues (Kelly, Reushle, Chakrabarty, & Kinnane,2014) Notably, effec-tive improvement and transformation at the school level are dependent on schoolleadership and the confidence and commitment to the school staff which demon-strate to explore new pedagogies and subject content (Du Plessis,2014) I argue

unreal-that the effectiveness of ITE to prepare preservice teachers to confidently link ory and practice provides a strong foundation for future teaching situations where constant transformation becomes part of a teacher’s career I further argue that teach- ers’ opportunities and exposure to targeted professional learning and development greatly influence stability in the teaching workforce Teachers have stated that they

the-feel anxious and concerned about continuous curriculum changes (Du Plessis,2014)

To develop a systematic means for catering to the challenges of beginning ers and experienced teachers faced with new challenges, it is always worthwhile forschool leaders to keep in mind that some teachers in their schools have had moreexperience as trainers and peer coaches than the school leaders themselves There-fore, principals can enter into in-depth discussions with these teachers in an effort

teach-to smooth the adjustment in their schools of beginning teachers and teachers facedwith new and challenging circumstances These individuals’ knowledge of humanand material resources can be used in planning targeted professional support pro-grams Strong teacher candidates will be able to identify several effective professionallearning and development programs (Bassett,2006) These will be more efficient andmotivating than sessions devised without reference to individual teachers’ needs atthe classroom level

However, there is a pressure placed on school leaders to effect the transformationsinitiated at the policy level through generalised professional development sessions

In this context, a principal stated that the school is accountable for the development

of its staff, reporting a top-down approach:

The leadership team engages with new evidence, data and information about transformation, for example, suggested changes to standards and curricula School leaders need to ensure that they know what is asked from leadership through new curriculum School leaders need

to be seen as talking from one ‘mouth’ when they train the staff in their specific departments

at school At first, it might seem that 3 to 4 sessions would be enough, but it takes a long time… (Project Five: School D, Participant 1, school principal)

12 1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support …

1.3 ITE and Classroom Realities: Reflecting the Nexus?

The evaluation of the quality of ITE is not realistic if it does not acknowledge thecomplexities of teachers’ employment conditions For example, there is a widespreadpractice of assigning well-qualified teachers to teaching positions, where they have tomanage subjects or year levels without having the expertise or suitable qualificationsfor these particular responsibilities The allocation of teachers outside their exper-tise or qualifications is defined as the out-of-field phenomenon (Du Plessis,2014;Ingersoll,2002) The media often presents these teachers as unqualified which is a misconception because these teachers are mostly fully qualified, some even highly qualified but are for different reasons assigned to subjects or year levels that do not

align with their initial teacher education qualifications This situation is so commonthat it holds significance for ITE This phenomenon can mask workforce realitiessuch as teacher shortages in specific areas and teacher quality in specific subject areas

or, predominantly, in certain learning areas (McConney & Price,2009), for instance,

teacher shortages will be impacted by the teacher preparation, payment conditions,teaching conditions and the quality of support which teachers receive

Luke, Luke, and Mayer (2000) suggest a deep reflection on the ‘traditional edge bases of teacher education’ (p 9) and turn focus to the future which students’ and citizens’ education has to shape Awareness and noticing differences in, for

knowl-example, students’ aptitudes, learning preferences, needs and social contexts areskills that need to be developed in preservice teachers ITE programs need to prepare

prospective teachers to notice their students before they can offer quality teaching

and learning opportunities Such awareness underpins attending to their learningneeds and interpreting which pedagogies have the required outcomes

The social learning process of teachers who experience challenges in the positionsthey are assigned to involves learning on two levels, the individual level and the com-munity of practice level Their learning and development constitute the interactionbetween social competence and individual experience (Wenger,1999,2000) Thenew paradigm within the reassessment of teacher education emphasises the socialdimension of teacher education, reflective practice and empirical evidence to informpower, control, cognitive and situated aspects (Lave & Wenger,1991) A situatedperspective ensures that teachers notice the lived experiences of their own efforts andthose of the students in their classrooms and develop expertise linked to the needs

in their own teaching context However, this capacity needs to be stimulated andencouraged through ITE programs The encouragement of such reflectivity aids anadjustment to new subject areas in that it validates teachers’ learning needs at theindividual and community of practice levels What this might look like beyond ITE

grams are well connected to the realities in classrooms Recent research evidenceabout beginning teachers’ need for targeted professional support to manage diversityand the impact it has on their classroom culture and teaching approaches underpinsthe need for a sound link between ITE and classroom realities (Du Plessis et al.,

2018) Tomlinson (2015) highlighted schools have a responsibility to prepare all

students as ‘thinkers, problem solvers, collaborators, wise consumers of information and confident producers of knowledge’ (p 203) to be effective in the new century.

Higher education providers’ efforts to set prospective teachers up for success in theirteaching career need to be reviewed, for example, does passing ITE programs meanpreservice teachers are ready or prepared for the workforce or does it mean they aredeveloping awareness and competence for teaching? I argue that a strong partnershipbetween higher education institutes and schools improves awareness of approaches,strategies and needs that should be addressed

Transformations within education emphasise (i) the high level of demand toaccommodate diversity in classrooms and offer all students equal opportunities tolearn (Tomlinson, 2015), (ii) expectations to improve student achievements, (iii)knowing the students (culture, learning needs) and how to accommodate these and(iv) improving teachers’ capacity and ability to answer to demands and challenges inclassrooms (please refer to the Glossary for the distinction between capacity and abil-ities) These challenges occur iteratively due to the top-down imposition of transfor-mation in the education system, while diversity and out-of-field placements pose their

teach-ers do not feel prepared to manage culturally, linguistically and socio-economicallydiverse students nor students with disabilities This turns focus to teacher educationprograms and the type of support teachers receive in the workplace, especially if theyget assigned to out-of-field teaching positions, positions for which they do not havesuitable qualification or expertise

Ingersoll (2001, p 21) discussed the concept of out-of-field teaching as ‘teachers assigned to teach subjects for which they have little education or training’ He further stated that the phenomenon refers to ‘highly qualified teachers who become highly unqualified when assigned to teach subjects for which they have little training or education’ Ingersoll (2001, p 42) I define the out-of-field concept as teachers whoare teaching outside their field of qualification or expertise I add ‘expertise’ becauseresearch (Du Plessis,2014) showed that teachers have the capacity to develop asspecialists, with expertise, in a specific subject field although they are not qualified

in this specific field However, this research also showed that it might take up to threeyears to develop such expertise In this study, the concept of hire-for-fit will refer

to the process through which suitable teachers are recruited and recommended forcertain vacant posts

Consequently, teachers’ restricted knowledge and information have the ability toundermine the perceived quality of ITE and restrict education improvement efforts,especially when teachers feel anxious and unsure about content knowledge, peda-gogical content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge

Teachers with restricted content and pedagogical content knowledge turn into itant and unsure attendants of professional learning and development opportunities

hes-14 1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support …For the success of such support, it is of utmost importance that these dispositions arerespected and understood These teachers enter professional support programs with

a very critical outlook A school leader shared:

It is sad but 90% of the times these teachers’ expectations of the profession learning and development opportunity were not answered or fulfilled (Project Five: School A, Participant

1, school principal)

This disappointment can arise from several sources It can be a combination ofpersonality type incompatibilities with the specialist teacher or developer, personalfrustrations and the inability or lack of will to reassess and adjust their own teach-ing beliefs and characteristics Sometimes professional developers are unaware ofsensitivities and cross the line of personal space, at which point teachers start to feeluncomfortable This is underpinned by continuous personal disappointments in theirteaching outcomes

Teachers and researchers highlighted the value of collaboration among teachersfrom different levels of experience Decision-making about professional support ben-efits from preservice teachers and teacher educators researching their own teachingand learning spaces to develop a deeper understanding of the realities of the context(Willegems, Consuegra, Struyven, & Engels,2017) Professional support is moreeffective when it is carefully designed according to the needs of preservice teachersand/or practising teachers The expectation for teachers to engage and to get involved

in professional learning strategies places substantial demands on time, leadership,practicalities, human resources and on the yearly budgets of education departmentsand school leadership (Nyman,2017; Thomas,2000)

Professional developers, specialist teachers and mentors who have built ity and a rapport with teachers have a significant impact on their development It isimportant to understand that these professional learning and development opportuni-ties are sometimes the only thing teachers have to help them understand curriculumrequirements and how to reach certain outcomes with their students

credibil-Evidence-based information and a broad perception of preservice and practisingteachers’ professional growth, learning and development and their specific needs

in relation to the improvement of their teaching capacity should guide programs toimprove overall teacher capacity ITE is the first step in this process

1.4 Teacher Support Beyond the Dimensions of ITE

Sustained professional growth is fundamental to support teachers’ ability to explorenew subject and teaching opportunities Van Manen (2016b) asked, ‘How can we develop and practise thoughtfulness and tact?’ in teachers’ acknowledged skill sets

and then claimed that the development of teachers is closely connected to

under-standing ‘the embodied nature of knowledge’ (p 45).

Research has shown that the alignment between passion, interest and an appetitefor new knowledge is vital for effective professional learning and development (Du

Plessis,2014) Ongoing professional learning, beginning in ITE and carrying through

to teachers’ workplaces offer opportunities to transform and upgrade skills and ing abilities (Ludlow, et al.,2008) The better equipped each preservice teacher andassigned teacher is for their particular area of choice or position, the better placedschools and students are to achieve success and reach education goals (Darling-Hammond,2010) Lingard (2010) claimed ‘Teachers have more effect than the whole school on student learning outcomes and they have the most effect with disadvantaged students’ (p 140) However, the burden to produce high levels of achievement exists

teach-in spite of complex teachteach-ing positions This is an environment where constant andrapid transformations mean that time to internalise change and understand new policyframeworks and approaches to teaching is not possible This uncertainty leaves teach-ers feeling overwhelmed by teaching expectations and burdensome administrativerequirements despite restricted background knowledge while coping with feelings ofanxiety and burnout (Dee & Cohodes,2008; Hall & Hord,2001; Teaching Australia,

2007) Section6.3.3expands on this point Anxiety in teachers is perceived by theirstudents as a lack of the capacity to fulfil the requirement of a specific position.Doubts in teachers’ capacity to reach expected achievements put the effectiveness ofteaching and learning environments at risk (see Sects.6.5.2–6.5.4inclusive).This book reflects on and reassesses the role and impact of professional support,including professional learning and professional development (see later definitions

of these terms in following paragraphs) in the education improvement strategies ofvarious education stakeholders The sooner uncertainties are addressed, the lower theprobability that the teacher will start to question their professional identity (Olsen,

2008) An appreciation of the influence which teachers’ professional learning anddevelopment needs have on their professional identity also involves reflection ofteachers’ journey towards professional identity during ITE (Feiman-Nemser,2001).Teaching as a career is highly demanding in terms of emotional resources andlabour This means that an improvement of the quality of education is not attainable

by sporadic one-off announcements by politicians or executive educational leaders

or a quick-fix once-off training workshop for teachers in a specific subject

Teachers who are assigned to teach subjects for which they are not qualified or inwhich they lack interest and passion feel dissatisfied because of the pervasive sense

of failure they experience in trying to work with students with specific needs forwhich they have no qualifications A teacher shared:

Some of us who are out-of-field will sit in a workshop and never open our mouths… I wouldn’t say a single word… I would pretend that I know what is going on and that night

I would go home and wonder how would I do all these new things? … I think… you could have used the time so much more effectively on a kind of one-on-one session… person to person with someone sharing, giving advice… (Project Five: School H, Participant 1)

‘Fine-tuning’ new subject areas or fields and their application in different year els requires carefully planned processes in professional learning and development,while teachers are involved in such unfamiliar teaching situations Knapp (2003)distinguishes between professional learning and professional development, profes-

lev-sional development being ‘the full range of activities, formal and informal, that

16 1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support …

engage teachers or administrators in new learning about their professional tice’ (p 112) and professional learning being ‘changes in the thinking, knowledge, skills, and approaches to instruction that form practising teachers’ or administra- tors’ repertoire’ (pp 112–113) Mayer and Lloyd (2011) claimed that professionallearning can involve changes in thinking, knowledge, skills and approaches to instruc-tion Thus, professional learning entails changes in teachers’ capacity and ability forpractice (see glossary for definitions of capacity and ability)

prac-It is, however, also essential to further clarify how the terms, ‘professional

learn-ing’ and ‘professional development’ are defined for the purpose of this book sional development opportunities are defined as a group strategy, often delivered by

Profes-external developers, to address development issues in a more general way Teachersattending these professional development opportunities will hold different types of

employment, statuses or levels Professional learning of teachers often takes place

in the internal environment of the school; it might be incidental, organised, asked for

or offered Professional learning is mostly focused on individual teachers’ specificneeds or to address an issue that developed within a specific class, subject area or

in relation to a specific teacher’s professional growth (Feiman-Nemser, 2001) Inthis book, professional learning is conceived of as a process of the improvement ofteaching capacity closely connected and focused on individual teachers’ professionalneeds, in relation to their current teaching situations and therefore closely alignedwith their current workplaces and contexts Tailored professional learning and devel-opment strategies have the potential to address the urgent needs of teachers who find

themselves in positions for which they are not qualified I argue that teachers would only feel empowered if, through professional learning options, teachers can obtain the necessary skills and support in order to fulfil expectations.

Education ministers and leaders are under pressure to create and maintain a tive approach towards improvement strategies I, however, am adamant that transfor-mation efforts that are disconnected from the classroom context and teachers’ profes-sional needs are doomed Such change is not a spontaneous process for teachers, evenmore so for unsuitably assigned teachers in out-of-field positions because it impactstheir beliefs, values and teaching characteristics (see Sect.3.2) It has been claimedthat the development of professional identity not only involves the transposition ofteaching skills, or negotiation of the discourse of managerial professionalism, but isalso a complex contextual process that impacts meaning-making (Cross & Ndofirepi,

posi-2015) The challenge to take full ownership of a particular teaching position involvesfeelings of confidence with content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge andthe pedagogical knowledge required for that express position

Teachers’ dispositions, their concomitant commitment and confidence have asignificant impact on the targeted professional learning and development intended

to obtain the effective improvement of quality in the education arena Dispositionsentail the values that guide teachers’ behaviour and attitudes Welch, Pitts, Tenini,Kuenlen, and Wood (2010) suggested that ‘specific behaviours of teachers as effective professionals should be determined’ (p 199) The following definition offered by the

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE,2002) embracesexpectations for teachers’ professionalism and identity:

The values, commitments, and professional ethics that influence behaviours towards students, families, colleagues, and communities, and affect student learning, motivation, and devel- opment as well as the educator’s own professional development Dispositions are guided by beliefs and attitudes related to values such as caring, fairness, honesty, responsibility and social justice (NCATE, 2002 ) p 53)

The capacity and effectiveness of teachers determine the future of quality cation (Lingard, Hayes, Mills, & Christie, 2003) Teachers control the quality ofeducation; they take centre stage (Darling-Hammond,2010; Du Plessis,2005; Hat-tie, 2009) With teachers functioning in complex situations with limited tailoredprofessional development, how can the quality of education be improved in theirclassrooms? With a well-diagnosed need analysis garnered from open communica-tion and systemic support at the school, regional and national levels, it is possible todevelop tailored learning and development solutions which are appropriate for theteachers concerned

edu-This book outlines various options to make this a reality I accentuate the impactwhich targeted support or well-directed development opportunities have for teach-ers’ coping mechanisms in complex teaching positions Teacher capacity and skillsenhance quality education It is acknowledged that education is an emotion- andlabour-intensive profession posing a high demand on human resources, with teachersrecognised as the most valuable component of delivering quality education (Bondesio

& De Witt,2004a) Schools need committed and confident teachers to be successful

in managing effective teaching and learning environments (Bondesio & De Witt,

2004b)

How can teachers’ professional identity be formed? Preservice teachers, as well

as teachers in the workplace, benefit when professional practices become an integralpart of open discussions and there is a collaboration of skill sets where they bothclearly understand and are prepared for, skilled and competent in the use of planningframeworks, lesson concepts and structures and curricula expectations (Hall & Hord,

2001) Hall and Hord further suggested that when teachers must adapt to new subjectarea or year levels, they individually construct an understanding about what wasintended with these changes and what they mean for their identities as teachers.Some features in the literature linked to teacher professional identity have beenestablished, namely personal practical knowledge, the role of context and permanentdialogue (Beijaard, Meijer, & Verloop,2004)

How can educational transformation be enacted? Teachers need to understand thereasoning behind transformation and change and why the new information presented

is actually needed—it needs to make sense Professional development programswhich inform teachers on the theory behind specific strategies accompanied by ademonstration of these strategies with allowance for initial practice and the support

of feedback are likely to be the most successful A school leader emphasised thecollaborative approach that is needed within all professional support strategies:

It is important to know where to meet teachers on their knowledge journey and where they are heading with their knowledge and experiences The professional developer needs to know where to meet this teacher… with knowledge… background knowledge… and these

18 1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support …

teachers must have an opportunity to share their views, expectations, and understanding (Project 1: School A, Deputy principal)

Teachers can only digest the concepts and opinions which society has in relation

to their work, when they have internalised them as part of their own knowledge(Levacic & Glatter, 2001) Without professional support which engages teachers’own perspectives, formal professional development sessions can be a waste of timeand resources Thus the professional expertise of practising teachers is fundamentalfor preservice teachers’ preparation for the workforce So too is it essential to includethis expertise when managing professional support during educational transformationprocesses This theme is discussed further in Sect.7.2

School leaders are always aware of the fact that teaching practices in the schoolcontext can be carried out effectively, while preservice teachers visit schools duringtheir professional experience placements only with the continued, dedicated collab-oration between such preservice teachers and teachers at the school who are aware

of the school context in rich detail (Bondesio & De Witt2004b)

There exists a high expectation for teachers to achieve outstanding results withtheir students, while the professional support they need to fulfil this expectation isrestricted I am greatly concerned about teachers’ professional identity and profes-sional development when they are allocated positions outside their field of qualifi-cation or expertise These workplace and workforce concerns are explored in depth

in this book with proposed improvements to reduce teacher turnover and enhanceteacher job satisfaction and student achievement Masters (2014) claimed that reformand improvement will occur when teacher capacity building becomes the priority ofleaders

The absence of an in-depth understanding of the difficulties to effectively guidetransformation in some cases puts pressure on educational leaders (Hiatt,2006) andteachers School leaders attempt to improve the quality of teaching in their schoolsthrough professional learning and development strategies, but they also admit thatimprovement plans and strategies are often strapped down by school budget restric-tions (see Sect.5.5) There is a need to integrate teaching practices and approaches in

a productive manner as underscored by Kaiser et al (2016), who urge for closeness

to real classroom situations

1.5 Professional Support and Leadership Decisions

There is a need for awareness among educational leaders to develop justifiable cies and processes to improve the quality of teaching and education in an educationalenvironment, where challenges for teachers such as out-of-field teaching practicesare widespread, ever growing and apparently unstoppable (Ingersoll,2001) Recentresearch in Queensland, Australia (Du Plessis et al.,2018), showed that more than athird of school leaders do not feel qualified or prepared enough for what is expectedfrom them in their leadership role This turns the focus to the professional learning

poli-and development approach that is offered for such positions However, an Australianreport (McKenzie, Weldon, Rowley, Murphy, & McMillan,2014) indicated that 79%

of primary school teachers and 94% of primary school leaders, 68% of secondaryschool teachers and 86% of secondary school leaders were involved in professionallearning opportunities for five or more days during a period of 12 months, with addi-tional costs paid from school budgets The time, efforts, costs and limited outcome

of these support programs underline a need to reassess strategies for professionalsupport programs

New adjustments and improvements of curricula, educational systems and ment frameworks are expensive exercises School leaders who are aware of the pro-fessional needs of their teachers are not only perceived as supportive but demonstrate

assess-an in-depth understassess-anding of classroom concerns assess-and issues This awareness impactstheir perceptions and approaches to professional learning possibilities and opportu-nities for their teachers Conversely, a disconnect with the realities in classroomand school contexts makes it easier to project an image that is not a replication ofwhat really is going on in the field Educational leaders acknowledge that efforts

to establish new education structures are demanding and, in many instances, theythemselves are seen as liable for any failure to successfully introduce new educa-tion structures and frameworks (Curry,2013; Day,1999) Thus, educational leadersproject an image of implementing improvements Yet Hiatt (2006) underlined that

teachers are ‘dismayed by the claims’ (p 1) that all is well with the implementation

of certain curriculum areas, while teachers themselves experience the opposite.The demands and challenges teachers manage once they enter the workforceinclude (i) positions at regional, remote and isolated schools, (ii) assignments toteach subjects, fields and/or year levels outside their field of qualification or exper-tise, (iii) unique socioeconomic and cultural contextual factors, (iv) large and chal-lenging student cohorts, (v) an instruction language other than the mother tongueand (vi) unfamiliar community values and beliefs Strategic approaches to build astable quality workforce are only plausible when the focus turns to teachers Thisincludes current and prospective teachers Such quality and stability come from offer-ing them the professional support they really need, not support based on assumptionsabout their needs Understanding teachers’ needs for targeted professional support,

as presented in this book, is deeply embedded in Gadamer’s (1976) belief that standing does not occur when we try to intercept what someone wants to say to us by claiming we already know it’ (p 102) and that ‘everything points to another thing’

‘under-(p 103)

The quality and level of school leaders’ engagement and involvement in the ing and learning environment affect teacher dispositions, well-being and the com-mitment teachers have to improve their teaching practices and skills Constructiveinterpersonal relationships are regarded as reinforcing and motivational and holdthe potential to stimulate participation and collaboration in the planning, imple-mentation and execution of demanding responsibilities in the school environment(Van der Westhuizen,2004) I propose two means for generating this in schools: thecontext-conscious understanding development theory (see Chap.2) and the CAN-NAS leadership model (see Chap.3) Owen (2016) stated that ‘mutual support and

teach-20 1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support …

reinvigorating the passion for teaching and developing deep understanding’ (p 9)

benefit the professional growth of teachers and leaders Owen further claimed thatsocialisation and building identities have a positive outcome for collaboration andencourage cultivating personal strengths, teaching qualities and capacity

Encouraging collaboration, self-determination and distributed leadership pins professional learning (Owen,2016) as a life-long attribute to improve the quality

under-of teaching and retain teachers The truth is that teacher quality defines the quality

of schools and the effectiveness of learning and teaching environments Hammond,2010; Du Plessis,2005; Hattie,2009; Office of the Chief Scientist,2014).The aim of school leadership should be to capitalise on the strengths and knowledgesets of each individual teacher (Drucker,2005) This enhances teachers’ commitmentand improves the overall success and productivity of their continuing professionallearning and development efforts This then translates into well-directed supportfocusing on teachers’ needs to increase the potential to change what happens insideclassrooms

(Darling-School leaders are accountable and responsible for equipping their teachers withthe best development opportunities to reach their objectives for quality education

By building a sound foundational knowledge of practice and improving student andteacher achievement, teachers become influential in the leadership of the schooland classroom context (Drucker,2005) and therefore would be able to impact thedirection of continuing professional learning and development programs However,

in a school context, school leaders often plan, organise, guide and control, whileteachers implement these strategies Teachers assigned to complex teaching positionsfind it hard to adjust their personal constructed knowledge to align with schoolleaders’ strategies if a gap develops between their own beliefs, professional needsand teaching characteristics and what school leaders perceive as necessary to achievesuccess and quality education in a specific school community

Quality education is underpinned by the development of healthy educationalenvironments and well-planned improvement strategies which include development,support and valuable resources to reach these objectives The more unique and chal-lenging individual teachers’ circumstances become, the more school leaders need toengage in teachers’ support and professional learning Effective leadership of pro-fessional development and learning stimulates interest and participation in mattersthat concern the classroom context For example, leaders’ emotional competenceand close engagement with teachers in complex teaching positions send an impor-tant message of support to these teachers (Du Plessis,2005,2014,2017; Nyman,

2017; Ross, Romer, & Horner,2012; Van der Westhuizen,2004) Teachers who feelconfident and connected to their teaching context work hard, collaborate and supportcolleagues (Gillies & Boyle,2005)

For teachers to deliver quality education, educational leaders and professionaldevelopers need to be aware of their specific needs while assigned to challengingteaching positions Evidence-based information should inform professional learn-ing and professional development programs (see Sect.1.7.1) Truths from the fieldand information obtained through research should inform support decisions, policies

linked to professional learning and development and educational leaders’ ment in improvement strategies.

involve-School leaders’ role in teachers’ professional learning and professional opment as support instruments should not be underestimated In order to under-stand the impact teachers in complex positions such as out-of-field teaching posi-tions have on quality development and support processes, real-life experiences ofschool leaders and teachers are shared in this book These real-life experiences pro-vide evidence-based information about how decontextualized and generic supportprograms (impacted by complex teacher dispositions) adversely influence effectiveschool leadership and thus quality teaching and effective learning New informa-tion that emerges from the real-life experiences of school leaders and teachers inchallenging teaching positions includes truths to understand:

devel-• how teacher education, quality teaching and effective learning are influenced bythe realities of the teaching workforce and the factors that influence teachers’professional identity

• the implications complex and challenging teaching positions, for example, field teaching positions, have for teachers’ perceptions and experiences of profes-sional learning and professional development

out-of-• the perceptions and experiences of school leaders about the implications certainteacher placements have for their school’s professional development program andrelated decisions about professional learning opportunities

• how the leadership of complex teaching situations and a targeted developmentprogram directly impacts school leadership’s effectiveness and their leadershipstyles

• the influence continuing professional learning and development and support grams have on teaching characteristics such as specific beliefs, values, experiences,attitudes and knowledge

pro-• the specific needs teachers in highly demanding teaching positions have for geted professional learning, tailored professional development and support

tar-• the role stakeholders play in the effort to develop teachers and how their perceptions

of challenges in the teaching workforce impact the success of teacher educationand continuing professional development programs

Professional learning and professional development are seen as strategies to age teaching challenges in the workplace and workforce I argue that the theoreticalframing of these programs is the key to the successful and effective support of teachers

man-in difficult teachman-ing positions School leaders’ decisions about employment tions and teachers’ access to support programs influence teachers’ explicit expec-tations and needs for professional development and professional learning (Labone,Butcher, & Bailey,2005), which in turn impact stability in the workplace and work-force

condi-22 1 Education Quality, ITE and Further Professional Support …

1.6 The Alignment of Theory and Practice: Workforce

Preparedness

To prepare teachers for whatever circumstances they are required to deal with, thetheory needs to be grounded in its applicability in practice Furlong (2015) high-lighted strong international evidence about the link between theory and practice as

a ‘principle (which) is central to ensuring high quality teacher education,’ (p 17).

Caena (2014) noted that the high demands on teachers’ roles and competences ify the professional skills and knowledge framework that guides teacher education.Initial teacher education aims to develop prospective teachers’ skills, capacity andknowledge in specific subject areas, fields or year levels The alignment of theory andpractice underpins effective workforce preparation The development of pedagogi-cal content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge during professional experiencesestablishes the fundamental awareness of the art of teaching and align theories taughtwith their practical applications in a specific classroom context This becomes highlyeffective when teachers notice and are sensitive to the teaching and learning context

clar-as a micro-cosmos of the real world Caena (2014) further claimed that (to) ‘teach education, in particular, is a system that is defined by its contexts and is liable to institutional control’ (p 315).

The effective integration of teacher education providers with schools and cation systems’ expectations will inform this practical process to develop graduateteachers I suggest that aspects of impacting quality education are multidimensional.The complexity of teaching as a practice and the unique multifaceted contexts inwhich teaching takes place make it necessary to clearly link practice and context inteacher education programs and teacher professional development Evidence of thechallenges of multifaceted environments is demonstrated in the challenges teach-ers face in different school contexts, for example, in some countries teachers mighthave to cope with teaching mathematics to 156 students in a Grade 8 class (Yende,

edu-2007) This situation creates an awareness of the dilemmas in which teachers findthemselves and the role professional learning plays in supporting these teachers.Close alignment between ITE and the workplace is needed to accurately concep-tualise the complex teaching profession’s expectations and needs If we are seriousabout supporting teachers in complex teaching positions such as the out-of-fieldteaching phenomenon, an intensely close connectedness between the ITE programs

offered and the expectation that schools are teaching hubs (a space where teachers’

professional growth is supported by collegial input) is not optional It is compulsory.Workforce preparedness and classroom readiness of teachers are deeply embedded in

a context-consciousness A teacher might be classroom ready and well prepared forthe workforce in a specific subject area, field or year level, but not so when assigned

to an unfamiliar subject and/or year level The expectation of classroom readinessand preparedness is therefore not the issue but rather, how teachers are utilised andsupported beyond ITE

I argue that teachers assigned to out-of-field positions experience severe lenges when attempting to link theory and practice The out-of-field teaching phe-

chal-nomenon challenges how classroom readiness and workforce preparedness is

under-stood Neither the quality and length of professional experience nor the significant efforts to integrate theory and practice would have the desired outcome if the impli- cations of out-of-field teacher placements are not acknowledged and clearly under- stood Teaching is a highly cognitively demanding and knowledge-rich profession.

Teachers are expected to have specialist knowledge and expertise for their specificsubject fields or year levels Yet teachers are routinely placed in subject areas or fieldlevels for which they have had no preparation, which places considerable strain onteachers Guthrie, Wigfield, and VonSecker (2000) defined integrated teaching and

instruction skills as emphasised learning goals with ‘real-world interaction

(hands-on activities), competence support (strategy instructi(hands-on), aut(hands-onomy support directed learning), and collaboration’ (p 133) The objective of ITE should be on

(self-the development and preparation of world-class teachers Gonski et al (2018) claim,

To be a world-leading education system….[A country] needs to better encourage, support and recognise teaching expertise Expert teachers possess deep knowledge of pedagogical content and subject discipline, which they can employ flexibly and innovatively in their classroom teaching (p 77)

Given that out-of-field placements are often condoned and common in schoolsacross sectors, encouraging teachers’ professional growth should not just be a con-sideration for school leaders, but it becomes a significant part of school leaders’ ped-agogical accountability Encouragement is a significant contributing part of teachers’professional support (Power,2011) I argue in this book that professional support

in complex and challenging teaching situations is essential for delivering qualityeducation

1.7 Conceptualising Professional Support

Professional support has the potential to improve teachers’ cognitive preparednessfor their role as teachers, expand their knowledge base and develop their capacity for

quality teaching practices and pedagogical decision-making The statement ers Matter’ (Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group [TEMAG],2014, p.v) reflects an acknowledgement of the important role teachers play in education.Taking care of their preparedness for the profession and appreciating their well-being and how effective they manage their positions have implications for workforcestability and the improvement of education systems Becoming a quality teacherand maintaining effectiveness involves navigating complex teaching and learningenvironments such as the out-of-field teaching phenomenon, temporary contractu-ally based employment conditions and finding opportunities to access support toimprove students’ learning opportunities The capacity and skills to work with con-stantly changing data, think critically and creatively, recognise the benefit of workingtogether on projects, tolerate uncertainty and persist in the face of pressure are just afew of the capabilities that teachers need to help students to achieve (Van den Berg,

‘Teach-2004) These demands, as well as complex and challenging teaching situations, have