Nghiên cứu về ẩn dụ đa phương tiện trong các TVC quảng cáo của coca cola và pepsi

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIESFACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES PHẠM THỊ THU HIỀN A STUDY ON MULTIMODAL METAPHOR IN COCA- COLA AND

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES

PHẠM THỊ THU HIỀN

A STUDY ON MULTIMODAL METAPHOR IN COCA- COLA

AND PEPSI’ TELEVISION COMMERCIALS

(NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ ẨN DỤ ĐA PHƯƠNG TIỆN TRONG CÁC TVC QUẢNG

CÁO CỦA COCA- COLA VÀ PEPSI)

MA THESIS – TYPE 1

Field : English Linguistics

HANOI – 2018

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES

PHẠM THỊ THU HIỀN

A STUDY ON MULTIMODAL METAPHOR IN COCA- COLA

AND PEPSI’ TELEVISION COMMERCIALS

(NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ ẨN DỤ ĐA PHƯƠNG TIỆN TRONG CÁC TVC QUẢNG

CÁO CỦA COCA- COLA VÀ PEPSI)

Signature

For the fulfilment of the master thesis, first and foremost, I would love toexpress my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Dr Nguyen Thi Minh Tam for allher invaluable comments, counsel and her whole-souled instructions as well Beside

my advisor, my sincere thanks are sent to all my colleagues at the faculty of ForeignLanguages at Hanoi Pedagogical University No.2 for their suggestions that enable

me to complete my study

My heartfelt thanks would also go to my institution – Hanoi PedagogicalUniversity No.2 for giving best conditions to study at University of Languages andInternational Studies for my postgraduate program and carry out the thesis over along time

Finally, I owe a debt of gratitude to my family for their supports and careduring the completion of my study

There is no shadow of doubt that human beings have been employingmetaphor in almost all aspects of life even though they are sometimes unaware ofthe fact And the professional world of scholars has already taken the notion ofmetaphor into account Especially after the publication of the work named

Metaphors We Live By in 1980 by Lakoff and Johnson, the notion of metaphor was

exploited conceptually and seemed to have more practical applications The thesiswas done to investigate how multimodal metaphor has been used in Coca- Cola andPepsi’ television commercials accompanied by a comparison between twocompanies The present study includes four main chapters: literature review,methodology, findings and discussion, and conclusions Findings show that bothbrands take full advantage of visual, verbal and sonic modes, despite differentdegrees, to represent groups of metaphorical themes Similar and different aspects

in their usage of, multimodal metaphor were also disclosed in the study

Table of contents

DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES vi

PART A INTRODUCTION 1

1 Rationale 1

2 Research questions 2

3 Significance of the study 3

4 Scope of the study 3

5 Design of the thesis 3

PART B DEVELOPMENT 5

CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

1 APPROACHES TO METAPHOR 5

1.1 Before Cognitive Linguistics 5

1.2 Cognitive Linguistics 7

2 MULTIMODAL METAPHOR 9

2.1 Multimodality and monomodality 9

2.2 Features of a multimodal metaphor 11

2.3 Modes in a multimodal metaphor: Classification and interaction 13

2.4 Multimodal metaphor and the genre 15

3 EMPIRICAL STUDIES 18

4 CHAPTER SUMMARY 20

CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY 21

1 Description of the data 21

2 Methods of the study 21

3 Analytical Framework 23

5 Chapter summary 26

CHAPTER 3 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 27

3.1 Statistical findings 27

3.1.1 Coca – Cola 27

3.1.2 Pepsi 28

3.2 Qualitative findings 29

3.2.1 Multimodal metaphor in Coca- Cola TV commercials 29

3.2.2 Multimodal metaphor in Pepsi TV commercials 46

3.3 Discussion of research questions 62

3.3.1 Answer to research question 1: ‘How is multimodal metaphor used in the TV ads of Coca - Cola and Pepsi?’ 62

3.3.2 Answer to research question 2: ‘What are similarities and differences in using multimodal metaphor of the two soft drink brands?’ 63

3.4 Chapter summary 64

PART C CONCLUSIONS 65

1 Recapitulation of main ideas 65

2 Limitations 66

3 Recommendations for further studies 67

REFERENCES 68 APPENDICES I

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1 Subdivision of Modes - Forceville (2007: 20)

Figure 2 Metaphorical Themes Frequency in 15 Coca- Cola's TVCs

Figure 3: Metaphorical Themes Frequency in 15 Pepsi's TVCs

Table 1: Sample Analytical Framework

Table 2: Mappings of the CM Love is a journey

Table 3: Mappings of the CM Drink is a journey

PART A INTRODUCTION

In this part, the researcher explains why she chose the research topic and

indicates aims, scope and design of the study Two raised research questions were clearly stated

1 Rationale

Metaphor was considered as an exclusively figurative phenomenon whichhad little or no place in everyday language until the 19th century Yet, since Lakoff

and Johnson published their work named Metaphors We Live By in 1980, the notion

of conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) has ruled metaphor studies Here, metaphorsare primarily a phenomenon of thought rather than of language, which have beenapplied to all corners of life such as literature, economy and especially recreationaland media areas Additionally, as a result of the quick social commercialization andthe surge of media, advertising becomes one of the most efficient ways of

broadcasting products, and a fundamental part of our life as well as ‘a major manifestation of conceptual metaphors’ (Kövecses 2002: 59)

In the realm of advertising, metaphor is regarded as an integration of words,images, sounds and meanings A well-selected metaphor will significantly provokeshoppers’ inspiration to buy a certain product Forceville (2008) asserts that it isvital to study nonverbal and multimodal metaphors systematically to test claimsmade about conceptual metaphors Within Conceptual Metaphor Theoryframework, multimodal metaphors are defined as those metaphors whose target andsource are rendered exclusively or predominantly in two or more modes and theverbal is in many cases just one of them (Forceville: 2006; see also Forceville:2008; Forceville and Urios Aparisi: 2009a) The possible modes likely consist ofwritten and spoken language, static and moving images, music, nonverbal sounds,and gestures (Forceville and Urios-Aparisi: 2009b)

The researcher was impressed by Coca - Cola and Pepsi – two typical softdrink brands in the beverage industry Both have invested a lot in commercial

strategies to propagate their names worldwide One of reasons for their success maycome from their advertising campaigns with TV commercials (TVCs) combined bydifferent modes ranging from images, sounds and words The researcher questionsthe use of multimodal metaphor on those TVCs in broadcasting the items andgrabbing the audience’s attention; hence, she is so curious to do a thorough researchinto this area For the aforementioned explanations, the thesis mainly concentrates

on analyzing the multimodal metaphors used in TVCs of two brands Coca-Cola andPepsi within the Conceptual Metaphor Theory, from which some comparison will

be made between the two brands

2 Research questions

A great number of works within the Conceptual Metaphor Theory have beendone, but concentrate only on one aspect of the metaphor Even if they did considervarious modes, their areas are totally different, so hardly can the researcher find aresearch of the same field and topic The present paper analyses metaphor as acomplex phenomenon and argues that the genre and modes interact to create ameaningful message to advertise the target items The problem raises the followingresearch questions:

How is multimodal metaphor used in the TV ads of Coca - Cola and Pepsi? What are similarities and differences in using multimodal metaphor of the two soft drink brands?

The research’s aims were to identify multimodal metaphors and relationshipsbetween their target and source domains in expressing certain messages followed by

a comparison in using multimodal metaphors of the two big names The corpusincluded two series of 30 TV commercials taken from the website iSpot.tv

3 Significance of the study

This study was done to contribute to the linguistics, especially metaphorresearch Its approach is quite new as no studies have been done on comparingmultimodal metaphors in Coca- Cola and Pepsi’ TVCs Completing the thesismeans that a new discovery will be revealed and maybe open new ideas for furtherexamination

Another striking point is that by the language phenomena’s clarification intelevision commercials, an unprecedented foundation for explaining the samephenomena may be established in other areas and genres Last but not least, shestrongly believes that her study contributes to building theoretical basis in thelinguistic area Also, it is likely used as a reference for the latter studies

4 Scope of the study

The thesis exploited 30 TV commercials of Coca- Cola and Pepsi on theiSpot.tv over a period of 5 years, from 2013 to 2018 All commercials are spoken inEnglish from 15 seconds to about 60 seconds long Despite unequal numbers ofvideos taken from each year, it was still able to reflect general marketing purposesand contemporary trends The number one reason for the choice is because Coca-Cola and Pepsi are of the most well-known soft drink brands worldwide They havealready published extremely attractive and inspiring TVCs to raise their sales.Second, the researcher hypothesized that there are likely certain marketingstrategies, campaigns and unique brands in their TV shots, so she was so curiousand eager to investigate them

5 Design of the thesis

The thesis consists of three main parts, organized as follows:

PART A: Introduction- gives the reasons why the author chooses this topic, aims,

the scope and the design of the study

PART B: Development: includes 3 chapters:

Literature review chapter reviews literature and previous studies in the field

Methodology chapter describes the data and data analyzing process It also provides

an analytical framework for further discussion

Findings and discussion chapter shows results and discusses research questions

PART C Conclusions - summarizes the findings and draws the conclusions

followed by limitations and recommendations for extensive research

PART B DEVELOPMENT

The development part begins with the first chapter of literature review in which the researcher reviews literature and previous studies in the field Following this, methodology chapter describes the data and data analyzing process It also provides an analytical framework for further discussion To end to the development part, a findings and discussion chapter shows results and discussesr esearch questions

CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW

As mentioned once, the chapter of literature review gives a general picture ofrelated theories and already- done studies in the same field as the current thesis Thechapter is subdivided into smaller sections, beginning with a revision on approaches

to metaphor, followed by basic foundations to multimodal metaphors The chapterends by a brief overview of two related studies about metaphor in advertising inwhich the researcher takes a chance to highlight salient points in her thesis incomparison with these two

1 APPROACHES TO METAPHOR

1.1 Before Cognitive Linguistics

Metaphor has continuously grabbed public attention and scholars over thecenturies, so the researcher started this section by presenting major thoughts instudying metaphor before the birth of Cognitive Linguistics

There has been an existing fact that the nature of metaphor has beendiscussed by Aristotle on the level of noun (name), indicating that metaphortypically ‘happens’ to the noun, and it is presented as motion:

…the application of a strange (alien, allotrios) term either transferred (displaced, epiphora) from the genus and applied to the species or from the species and applied to the genus, or from one species to another, or else by analogy (Aristotle, 1982:1447b).

According to Aristotle, once a name is applied to a new thing, it maycommunicate something much more clearly, which is something else hard to grasp.

He also specified four possibilities of creating a metaphor, namely genus to species,species to genus, species to species, and by analogy or proportion Nevertheless,one can find in his later work that the primary objective of rhetorical speech ispersuasion, which is far of importance from our view point In fact, virtues ofmetaphor comprise clarity, warmth, facility, appropriateness and elegance, and

finally ‘metaphor sets the scene before our eyes’ (Aristotle, 1954:1410b) Scholars

argued that even though the definition of metaphor is itself metaphorical, theexplanation for it is circular Researchers might have slowed down and leavemetaphors to flourish only in stylistics, as a basic ‘figure of speech’

After a long period of scholars’ losing interest in metaphors, Chomsky paid a

direct attention back to linguistics In his Language and Mind, he showed that:

‘Linguistics is a branch of cognitive psychology: I think there is more of a healthy ferment in cognitive psychology – and in the particular branch of cognitive psychology known as linguistics – than there has been for many years…if we are ever to understand how language is used or acquired, then

we must abstract for separate and independent study a cognitive system, a system of knowledge and belief.’ (Chomsky, 1972: 1-4)

Chomsky confesses that ‘we are as far today as Descartes was three centuries ago from understanding just what enables a human to speak in a way that

is innovative, free from stimulus control, and also appropriate and coherent.’

(1972:12-13), and his approach targets at the analysis of deep structure Moreover,Brugman highlights the importance of categories, based on Rosch (1977) and Kayand McDaniel (1978), reaching the verdict: sensory elements in categorizing humanexperience represent a possibility to describe language, although a single word isbut a narrow investigation, not revealing great truths about the language itself

1.2 Cognitive Linguistics

Cognitive linguistics was brought to light in the late 1970s in whichcognitive linguists assume an analysis of the conceptual and experiential basis oflinguistic categories and constructs is of a primary importance: formal structures oflanguage are studied not as if they were autonomous, but as reflections of generalconceptual organization, categorization principles, and processing mechanisms(Gibbs: 1994; Lakoff: 1980)

The approach has thrived in part through the adherence to two differentcommitments (Lakoff, 1980), especially ‘Generalization commitment’ on generalprinciples in our theoretical descriptions of linguistic phenomena Linguists of thetrend claim that metaphor is not merely a figure of speech, but is a specific mental,and neural mapping that influences a good deal of how people think, reason, andimagine in everyday life (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999) Furthermore, verbal metaphors

do not exist as mere ornamental, or communicative devices; instead, they reflectunderlying conceptual mappings in which people metaphorically conceptualizevague, abstract domains of knowledge (e.g., time, causation, spatial orientation,ideas, emotions, concepts of understanding) in terms of more specific, familiar, andconcrete knowledge (e.g., embodied experiences) These sources to target domainmappings tend to be asymmetrical (Fauconnier & Turner, 1995) in that completelydifferent inferences result when the direction of the mappings are reversed (e.g.,TIME IS MONEY is quite different from the, perhaps, anomalous idea thatMONEY IS TIME.)

The prominent interpretation of metaphor under light of cognitive linguisticshas been introduced only thirty - five years ago, although the metaphor has beendiscussed since ancient times Aristotle, as stated in the earlier section, understood

the metaphor as ‘the application of an alien name by transference either from genus

to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that

is, proportion’ (Aristotle,1982:1447b) However, only after linguists started to look

for generalizations that dictate the creation of poetic metaphors, they revealed thatmetaphors are not in language, but in thought and are embedded there so deeply,

that ‘Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.’ (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980a: 4) With the

present statement, as Forceville (2006: 379) rightly suggested, Lakoff and Johnson

marked ‘a switch from research into metaphor as a primarily verbal to a predominantly conceptual phenomenon.’ This new approach into metaphor was

called the conceptual metaphor theory (henceforth CMT) in which the mostremarkable turning point was the arrival of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson'sMetaphors we live by in 1980 In the publication, the authors respectively introducetheir theory of conceptual metaphors Departing from a purely linguisticphenomenon, its central notion is that like our thoughts and actions which aremetaphorical, metaphor is a matter of cognition rather than of language Incomparison with Aristotle’s ideas, Lakoff and Johnson's theory emphasizes theeveryday use of language According to CMT, metaphors form the core of our

conceptual system, but they are often left without conscious notice, as ‘our conceptual system is not something we are normally aware of ‘(Lakoff & Johnson,

1980: 3) Language, however, plays a role in construing metaphors andcorrespondences between the domains by providing metaphorical expressions (Yu:

2007, 26) To illustrate, Lakoff (1992: 205-208) explains the conceptual metaphorLOVE IS JOURNEY, which manifests itself in language through such metaphoricalexpressions, as ‘we’ve hit a dead end’, ‘their marriage is on the rocks’, ‘we can’tturn back now’ and similar

The term metaphor within the framework of CMT means ‘understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.’ (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980a: 6).

These so-called ‘things’ are conceptual domains with a set of features that serve asthe basis for the creation of the relationships The process is carried out by partly

domain onto another As the result, the domain with the mapping features is calledthe source domain and the domain onto which the features are mapped – the targetdomain, and the general formula for the construction of the conceptual metaphor isTARGET DOMAIN IS SOURCE DOMAIN (Forceville, 2013: 55; Facounnier,2003; Lakoff: 1992).

2 MULTIMODAL METAPHOR

2.1 Multimodality and monomodality

To differentiate multimodality and monomodality, a quick review at the term

‘mode’ is necessary A s a matter of fact, the mode refers to 'a sign system interpretable because of a specific perception process' (Forceville, 2006: 4) In this

respect, the mode refers to each of the senses and, at the same time, it enables tomake a distinction between them Forceville also states that language can beperceived through two different modes:

( ) language can be both perceived visually and aurally I propose there is goodreason to do justice to the important differences between these two manners of perception by giving the status of a different mode to 'written language' and ‘spoken language' After all, oral and written texts rely on very different conditions of understanding.’ (Forceville, 2007: 6)

Hence, here monomodal messages can be understood as those which are onlyrepresented in a single mode Monomodality is a typical characteristic of verbaltexts, through which facts, information and knowledge have been transmitted Yet,monomodality can also found when we transmit an idea visually, through a picture,

a photo or an image; for instance, in a pictorial metaphor, the source and the targetdomain are found in the image itself

Owing to the fact that before the CMT, metaphor was seen as a matter oflanguage and not thought, only verbal mode was interpreted and all the other modes

were ignored as not relevant (Jacobs et al, 2013: 490) Introducing a new approach

to consider metaphor as independent from language, cognitive linguisticsdiscovered diverse modes in which a metaphor can be represented (El Rafaie, 2003:76) In general, Jewitt (2009: 14) interprets the multimodal approach to discourse asbelow:

Multimodality describes approaches that understand communication and representation to be more than about language, and which attend to the full range of communication forms people use – image, gesture, gaze, posture, and so on – and the relationships between them.

From this, most linguists started an argument that in analyzing any discourse

or text variation, one mode is not enough to reveal all the peculiarities and allmodes must be considered (Thomas, 2014 : 165), and some even assert thatmonomodal texts do not even survive and each piece of information is one or theother way conveyed via multiple modes (Bateman et al, 2007: 151) In spite of theargumentative ideas, in order to study a metaphor from the present perspective,

Jewitt’s defining is not adequate to clarify what a mode is In fact, ‘a mode is a sign system interpretable because of a specific perception process’ (Forceville, 2006:

382) denoting that modes are associated with our senses and the informationattained thanks to a specific sense is specifically represented in a certain mode Yet,categorizing modes by senses does not always serve the expectations of discourseanalysis It is because, for instance, the aural or sonic mode will include bothspoken language and music which usually have different purposes in differentdiscourses Consequently, it is necessarily agreed that though analysis of anydiscourse must not be restricted to one modality, the classification of modes variesdepending on the genre and analysis objectives Moreover, modes can also beinterpreted from the perspective of theproducer and the recipient, i.e the producerforms a metaphor having in mind a hypothetical recipient and the possible

understands the interplay of modes (Holsanova, 2012: 252) Thus, any researchermust also take a careful notice of the fact that any interpretation is subjective andmay not coincide with the intended meaning of the producer The features,classification, and relationships between modes in a metaphor presented in thefollowing subchapters are, hence, limited to the discourse typical of the genre ofadvertising and the perspective of the production.

So far, multimodal metaphors are likely interpreted as those 'whose target and source are each represented exclusively and predominantly in different modes'

(Forceville, 2006: 384); for example, metaphors whose target domain is verbal andsource domain is visual, or the other way round This needs a mentalcomprehension process which differs from processing visual or verbal conceptsalone After considering the previous definition of monomodal and multimodalmetaphor and making the distinction between them clear, Forceville´s (2006)analysis of monomodal and multimodal images needs to be taken into account.According to Forceville (2006), if a product is only advertised visually, it has to bedivided into source and target domain It is necessary to consider which part of theimage is the source and which is the target, carrying out the analysis by mapping theconcepts However, in order to analyze a multimodal image, it has to be divided intothe different modes it contains To exemplify, a multimodal image containing avisual part and a verbal part would be divided into these two different modes, laterconsidering where the source and the target domain are

2.2 Features of a multimodal metaphor

Multimodal metaphors, as characterized by Forceville (2008a, 2008b, 2009),

‘are metaphors whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes’ (2009: 24) Forceville describes a mode as

belonging to one of the following groups: pictorial signs; written signs; spokensigns; gestures; sounds; music; smells; tastes; or touch (2009: 23) The diversity ofmodes uncovers that multimodal metaphors can occur in various different genres,

including conversation, print advertisements, or TV commercials Moving imagesnaturally allow more modes to cue the target and source domains of a metaphor(Forceville, 2008a) A domain can be cued musically, or through a sound effect, forinstance Furthermore, the simultaneous representation of target and source domainsfound in linguisticand static pictorial metaphors need not be present in metaphors inmoving images, as the domains can be represented seconds or hours apart.

Although the aforementioned description clearly reveals a main feature of amultimodal metaphor, it does not reflect all of its distinctiveness In fact, it is notcompulsory to have only one mode for each, there can be more than one mode torepresent each of the domains and some or even all may correspond For example,the source and the target can be both represented visually and verbally, or the targetmay be represented in three modes, while the source in one only Such metaphorswill still be called multimodal Take the metaphor described by Forceville (2007:20) GAZELLE BIKE IS THOUROUGHBRED as a demonstration It can beobserved that domains are cued in multiple modes, namely visual, sonic, and verbal,but so are the mappings For example, physical beauty is cued visually and thefeature of being classics is cued sonically by the horse-like sounds Therefore, if allmodes can be excluded except for one and the metaphor could still be understood, it

is not multimodal, but if more than one mode is necessary in order to grasp themetaphor, it can be called multimodal

Forceville (2013:41) also mentions another characteristic of multimodalmetaphor is that two comparable phenomena must come from different categories.Categories are not only ambiguous but can also be construed on various levels, fromvery general to very specific (Rosch 1978: 30) The rule becomes clear when abicycle is compared to a horse, because they apparently fall into differentcategories Yet, it is totally possible in advertising to compare, for example, afamily car to a sports car as it can be still considered that they belong to different

conceptual metaphor in general is comparison of two things or entities in themetaphor belong to different categories, but are not necessarily separate

The third mandatory characteristic of a multimodal metaphor as pointed out

by Forceville (2013: 41) is that the things compared must be differentiated as thesource and the target and cannot be reversed in the current metaphor It means that

we have to clearly see that one of the phenomena is the source and not the targetand the second is vice versa

Finally, there must be at least one feature of the source domain is linked tothe target domain As using multiple modalities expresses a huge amount ofinformation in a relatively short time spam, multimodal metaphors usually have anumber of features mapped

All in all, a metaphor can be multimodal if it meets the compulsory criteria:

1 Its domains are represented in more than one modality;

2 Phenomena compared in the present metaphor come from different

categories;

3 Phenomena are clearly understood as source and target domains and cannot

be reversed in the current context;

4 There is at least one feature that is mapped from one to the other domain 2.3 Modes in a multimodal metaphor: Classification and interaction

In multimodal metaphors analysis in advertising, there have been severalclassifications presented In this paper, Forcevile’s was used as the main foundation.Forceville (2007: 20) assures that domains in multimodal metaphors can berepresented visually, sonically, musically, in spoken words, and in written words.Visual representation implies display of the phenomenon fully, partially orrepresentation of related elements to the phenomena For example, the car itself, awheel as a part of it, or a person wearing car garment can be shown for thedepiction of a car model in the advertisement Then, sonic representation means

sounds that are neither music, nor speech In case of the same advertisement, it can

be a sound of wheels touching the highway or a sound of a car bell On the otherhand, musical representation refers to music only and no other sounds Hence,music can be a melody or a song Lastly, representation of domains in spoken orwritten words can also be full presentation or symbolization by words pertain to thetarget or source metonymically or by other relationships, e.g similarity, association,etc The figure following figure exemplifies the subdivision of modes according toForceville (2007: 20):

Figure 1 Subdivision of Modes - Forceville (2007: 20)

The aforementioned figure illustrates how modes are interrelated In reality,

it is sometimes even difficult to attribute one or other representation to one modeonly A song can generally be considered as a part of sonic mode and music Yet,song itself often involves spoken words which belong to verbal mode in anotherperspective, and incorporates melody which often belongs to an entirely separatesubdivision For that reason, even if modes are categorized, representation of adomain can happen in multiple modes at once Cornelissen et al (2008: 14)

reinforces the idea by showing that ‘a metaphor is likely to be cued and represented

in more than one mode simultaneously, as metaphoric gestures often coincide with linguistic metaphors, and as sculpted artifacts may extend linguistic metaphors.’

It is undebatable that the interplay of modes not only occurs at the mostgeneral level but also creates a conceptual metaphor and communicates a complexmessage; thus, many deploy several modes at the same time Yu (2008: 87)analyzed educational Chinese advertisements and one of them was related to theconcept of water The interpreted multimodal metaphor was VIRTUE IS WATER,and it was achieved through the correlation of all main modes - aurally (sonic),visually, and verbally Sonic and visual modes were applied to show how waterdrops become seas and oceans, and verbal mode directed the audience into the rightinterpretation The illustration states how closely the modes are connected Auraland visual modes are presented simultaneously throughout the commercial, andverbal mode is added later to intensify the effect made by the first two.

2.4 Multimodal metaphor and the genre

Metaphor has been regarded as a powerful rhetorical tool for a long time.These days, new media supply platforms for realizations of metaphors, be linguistic,pictorial or even multimodal In all these forms, metaphor has been widely andeffectively employed in various branches of advertising In the section, multimodalmetaphor in commercials, will be discussed in details

Advertising is a specific genre of persuasive discourse The success of suchpersuasion involves in several factors: recognition of a brand, recognition of thesource and the target, and relation of specific positive features of the source domain

to the target domain (Forceville 2007: 20;2008: 275) The underlying and finalobjective of any advertisement is to sell a product More specifically, in the genre of

commercial advertising - to sell the advertised, with the main message either ‘buy our product/service’ or ‘do not buy the product/service of our competitors’, and

both the creation and interpretation of the conceptual metaphor are always in tunewith the main aim (Forceville, 2008: 273; Philips & McQuarrie 2004: 113; Qiu2013: 1584 & 1588)

A commercial, then, can be analyzed as an instance of a genre event (Steen,2011) not only with the clear goal, but also the participants, the medium, often alsothe main lines of the content In metaphor research, it is not implausible to take the

genre into consideration because the genre ‘determines and constrains its possible interpretations to an extent that is difficult to overestimate’ (Forceville, 2006: 14).

Probably, the most important objective of commercial is to remind the audienceabout the product or service in specific, as well as the brand in general To maintainthe target audience’s interest, the advertised product and the brand are most oftenwithheld till the end of the commercial (Tzanne, 2013: 123) Hence, the producer’sduty is to create impressive and clear metaphor However, in order to construecorrect and intended relationships between the target and the source, it is theaudience who have to identify them Due to the specific aim of the genre ofadvertising, the target in commercials is as a rule the product or service marketed.Moreover, commercials are about the specific product or service; thus, they are theother phenomena that serve as the source domain and explain the positive features

of the first (Forceville 2006: 392) On the other hand, the target can also haveantonymic relationships with the advertised goods, for instance, when negativefeatures of a product of competitors are highlighted, or, in case of services, can beunrelated to both the product and the competitors (Forceville, 2008: 297) Anotherfeature that makes better interpretation is the fact that in advertising, the source isusually of a higher value than the target because it supplies the positive featuresmapped from the source to the target (Tzanne, 2013: 115) It is also important tomention that the juxtaposition of the source and the target domains created by the

CM is hypothetical rather than real The last main objective is to let the targetaudience associate certain positive features of the source domain with the targetdomain (Forceville 2007: 20; Qui 2013: 1588) Despite the fact that a commercial isvery rich in modalities, there are two detriments that challenge the genre First, time

on TV is so pricey and thus commercials are normally limited in time, and second,

result, to ensure the mapping of the right features, advertisers need to select onlyone or several features that are mapped and ensure that they are strongly in relation

to the product in shape, size or quality in order for it to be easily associated andintroduce the feature(s) from the very beginning of the commercial (Forceville2013: 60; Forceville, Lecture 5; Forceville, Lecture 4; 2008: 292)

Until now, it can be interpreted that a multimodal metaphor is a cognitiveprocess in which the target and source domains are represented in different modes.Hence, in the study of multimodal metaphor, it is necessary for the surfacerepresentation to be considered to foster understandings of metaphorical mappings

Forceville also emphasizes that ‘clearly, which channel(s) of information (language, visuals, sound, and gestures, among others) are chosen to convey a metaphor is a central factor in how a metaphor is construed and interpreted’

(2007:15) However, one should remind that television commercials are optimalexamples of interaction among modes, especially visual, verbal and sound; thus, themetaphor in television commercials is not static, but dynamic That is why theanalysis of multimodal commercials normally involves the identification of the twomain domains: target and source followed by a discussion of how they draw onmore than one mode along with an analysis of mode interaction

Multimodal metaphor in television commercials is unique and comparative

to pictorial one in printed ads and billboards, so the following dimensions should betaken into account:

1 Since commercials unfold in time, target and source needn’t berepresented (or unequivocally suggested) at the same moment; that is, theycan be presented sequentially

2 A metaphorical term (target or source) can be presented not only visually

or verbally, but also sonically, by means of a musical theme or a non-verbalsound

3 Framing and camera movements provide formal means to establishmetaphoric similarity not available to singular static images (Forceville,2007: 18).

3 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Studies of multimodal metaphor have been done on different areas, yet inbeverage advertising, especially in television commercials there have been just afew This can be considered as the most unique difference of this thesis when itconcentrated on analyzing multimodal metaphor in beverage televisioncommercials Despite lack of previous relevant studies, in this section, the twotypical studies are still reviewed in order to highlight the outstanding differences ofthe thesis

The first study under consideration is ‘Metaphors in Food Advertising Slogans’ by Chennan Yu (2009), which aimed to investigate both the conceptual

metaphors and the creative metaphorical linguistic expressions used in foodadvertising slogans and figured out the possible reasons why a certain sourcedomain is chosen for a certain target domain So as to answer research questions,the researcher analyzed 20 food advertising slogans from three sources, namelytextart.ru, Wikipedia and Google in which advertising slogans of McDonald’s,Burger King and Coca-Cola were the main component of the materials With aseries of steps, from selection, classifying to analyzing and discussing, Yu finallycould find the answer for his research that conceptual metaphors are usedextensively in food advertising slogans to arouse customers’ interest Variousaspects related to the product are conceptualized into different kinds of entities andobjects Many conventional and common metaphors are utilized in advertisingslogans, but much creative work has also been done by the advertisers A largenumber of everyday metaphors are extended and elaborated in a new way in theslogans Yu also disclosed that the LIFE metaphor contributes to a large portion of

FOOD The taste of the source concept of FOOD is used as well to pass on themessage that the product will make people’s life better Slogans focused on thetarget concept of FEELINGS and STATES of customers are analyzed as well Theyintend to make people believe that the product is fun and eating the product is aninteresting experience People’s thoughts and inner desire appear regularly in foodadvertising slogans By conceptualizing them into objects and people, they tend toencourage people to fulfill the desire to buy the product.

Conceptual metaphors, more specifically pictorial metaphors, have also beenstudied by Nani Indrajani Tjirakusuma Although in the same line with Chennan Yu(2009) about the area of food and beverage advertising, Nani’s focus is pictorialmetaphors in foodand beverages advertising discourse The method of this studyseems to be more active and varied than Yu’s in which This study was a qualitativestudy with the source from various online magazines and its data wereadvertisements on foods and beverages that contained pictorial metaphors The dataanalysis was based on interpretation The units of analysis were words in context,including phrases, clauses, sentences and the contextual pictures in theadvertisements The metaphors found in the advertisements were identified andqualitatively described and analyzed, from the point of view of content analysis ortextual analysis Four advertisements of food and beverages were examined to drawthe conclusion that metaphors used in the advertisements are not just verbalmetaphors, but also nonverbal ones When the pictures seem to tell nothing aboutthe advertised product, these pictures are intentionally created as pictorialmetaphors by the advertisers because all the verbal and nonverbal advertisementtexts should support the advertised product

Under investigation of the two above studies, the researcher of this thesisfound out following unique points in her thesis First, no study has been done on hertopic before; hence, this is totally novel in the linguistic world Second, her study isnot only descriptive and qualitative research but also a contrastive one, so it

investigates deeply and thoroughly the data Last but not least, she holds a strongbelief that her study can brings new flow of air into the linguistic world, showingnew approach of completely new theme

4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

In order for the thesis to be firmly and convincingly constructed, theresearcher spent a quite long chapter to look back fundamental and relatedtheoretical backgrounds to her present study A comprehensive revision ofprominent approaches to metaphor in general and necessary foundation formultimodal metaphor in the area of commercial advertising was careful specifiedand organized in the chapter Additionally, the researcher did not forget to go overtwo studies of her same research field, from which she emphasized salientachievements of her own paper compared to these two ones

CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY

The chapter is organized in four subparts in which a description of chosen data was mentioned After that, the researcher spends time clarifying her research methods and an analytical framework A detailed description of data analysis process is also encompassed in the final minutes

1 Description of the data

The data chosen for analysis consisted of 15 Coca - Cola and 15 Pepsi TVcommercials, found on iSpot.tv over the period of 2013 – 2018 The length of thecommercials in question varied from 15 seconds to 60 seconds All of the videoswere spoken in English so that it was so convenient for the researcher to examineand discuss the data

The choice for the set of data was first and foremost inspired by theresearcher’s curiosity of how popular Coca – Cola and Pepsi are in the beveragemarket She realized that they are two of the biggest names and the most well-known to the customers all over the world Hence, she had a desire to answer thisquestion Although the amount of data was limited due to the time, the researcherstill held a strong belief that this thesis devoted to reflecting different campaigns,brands and sales from which an interesting marketing was told to the public

2 Methods of the study

The metaphors in 30 commercials are analyzed quantitatively andqualitatively The quantitative analysis takes its foundation from the themes ofmetaphor cases Meanwhile, the qualitative analysis takes into consideration howmetaphor is specifically realized from each mode In addition, such factors ascontextual features of the commercials are also analyzed so that the meaning of themetaphor could be more thoroughly interpreted In order to carry out the analysis ofthe multimodal metaphors in commercial advertising, a corpus of 30 TVcommercials of Coca- Cola and Pepsi were taken from an online advertising

website iSpot.TV over a period of 5 years, from 2013 to 2018 After that, thecommercials from Coca-Cola are coded from C01 to C15 ( see appendix 1), andthose from Pepsi are coded from P01 to P15 ( see appendix 2) A cognitiveapproach, especially based on the conceptual metaphor theory to analyze theadvertisements was also employed

First of all, the TV commercials were collected and analyzed in terms oftheir forms and functions Each analysis included a clear description of the videoand a certain text for interpreting the metaphor Under investigation, the metaphorwas examined to disclose how modes interact to represent the source and targetdomains, followed by intended messages Besides, all TV commercials werecompared and contrasted to clarify their similarities and differences of usingmultimodal metaphor as the producers’ strategies to sell the products and improvethe two brands

For a thorough examination into the selected data, the study follows CriticalMetaphor Analysis (Charteris-Black, 2004), which is an approach to reveal impliedintentions and ideologies of language users along with the conceptual essence Theapproach appreciates investigation of the context where metaphorical expressionsoccur in order to facilitate metaphors’ interpretations and their purposes Hisframework for metaphor analysis stresses that in metaphor analysis, the linguistic,semantic, cognitive, and pragmatic criteria should be combined for an effectiveaccount for metaphor inany linguistic expression Therefore, the present researchincludes three major analysis steps: Identification (based on the upcoming analyticalframework) in which specific modes, contexts and possible meanings in eachcommercial are made clear and categorized After that, interpretation (shown infindings and discussion part) occurs for metaphorical themes with mode interactionsand messages to be explored The final step is explanation in which comparisonamong data and possible accounts for the phenomena is publicized

The researcher has realized that the raised methods are appropriate in her thesisbecause the thesis is both qualitative-quantitative oriented, so descriptive andcognitive processes are of the importance that helps the researcher gain a deepinvestigation into subjects under the study Additionally, these methods are clearlyfeasible because the study just focuses on the TV commercials as the main data andits core purpose is to investigate the use of multimodal metaphors and compare itsuse in two brands Hence, in this case, it is totally suitable for them to be employed

3 Analytical Framework

The analytical framework employed in this study is based on division of modes

in multimodal metaphor by Forceville (2007: 20) All TVCs were analyzedaccording to criteria in the following framework accompanied by detaileddescription and analysis The analytical table is as follows with an example fromone TV commercial of Coca- Coca named New Open Happiness (2013)

Meaning

Spoken

Written

- livelybackgroundmusic buildingpositiveatmosphere

- Thesong isPeterand theWolf by

The campaign

‘OPENHAPPINESS’

was launched

in the first half

of 2009 inmarkets aroundthe world withthe aim ofincreasing sales

of sparklingbeverages ofCoca-Cola At

In the middle

of video, theaudience cansee that theartifact is ahuge

floatingplastic Coca-Cola bottleand it is thenopened onthe livelymusic

a time whenthe weakenedeconomy wassapping softdrink sales, the'Open

Happiness'campaigninvited peoplearound the

refreshthemselveswith a Cokeand continue to

simplepleasures oflife

backgroundwhich is themanifestatio

n of the

Coca-Cola is

the container of happiness.

4 Data Analysis Procedure

The analysis was carried out within the framework of the ConceptualMetaphor Theory and mainly in the light of Forceville (2007: 20) about multimodalmetaphor in TV commercials and Critical Metaphor Analysis (Charteris-Black,2004) The steps of the research procedure were as follows:

At first, all commercials of two companies were closely watched to identifythe relationship among each advertisement and a common underlying conceptualmetaphor

Then, the series was judged according to the three typical features found inadvertisements that are built around conceptual metaphor in advertising ( asmentioned in the theoretical background) – whether the target domain corresponds

to the product advertised, whether expressions referring to the product advertisedare withheld till the end, and whether the source domain is of a higher quality thanthe target domain

After that, the elements that help to cue the target and the source domains ofthe CM were extracted and included into the table (analytical framework) by themodalities they were found in – visual, verbal spoken, verbal written, sonic sound,and sonic music It is worthy to remark that elements included were not necessarilymetaphorical expressions on their own, but even communicated metaphoricalcontent together with elements from other modalities The factors were presentedsubsequently from the very first seconds in the commercial to the last If there were

no elements of the CM found in a certain modality, the modality was not includedinto the table After modalities were summarized in the table of the distribution ofelements of the CMs among analyzed modalities, a closer analysis of modalities andtheir relationships was carried out by clearly stating which modalities cue the targetand the source domains

Finally, certain messages and possible conceptual metaphors were identified

by giving special attention to the role of the products in the metaphor, from whichthe entailments of the CM were recognized and served as the basis for theconclusions on the underlying values of the TV commercial series

5 Chapter summary

To sum up, the researcher has just stated her main research methods in whichthe qualitative and quantitative combination was applied so that she could take athorough examination into the research subjects Moreover, the chapter alsoelucidated data collection and analysis processes with specific steps andmanipulations With a view to building up a reliable basis for her research in term

of methodology, the researcher took this chance to show the analytical frameworkused to work on the data It is undeniable that thanks to such an evidentorganization of the chapter, readers can gain a clear picture of how the thesis wasdone

CHAPTER 3 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter discusses the data analysis and findings from 30 TV commercials of Coca- Cola and Pepsi taken from iSpot.TV The purpose of this study was to identify how multimodal conceptual metaphors are used and relationships between their target and source domains in expressing certain messages followed by a comparison in using multimodal metaphors of the two big names

3.1 Statistical findings

This section could be treated as a statistic data in which the researcher gave asummary of metaphor frequencies in terms of metaphorical themes in 30 TVcommercials from two companies

3.1.1 Coca – Cola

The 15 commercial videos employed all three modes of verbal, visual, andsonic in constructing the metaphors In details, visual and sonic modes are mainlyused while the company just applied a small proportion of verbal mode, mainly in

written form with their slogans Five salient themes specified are: Coca Cola is the container of happiness, Enjoying Coca Cola is the emotional remedy, Coca Cola is the companion of fun and refreshment, Coca Cola is the nurturer of life values, and Coca Cola is the food’s lover, and the distribution of metaphors according to the

themes is summarized as below:

It can be seen from the chart that the most number of videos considers theCoca- Cola as an emotional remedy while the lowest one goes for the theme ofCoca’s being a food’s lover The other three themes, namely container of happiness;

a companion of joy and refreshment, and a nurturer of life values share the samequantities, with 3 videos

3.1.2 Pepsi

Quite familiarly, Pepsi used almost every mode – visual, sonic and verbal intheir advertising With 15 collected videos, the researcher found out that most ofthem are rich in visual modes, not much from verbal and sonic The verbal evenvaries from spoken to written forms In fact, there are some videos containing only

spoken mode Five most common themes could be found out, namely Pepsi is our time, Pepsi is a companion of joy and refreshment, Pepsi is a sports cheerleader, Pepsi is a matchmaker, and Pepsi is food’s partner The allocation of metaphors

based on themes is also visualized in the following bar chart

Food's partner0

Metaphorical Themes Frequency in 15 Pepsi's TVCs ( in number)

Figure 3: Metaphorical Themes Frequency in 15 Pepsi's TVCs

The chart shows that just one out of 15 Pepsi videos regards the drink as amatchmaker, which is opposite with six out of 15 displaying the role of a

companion of fun and happiness The theme about ‘drink is time’ comes secondwith two videos ‘Sports cheerleader’ and ‘food’s partner makes up the samenumber of 3 videos

3.2 Qualitative findings

The researcher took this chance to give a detailed analysis at howmultimodal metaphors work in the two companies’ TV ads The section wassubdivided according to the company in which the researcher grouped videosconveying the same metaphor to see how modes interact in aiming at the intendedmessages However, for each theme, some most outstanding videos are chosen toanalyzed, others are put in the appendices

3.2.1 Multimodal metaphor in Coca- Cola TV commercials

3.2.1.1 A drink is a container of happiness

The first commercial series includes three videos, whose titles are C01 (2013) New Open Happiness; C02 (2013), Polar Bear Football and C03 (2014) Make someone happy These three TV shots are all in the 'Open Happiness'

campaign initiated in the first half of 2009 to inspire people around the world torefresh themselves with a Coke and continue to enjoy the simple pleasures of life Inthis sense, this group of videos featured the Coke as a container of happiness inwhich the C01 was selected to be closely examined with the clearest transference ofthe metaphorical message

C01 (2013 – 60 seconds): New Open Happiness

The message (2013) is conveyed through all 3 modes:

 Verbal mode: Slogan ‘Open happiness’ appears at the end.

 Visual mode:The 60 – second commercial begins with the image of a man

lying on the grass, sleeping with a bottle of Coca- cola next to his position.Taking the advantage of that moment, tiny species in the surrounding joinhands, trying to get the bottle It then rolls over the ground, falls into waterand floats before a big beetle comes up and opens the lid of Coca- cola The

visual is the nature with a community of insects and tiny species as well asthe advertised product – a big red bottle of Coca- Cola (the main characterand the star in the commercial) The bottle reappears at the end of the videowith the slogan ‘Open happiness’.

 Sonic mode: To intensify the visual modality, the joyful music accompanies

along the length of the ads, especially when the lid is opened, the musicseems to be louder and more joyful, representing the happiness of the scene

In general, the advertisement is itself rich in mainly two modalities – visual andsonic – and not too much from verbal mode The video is a part of the campaign

‘Open happiness’ launched in the first half of 2009 in markets around the worldwith the aim of increasing sales of sparkling beverages of Coca-Cola At a timewhen the weakened economy was soaking soft drink sales The 'Open Happiness'campaign invited people around the world to refresh themselves with a Coke andcontinue to enjoy the simple pleasures of life Taking all the contribution of themodes together, the message to be read is COCA- COLA IS THE CONTAINER

OF HAPPINESS

Following Coca- Cola’s TV advertisements, it can be revealed that feelings andstates of human beings are prevalentdomains which have been employed by Coca-Cola in designing its commercials It is probable because the producers andadvertisers are stimulating their customers to believe that their products have apower to make them feel better and experience positive emotions Hence, the slogan

‘Open happiness’ can be decoded in the way that opening Coca-Cola means

opening happiness There is lots of happiness in each bottle of Coca-Cola Thevideo is a good example of how visual mode is interlaced with sonic mode todeliver one common idea The commercial begins with a picturesque and naturalscenery of human beings and wildlife species The visual is simultaneouslyaccompanied by the music Yet, the most effective collaboration of the two modeslies in the fact that the music supports and in the same tune with what is happening

in visual mode At the beginning of the commercial, a little sleepy and slow melody

arises in the background of a sleeping man It then becomes louder and morebustling when all species in that area are trying to catch the Coca – Cola, especially

at the moment of opening the lid of the bottle, the music is the most bustlingfollowed by the consciousness of the man That is also the moment of happinesscoming to all the setting from flora and fauna to human beings Beside the principalmodes of visual and sonic, the verbal also plays a fundamental role in sending thewhole message Although the video is not much rich in verbal, just a slogan ‘OPENHAPPINESS’ in the end, it is considered as an impressive closing and summary ofall things occurring before The first example illustrates how visual, sonic andverbal are employed to ascribe the role of CONTAINER OF HAPPINESS to theDRINK ‘Coca- Cola’.In this role, the conceptual metaphor HAPPINESS IS ANENTITY is also extended and elaborated in the sense that HAPPINESS isconceived of as something in a parcel or box so that it can be unwrapped or opened.Hence, opening Coca-Cola means opening happiness Happiness is contained in thebottle By this way of approaching, a majority of customers is about to feel excited

or curious before opening a box or bottle without being aware of what is in there.And then, after the moment of unlocking the container, they would receive a basket

of happiness which exactly comes up to the advertisers ‘expectations

3.2.1.2 Enjoying a drink is emotional health/ remedy

The second commercial series consists of four videos, namely C06 (2016) Brotherly Love; C07 (2016) Break up; C010 (2017) Icebreaker, and C11.(2017) Sharing is always better Unlike the previous group, three members here mark a

strategic shift in marketing campaign of Coca- Cola, from ‘Open happiness’ to

‘Taste the feeling’ It is a new global creative campaign, using universal storytellingand everyday moments to connect the Coke with consumers around the world Two

out of four TVCs named C06 (2016) Brotherly Love and C07 (2016) Break up

typically reflect underscored ideas of the campaign as well as the group’s message

C06 (2016 – 60 seconds): Brotherly Love

The message conveyed through the video (2016) is through all 3 modes:

 Verbal mode: The name of the brand ‘Coca – Cola’ co-appears with the

slogan ‘Taste the feeling’ at the end of the commercial

 Visual mode: The commercial is full of visual factors with various

meaningful scenes

Scene 1: A quite raw- boned boy wearing a red hat, a red/white striped shirt,

and blue jeans sits on a couch, keenly playing a video game He is leanedforward, with his hands tightly gripping the video game controller as hevigorously mashes buttons On the front table is a bottle of refreshing Coca-Cola, which is open, but barely touched, assuming that when the boy getsaround to drinking it, he will drink it with the same level of concentration he

is putting into this video game The boy’s older brother who is a tall youngman with a faded gray T-shirt and a smirk that says ‘I love Coca-Cola’ entersfrom the righ, walks up to boy and pushes his hat down for no reason Assoon as boy corrects his hat, brother immediately pushes it down again, thistime covering his whole face Boy is clearly annoyed and tries to push brotheraway Brother walks away smirking

Scene 2: in living room again

Boy (wearing a different combination of red, white, and blue) is trying toreach a pair of headphones high up on a shelf Brother walks by, talking onthe phone He is clearly tall enough to retrieve the headphones, but instead hetakes the headphones and puts them on an even higher shelf Brother walksaway with his classic smirk, and boy stares after him, visibly hurt andconfused

Scene 3 Outside in the rain.

Both are walking home from school, and brother is holding an umbrella overboth of them Unexpectedly, brother quickens his pace and leaves boy in the