Following the contents section 1 book English for nursing and health care, section 2 presents the following contents: Unit 3 - The human body inside and out, unit 4 - Diet and nutrition. Invite you to refer to the disclosures.
Trang 1THE HUMAN BODY Inside and Out
Trang 2body, w hat happens w hen it is affected by disease
[dazi:z] and how to stay h ealth y [heiei] A rticles on
h e alth and m edicine appear daily in new spapers
an d m agazines O rd in a ry peo p le w ho are n o t
specifically tra in e d in scien ce are freq u e n tly
asked to m ake d ecisio n s o n scien tific m atters
w hich affect society
T h e sc ien tific [saian'tifikl term for th e study o f
body s tru c tu re is anatom y |on'a?tomi| Part o f this
w ord m eans to ‘c u t’ because early a n a to m is ts
dissected (cu t) th e h u m an body to learn about
its stru c tu re T h e p ra ctic e o f any h e a lth care
professional requires a basic u n d e rsta n d in g o f
a n ato m y a n d m ost a n a to m ic d a ta is now
o b ta in e d th ro u g h th e use o f c o m p u te d
tom ography, m agnetic reso n an ce im aging and
p o s itro n e m iss io n to m o g ra p h y , ra th e r th a n
th ro u g h experim ental studies
Physiology [fiziWadji] is th e stu d y o f h o w body
p a r ts f u n c tio n , in clu d in g th e ir ch em ica l an d
physical processes A n ato m y and physiology are
closely re la te d A n y th in g th a t d istu rb s th e
n o rm al w ork in g o f th e body is co n sid ere d a
disease |dazi:z] and is studied as th e science of
pathology [paB'oladjil.
A ll living th in g s are organised from very sim ple
lev els to m ore co m p lex levels L iving m a tte r
b egins w ith sim ple ch em ica ls [kemikalzl w h ic h
are form ed in to th e co m p le x su b sta n c es th a t
m ake living cells, w hich are th e basic u n its of
life |l,iif| G ro u p s o f specialised cells form tissu es
and d iffere n t tissues fu n c tio n to g eth e r to form
o rg a n s V arious o rg an s fu n c tio n to g e th e r to
m,ike up th e system s ot th e h u m an body
All th e hum an sciences study different aspects of
th e h u m an body, its structure and fu n c tio n , its Dover Pictorial Archive Serie> 11982) - Margaret Mitt Human
Anatomv Coloring IWk
Trang 3h u m an body, it is necessary to break it dow n in to sections
th a t can be exam ined in d etail, rem em bering th a t all the parts must in teract w ith one a n o th e r successfully to ensure our survival
To study different parts o f th e body, we can divide th e body
in various ways to give us p o sitio n or lo c a tio n G e n e ra l divisions are th e head , th e th o ra x , th e abdom en, th e pubes and th e lim bs o r extrem ities
D iagram s are show n w ith th e figure s ta n d in g in th e
a n ato m ical p o sitio n unless stated otherw ise T h e pictures show figures in th e an ato m ical position w ith h an d s facing
th e front and feet slightly apart
N B S tan d in g in th is way, th e an ato m ical rig h t is on th e left
o f th e diagram and th e an ato m ical left is o n your right!
T h e hum an body is m arvellously com plex and it is amazing how well it works m ost of th e tim e H ow does it start and how does it develop?
T h e h u m an gam etes o r germ cells are th e ova (p i.) ovum (s ) in th e fem ale an d th e sp e rm cells (sp e rm ato zo a /sp e rm a to z o o n ) in th e m ale M eiosis occurs during th e ir fo rm atio n (o o g en esis) w h en these germ cells
d e v elo p w ith a haploid number ( h a lf th e n u m b e r) o f
chromosomes A ll o th e r cells in th e body c o n ta in th e full num ber o f chrom osom es and are called
diploid cells.
During fe rtilis a tio n , th e 2 h ap lo id cells fuse to g eth e r and b ecom e a zygote w ith th e co m p lete num ber of chrom osom es, so a fem ale germ cell + m ale germ cell = zygote = th e beginnings o f a hum an life
O th e r cells reproduce by m ito sis, w hich is th e equal d ivision of n u clear m aterial (karyokinesis), followed by d ivision o f th e cell body (cytokinesis) T h e result o f this division is 2 daughter cells, each
c o n tain in g 23 pairs o f chrom osom es (i.e 46 chrom osom es altogether)
Because all tissues increase in size during child h o o d , a lot more cells divide in a growing child th an
O rgans functioning together for the same
Trang 4THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
OF BODY SYSTEMS STRUCTURE
is th e basic structural and fu n ctio n al u n it o f any living organism C ells may be
different shapes an d sizes and perform a variety o f functions
Tissue
is m ade up o f a specialised group o f cells T h e r e a re 4 basic ty p es o f tissu e:
• Epithelial [epi’eirUsl] tissue forms th e skin th a t covers th e body, lines cavities and forms glands
• C onnective [kanektiv] tissue is extensive and forms th e support an d framework of
th e w hole body Bone, cartilage, tendons, fat, blood an d lym ph are all made up of
different types o f c o n n ec tiv e tissue
• M u scle [mAsal] tissue is designed to produce m o v em en t by forcible c o n tra c tio n and
includes 3 different groups: skeletal muscle, sm o o th (o r visceral [visarall) muscle
and cardiac m uscle
• N ervous [ ra iv a s ] tissue m akes up th e co m m u n ica tio n n e tw o rk o f th e body T he
c e n tra l agency is th e b ra in a n d e a c h s tru c tu re in th e bo d y is in direct
c o m m u n icatio n w ith th e b ra in by nerves w h ic h come to g eth e r to form the spinal
cord
A n o rgan
is m ade up o f groups o f specialised tissues, w orking to g eth er
w ith a specific fu n ctio n
A system
is a group o f organs w orking to g eth er w ith th e sam e specialised function
Trang 5s M atch in g E xercise.
P u t th e w ords in the
box below in th e space
provided to com plete
the defin itio n
5 A type o f h a rd c o n n ec tiv e [kanektiv] tissue th a t acts as a
sh o ck a b so rb er a n d red u ces fric tio n b e tw e e n b o n e s in
m oveable jo in ts (o r a rtic u la tio n s) o f th e body is called
6 T h e tissue th a t forms a p ro tectiv e covering for th e body and also lines th e in testin al [intest'ainall tract, th e respiratory
in testin e - is form ed by involuntary o r
10 T h e norm al, unique [ju:ni:k] activ ity of various body parts
is its
A lth o u g h ea ch body sy ste m ca n n o t u w k in d ep en d en tly, w e ca n look a t th e s tru c tu re o f ea ch a n d
Trang 6n a m e th e m u sin g th e follow ing n a m es: (W rite th e m again u n d e r N a m e o f S y ste m below )
r—i [n3:vas] RESPIRATORY [ra'spira'tri] SYSTEM [di'djestiv] I C j
E n d o crin e lendaJkrin] System eletal
NAME OF SYSTEM STRUCTURE (is m ad e u p o f )
1 b o n e s [baonzl (+ cartilag e, lig am en ts)
4 lu n g s [Lujz] a n d a ir p a ssa g es N a s a l p a ssa g e s , u v u la [jurv'juia],
F u n ctio n (s): p h a ry n x [fce'rinks], la ry n x [laerinks], tra c h e a [traTdal, b ro n c h i fbrngld],
b ro n c h io les [brogki'Dlz], alveoli [alViW iM air sacs)
5 b ra in , sp in al c o rd a n d n e rv esFunction(s):
6 m o u th (te e th , to n g u e a n d saliv ary g lan d s), e p ig lo ttis, oesophagus
F u n ctio n (s): [a'sofagas], s to m a c h [stAmak], in te s tin e s 111140513112] + a ccesso ry
o rg a n s : liv e r [liva], g a llb la d d e r [go l'blaeda], p a n c r e a s [paerfkhas)
P a rts of this system are sometimes referred to as the gut.
7 k id n ey s [kidnizl, u re te rs [jutrataz], b lad d e r [blaeda], u r e th r a [juAiAalFunction(s):
8 M a le : te s te s , d u c ts /s e m in a l v e s ic le s , p r o s ta te g la n d , p en is
F u nction(s): F e m ale : o v a rie s , F a llo p ia n tu b e s ( o v id u c ts ) , u t e r u s [ju.-ta'rasl,
v agina lvald3aina], b re a s ts Ibrests)
9 G la n d s : p itu ita r y [pitju.Jitri]I p in e a l [pm'ial], th y r o id lea?™!] and
F u n ctio n (s): p a r a th y r o id [paera^ai'rad], th y m u s [Oaimas], a d r e n a l [adrimal],
p a n cre as [paegk'rias], o v a rie s [auva'riz] a n d te s te s [testizl
1 0 ly m p h n o d es (to n sils a n d a d en o id s [aeda 'noidz]), ly m p h vessels,
F u n ctio n (s): valves [vaelvz], th e sp leen [spli:n]
1 1 e p id e rm is , d e rm is , se b a c e o u s M x i/as] (o il-p ro d u c in g ) g lan d s,
F u n ctio n (s): s u d o rife ro u s |su:daWaras] (sw eat-producing) glands
Trang 7GRAM M AR N O TES
T a lk in g a b o u t s t r u c t u r e
‘to be m ade up o f ’, ‘consists o f ’ o r ‘to be com posed o f ’
T h e r e are su b tle differences in th e use o f th e above phrases:
‘to be m ade u p o f’ is used for a detailed breakdow n o f a part or a structure
e.g The joints (or articulations) are made up of bones, cartilage and ligaments.
‘con sists o f’ is used in a general way w hen all th e m ain parts o f a structure are nam ed
e.g The respiratory tract consists of the pharynx, trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.
‘to be com posed o f’ is used w hen th e m aterials or substances from w hich the structure is formed,
are nam ed
e.g Both the brain and the spinal cord are composed of nerve cells and fibres.
/ y Now, com plete th e follow ing sen ten ces.
1 T h e p h a r y n x the naso-pharynx, th e oro-pharynx and th e laryngo-pharynx
2 T h e brain s t e m th e m id-brain, th e pons and th e m edulla
3 T h e in te s tin e s 2 parts, th e large and th e small intestine
4 T he duodenum , th e jejunum and th e ile u m th e small in testine
5 W h a t does th e skeletal s y s te m ? Bones, jo in ts and ligam ents
6 T h e female reproductive sy stem th e ovaries, the oviducts, the uterus and the vagina
7 T h e s k i n epithelial tissue, collagen fibres, nerves, blood vessels and glands
© W ith a p a rtn er, look a t q u estio n 5 M ake questions for th e other se n ten c es.
Using the information you have, ask your partner some questions about the structure of other systems.
VERBS AND NOUNS
f C om plete th e table w ith th e m issin g w ord.
transport transportation circulate tek'juleit]
secrete (d irec tly in to
d estru ctio n filter
Trang 8fe z N ow m a k e som e sen ten ces u sin g this form at:
e.g The circulation of blood to the tissues is the function of the heart.
T h e ex cretio n o f w aste products
Blood circulation
W aste ex cretio n
W ater regulation
P ro d u ctio n o f bile
Storage o f p ro tein and glycogen
(*T hc function is used when it is the only function, a function indicates one of several functions)
T h is system form s th e basic fram ew ork o f th e body - it supports and
p ro tects all th e in te rn al organs Bones serve as levers (w ith th e attached
m uscles) for m o v em en t, produce blood cells and store calciu m [luel'siaml salts w h ich c a n be absorbed in to th e blood w h e n th ere is n o t enough calcium in th e diet
T h e se c re tio n o f h o rm o n e s Ih^'maunz], w h ic h re g u la te th e body's
fu n ctio n s chem ically, is th e fu n c tio n o f th is system
T h is system is also called th e excretory system an d filters body liquids,
e lim in a tin g chem icals an d excess fluids from th e body
T h is system c o n ta in s a n im p o rta n t organ w h ich pum ps b lood round the
e n tire body T h is is necessary to supply cells w ith n u trie n ts an d oxygen
an d to tran sp o rt w aste pro d u cts for ex cretio n
T h is system is e sse n tia l fo r r e p ro d u c tio n a n d th e p ro d u c tio n of horm o n es, sex cells (gam etes) [gsmi:ts] an d it also enables con cep tio n [kon’sepjan] an d perm its th e carrying an d b irth o f babies (offspring)
T h e system w h ic h co n v erts (ch an g es) food in to sim pler substances for
th e cells to use for energy also takes away (o r e lim in a tes) w aste products
Trang 9(h ) I 1
T h is com plex system, w hich is also th o u g h t o f as a n organ, p ro tects th e
body from disease, h e lp s to regulate body tem p e ra tu re a n d acts as a
sensory receptor
(0
A system w hich runs parallel w ith th e veins th ro u g h o u t th e body, drains
fluid from th e tissues an d helps to defend th e body against in fectio n and
T h is is th e m ost com plex system in th e body an d its fu n ctio n s are to
regulate all th e o th e r systems in th e body, to receive an d send messages
and to provide us w ith in fo rm atio n about our e n v iro n m en t len'vai'ran'mant]
4- T h e fu nctions as b o th an organ o f digestion and excretion
5 T h e is an accessory organ of digestion
6 T h e beats 80 tim es per m in u te o n average
7 T h e are only found in females T hey are e n d o crin e glands
w h i c h h orm ones and o v a here
8 A n accessory lask'sesa'ri] o rgan of d ig estio n , w h ic h is also an e n d o c rin e
g l a n d , insulin and is called t h e
9 A ll th e bones in th e skeletal system from a fibrous c o n n e c tiv etissue c a l l e d T h is tissue eventually hardens w ith calciumdeposits to b e c o m e
10 T h e th e ureters, th e urinary bladder and u re th ra m ake up th e w hich c an also be called t h e
11 B oth th e spinal cord and th e b r a i n n erve cells
12 C e l l s b y - a process called mitosis
13 T h e skin w h ic h th e outside o f th e h u m an b o d y
cells, sw eat glands, oil-producing glands, blood vessels and nerve endings
E p ith elial tissue a l s o all th e systems th a t h av e tracts op en in g
o n to th e surface o f th e body
14 T h e h e a rt and lu n g s jn th e th o racic cavity
15 A zygote is form ed at th e tim e o f - it is th e u n io n o f th e
Trang 10an d parts and to talk ab o u t d irec tio n in th e h u m a n body T h e words 'left' and 'right',
‘back’ o r ‘fro n t’ are n o t specific en o u g h and th e use o f ‘n orth’ an d ‘south’ would be
inappropriate! T h e d irectio n al term s used refer to th e body in th e anatom ic position
T h ree imaginary planes are used to describe th e structural p lan of th e body and the
an ato m ic relationship of one p a rt to an o th er T h ese planes cu t through th e body at
right angles to each other
PLANES OF DIVISION
Divides th e body in to front
and back halves
Directional terms used:
Directional terms used:
Superior or Inferior
C ra n ia l or C audal
1 3 2
Trang 11DIRECTIONAL TERMS
✓ N o w label th e diagram below w ith all the follow ing d irectional term s, m a tc h in g th e words
th a t have opposite m ea n in g s.
D raw the m idline ( 1) - an imaginary line close to the middle of th e body - there is no opposite to thisl
a n te rio r/v e n tra l (tow ards th e fro n t) lateral (fu rth er from the m idline/tow ards th e side)distal (farth er away from th e body) su p e rio r/c ran ia l (above or in a h ig h er positio n )
in ferio r/cau d al (below or lower th an ) proxim al (nearer to th e m ain part of th e body)medial (nearer to an im aginary m idline plane) p o sterio r/d o rsal (tow ards th e back)
t y S tudy th e directional term s a n d com plete th e follow ing
sen ten ces.
e.g The hand is d ista l to the shoulder.
1 T h e thorax i s to th e abdom en
2 T h e nose and th e m outh are in a position on the face
3 T h e elbow i s to the wrist
4 T h e k n ee i s to th e back o f th e thigh
5 T h e ears are i n positions o n th e head
6 T h e buttocks a r e to th e pubic region
7 T h e navel (or um bilicus) is at t h e
8 T h e fem ur (th e long bone in th e th ig h ) i s to
th e tibia and hbula
9 T h e knees a r e to th e hips
10 T h e brain i s to th e spinal cord
11 T h e oesophagus i s to th e stom ach
A lot o f muscles an d blood vessels are nam ed using directional terms so th a t th e ir lo ca tio n and relationship to o th er parts are easily understood
J * O n these 2 diagram s, label
1 th e rig h t eye: (a) In terio r rectus muscle
(b) S uperior rectus muscle
(c) M edial rectus muscle
(d) L ateral rectus m uscle
2 th e heart: ( a ' In terio r v en a cava
Trang 12A c av ity is an y h o llo w space Body cavities are areas w hich confine o rg a n s an d systems th a t h av e related fu n ctio n s T h e 2 m ajo r body cavities are th e d o n a l cav ity
an d th e ventral cavity
T h e dorsal cavity is subdivided in to th e cranial cavity (c o n ta in in g th e brain) and th e
spinal cavity (co n ta in in g th e spinal cord).
T h e ventral cavity is divided in to 3 parts: th e thoracic cavity, th e abdominal cavity
an d th e pelvic cavity T h e ab d o m in a l a n d p elv ic cav itie s to g eth er are called the
abdominopelvic cavity.
$ L a b el th e body cavities
an d th e organs situ a te d in the
abdom inopelvic cavity.
1 _
C om plete th es e se n ten c es
1 T h e h e art and th e lungs are situ ated in th e
134
2 T h e d o m e-sh ap e d m u scu lar o rg an th a t separates this
cavity from th e abdom inal cavity is t h e
3 T h e spinal cord is located in t h e
4- T h e b rain an d th e spinal cord are situ ate d in a space k now n as t h e
5 T h e abdom inal and pelvic cavities to g eth e r are known as t h e
6 W h e re are th e d ifferen t p a rts o f th e digestive system located? Look at th e diagram of organs located in the abdom inal cavity and w rite an approxim ate position for e a c h o n th e list using d ire c tio n a l term s (e.g The oesophagus passes through the diaphragm and its inferior end lies medially in the abdominal cavity): • The stomach [st.unak] .
• The liter [livs] .
• The appendix [sp'endiks] .
• The pancreas [pan'kriss] .
• The transverse colon |tra?nzlv3:s kaulon] • The duodenum [diu:a'di:ndm] .
• The ascending colon [ei'sendip kaulnn] • The descending colon [dii'sendip kaulnnl • The gallbladder [grdtiteda] .
• The bile dllCt [baial'd.vkt] .
Trang 13CLINICAL DIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN
m For th e purpose o f clinical ex am in atio n
a n d rep o rtin g , th e ab d o m en is divided
in to 4 c o rre sp o n d in g regions called
quadrants T h e um bilicus [Amba'laikas] (or
n a v el) is th e in tersectin g p oint
O n diagram I , m ark:
th e R ight U pper Q u a d ran t (R U Q )
th e R ight Lower Q u a d ran t (R L Q )
th e Left U pper Q u a d ran t (L U Q )
th e Left Lower Q u a d ran t (LLQ )
G >
^ L istening 18 - E xercise P ra ctise saying th e w ords in
th e box before lis te n in g to th e d ic ta tio n N o w , lis te n to th e
recording U se it as a d icta tio n to help you label diagram 2.
N ow , tes t yo u rse lf a n d m a r k th e an a to m ic regions in th e
box on th e diagram
© Do you k n o w h o w th e w o rd ‘hyp ochondriac’ [haipau'kDndriaek]
is usu a lly u s e d ? W h a t do you th in k is th e rea so n ?
© T h in k o f som e questioris to a sk y o u r p a rtn er Look a t the
exam ples a n d fo rm u la te som e qu estio n s before you sta rt.
W h ere w ould a p a tie n t
w'ith acu te ap p en d icitis
feel th e m ost pain?
In th e R ight Lower
Q u a d ran t or th e R ight Iliac
R egion o f th e abdom en
W h ere is th e liver located?
In th e R ight H y p o ch o n d riac Region!
W h a t organs are situ ated in the
T h e E p ig astric [epi'gastrik]
R egion
Trang 14THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
R ea d th e tex t before a tte m p tin g th e w r itte n exercises.
T h e skeletal system includes all o f th e
bones of th e body show n on th e right
and includes cartilage (fibrous connective
tissue), jo in ts (articulations) and
ligam ents (fibrous tissue bands th at
c o n n ec t bones or cartilage) T h e study
o f bones is called osteology'
T h ere are 206 bones in th e adult
hum an skeleton and th eir fu n ctio n is to
give th e body its shape, to support the
body and p ro tect all th e delicate
in tern al organs T h e skeleton also
provides places for th e a tta c h m e n t of
muscles and th e bones act as levers to
provide m ovem ent of skeletal muscles
T h e cavities inside long bones store fat
in th e yellow m arrow and bones also
store th e m inerals, calcium , m agnesium ,
phosphorous, potassium, sulphur and
sodium Red blood cells are formed
(haematopoiesis Ihem'atau'prfsisl) in th e
bone marrow of c ertain bones.
Bones are individually classified as
organs and bone tissue is capable o f a
process w hich forms new bone
Osteoclasts are responsible for the
re-sorption (or breakdow n o f b one) and
osteoblasts build it and assist in the
grow th o f bones
Masai bone Mandible Clavicle Humerut
Iliac crest Iliac fossa Sacrum Coccyx Ischium
Femur
Patella
Cranium
Zygomatic bom Maxilla
7 Cervical vertebm Manubrium Sternum Xiphoid process
5 Lumbar vtrubm Ulna
Radius Carpah Metacarpus
14 Phalanges
Bones are classified according to th eir
shape T h ere are 5 m ain classifications:
long bones, e.g hum erus, ulna, femur;
sh o rt bones, e.g wrist & ankle bones;
flat bones, e.g ribs, sternum ,
scapulae;
irreg u lar bones, e.g v ertebrae, face bone
sesam oid bo n es are sm all bones w hich
fo rm in ten d o n s, e.g patella
Calcaneus
Fibula
TarsabMetatarsals
14 Phalanges
L abel th e sca p u la e (p i.) on th e diagram
136
Trang 15THE STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
C ancellous (spongy) bone filled ,w ith red bone marrow
Each bone can be
labelled using its
markings - that is,
G ro w th line or Epiphyseal line
C o m p act (h ard ) boneBone cavity c o n tain in g yellow bone m arrow
A rtery
E ndosteum lend'Dstam]
T h e Periosteum (or covering of th e bone)
is com posed o f specialised fibrous c o n n ec tiv e tissue
C artilage (tough, resistant co n n ectiv e tissue) covers th e ends o f long bones
D iv isio n s o f the Skele to n
1 T h e A xial [sksial] S k eleto n :
is com posed o f th e skull, th e vertebral co lu m n an d th e bones
o f th e th o rax - th e rib cage and sternum
2 T h e A p p e n d icu lar (eipen'dikju:la) S k eleto n :inclu d es all th e bo n es o f th e ex tre m itie s ( th e arm s a n d th e legs) a n d th e bones th ese are c o n n e c te d to , i.e th e shoulder girdle and th e pelvic girdle.
T h e sk u ll includes all th e bones o f th e head: th e cranial bones and all th e facial bones
T h e verte b ra l c o lu m n consists o f 26 irregular bones, th e vertebrae (pi.) div id ed in to
sections by th e ir p o sitio n from th e base of th e skull to th e caudal end: 7 cervical
v erteb rae ( C l to C 7 ), 12 th o racic vertebrae (T1 to T 1 2 ), 5 lum bar v erteb rae (L I to
L5), 5 fused v erteb rae w hich m ake a triangular bone called th e sacrum (w h ich also
m akes up p art o f th e pelvic girdle or pelvis) and a sm aller triangular b o n e consisting
o f 4 fused v erteb rae called th e coccyx [koksiks]
T h e rib cage (o r bony th o rax ) consists o f th e 12 th o racic v ertebrae dorsally, th e 12
pairs o f ribs laterally a n d th e sternum and costal cartilages anteriorly T h e first 7 o r
8 pairs o f ribs are c o n n e c te d to th e stern u m by cartilage a n d are referred to as true
ribs T h e re m ain in g 5 pairs o f ribs are called false ribs.
Trang 161 T h e adult skeleton h a s hones.
2 Bones are a ‘storehouse’ f o r and
3 W h at are th e functions o f th e skeletal system?
4 List th e 5 classifications of bone:
5 A long hone is divided in to th e shaft o r and the 6 N am e 2 types of bone tis s u e :
7 N am e th e 2 m ain divisions of th e s k e le to n :
8 T h e bones of the thorax include th e 12 pairs of
9 Identify the site w here grow th occurs in long h o n e :
10 N am e th e 2 bones of th e vertebral colum n th a t are m ade up of fused vertebrae: the 1 2 and the L istening 19 - The sk e le ta l sy ste m L iste n to th e recording a n d c h e c k your answers N ow , m a tc h th e follow ing w ords w ith th e correct d efin itio n 1 T h e fatty substance inside th e c en tral cavity of long bones:
2 T h e bones of th e head and face to g eth er are called th e
3 T h e m aterial th a t forms th e skeleton in an embryo:
4 T h e 5 biggest v e rte b ra e are lo cated in th e re g io n o f th e vertebral colum n 5 T h e to u g h (stro n g ) c o n n e c tiv e tissue th a t covers b o n e s is called th e 6 Blood cells are produced in th e
7 T h e shaft of a long bone is also called th e
8 T h e lining (th e inside surface) of a bone cavity is called th e
9 T h e tail part o f th e low er verteb ral co lu m n , consisting o f 4 o r 5 small, fused bones is called t h e
10 T h e bone located on th e side o f th e th u m b in th e forearm is th e
11 T h e end o f a long bo n e is i t s
12 T h e scientific nam e for th e k n ee-cap is th e
13 A n adjective w hich m eans ‘betw een th e ribs':
epiphysi
radius
si
Trang 17R ea d th e tex t.
W here 2 or more bones come together and usually need to move or articulate
[a:'tik'ju:leit]) there is a joint [dgamt] (or an articulation [a'tik'juiiei/an].) w hich is held
together w ith strong, flexible bands of fibrous connective tissue called ligam ents [ligamants] Joints are classified according to the amount of movement perm itted,
th at is immovable - a synarthrosis (singular), slightly moveable - an amphiarthrosis (singular) or freely moveable - a diarthrosis (singular).
1 IM MOVABLE o r FIB R O U S jo in ts (sy n a rth ro s es [sinla:0lreusi:zl plural) are those
jo in ts th a t are fixed, such as th e jo in in g o f th e skull bones - th e lines a t these join ts are called sutures [su:t/az],
2 SLIGHTLY M O V EA BLE o r C A R T IL A G IN O U S joints (am phiarthroses
[amfi'a:0lrausi:z] plural) h av e only a m inim al am o u n t o f m o v em en t - th e vertebrae
[ratabri] are examples o f these Between the vertebrae, there are disks o f an o th er strong connective tissue called cartilage [katiiidg] T his acts as a cushion, reducing friction and
w ear an d tear o f th e bones (C artilage is also found o n th e ends o f long bones.)
A n o th e r exam ple o f these cartilaginous joints is th e symphysis pubis [simfasas pjurbas) -
th e anterior pelvic joint, w hich softens during pregnancy to allow m ore m ovem ent
3 FREELY M OVEABLE o r SYNOVIA L jo in ts (diarthroses [dai'a:0‘rai>si^l plural) have
a variety o f different m ovem ents, so they can also be nam ed according to th e type of
m ovem ent A freely m oveable jo in t is referred to as a synovial [sin'auvial] jo in t because there is a cavity betw een th e joints containing a sticky synovial fluid (secreted by the
synovial m em branes lining th e jo in t) w hich prevents friction betw een th e bones.
L isten in g 2 0 - Jo in ts Look a t th e p ictu re s o f joints
below a n d lis te n ca refu lly to th e recording to describe ea ch one.
f W h a t is it?
Medical name of joint
Type of joint
Classification
Type of movement
Trang 183 Further classifications of
Freely Moveable (Synovial) Joints or Diarthroses
W rite a n exam ple o f each on th e line.
B A L L A N D S O C K E T J O I N T S : T h es e give a lo t o f freed o m an d allow m o v em e n t on 2planes
H I N G E J O I N T S : T h is type o f jo in t restricts m o v em en t to 1 plane
P I V O T J O I N T S : T h is type o f jo in t allows th e bones to ro tate o n o n e an o th er
& L iste n again a n d ch ec k your a n sw ers.
FRACTURES
A fracture [fraek't/a] is any break or rupture in a bone Severe force can cause a fracture m almost any bone The word ‘fracture’ is often written as the symbol '# ’
e.g # N O F = fractured N eck of Femur.
T h e bones o f a baby o r a young ch ild are n o t as h a rd as a n a d u lt’s bo n es (because
th ere are less calcium salts and th ey consist o f a lo t o f cartilage) T h ey are softer and
m o re e la stic so do n o t b re ak easily Very o ften , th e in ju ry se e n in a c h ild is a
g reenstick fracture, i.e th e bo n e does n o t break rig h t th ro u g h b u t is on ly in ju red on
o n e side Im agine ben d in g a b ra n ch o f a tree th a t is n o t dry o r d ead - it m ay bend
an d partially split b u t does n o t separate in to 2 pieces
There are 4 general classifications of fractures and a n u m b e r of m ore specific classifications:
1 Sim ple - th e b o n e is b ro k en b u t th ere is n o b reak in th e skin
2 C o m p o u n d - th e skin over th e fracture has b een p u n c tu re d o r to m o r a n o th e r organ is also dam aged
3 C o m m in u ted [kDminju:tidj - th e b o n e is fractured in o n e o r m ore places, is sp lin tered
o r crushed
140
4 G re e n s tic k - th e b o n e does n o t break rig h t th ro u g h b u t is only in ju red o n one
side
Trang 19CAUSE AND EFFECT
W h a t h ap p en s in th e h u m a n body w h e n a bone is fr a c tu r e d 1
C A U S E
A n increase in c ircu latio n to th e injured part
Fluid and leucocytes (w h ite blood cells) leave
the bloodstream and e n te r th e tissues - th ere may
also be bleeding in to th e tissues
T he pressure o n n erve endings increases
T he body attem p ts to keep th e p a rt still
S IG N O R S Y M P T O M
redness, a sensation of h eat
swelling
loss of m obility (fu n ctio n )
.> Look at the follow ing example a n d make sentences to answ er the questions.
W h e n a b o n e is fractured, why do you n o tice redness around th e area.’
B ec a u se redness is ca u sed by an increase in circulation
or B ec a u se an increase in circu latio n resu lts in/causes/leads to redness.
1 W hy does th e injured p art start swelling?
2 W hy do you feel p a in w h en a bo n e is fractured?
3 W hy is th ere a sen satio n o f h e at w hen a bone is fractured?
4 W hy is th ere loss o f fu n c tio n w h en a bone is fractured?
5 W h at does a deficiency in calcium cause?
6 W hy are th e bones o f old people m ore likely to break?
7 W hy is exercise im p o rta n t for th e body, the skeletal system in particular?
© A sk y o u r p a r tn e r th ese
q uestio n s. 1 W h a t are th e 3 m ain classifications o f joints?
2 W h a t is th e nam e ot th e c o n n ec tiv e tissue th a t joins one
b o n e to an other?
3 W h a t is th e nam e ot th e strong, c o n n ec tiv e tissue th a t surrounds all bones?
4 W h a t are th e 4 m ain classifications o f fractures?
5 W h a t has h appened to a bo n e if it is classified as a
‘c o m m in u ted [ k D m i n j u tid] fractu re’?
Trang 20-MOVEMENT, POSTURE AND LIFTING
S k eleta l m u scle s are a tta ch e d to bo n es an d m ove the skeleton T here are more than
650 in d iv id u a l m uscles in th e sk e letal m uscle system Each muscle is a distinct
structure b u t m uscles usually act in groups to ex ecu te body m ovem ents Because it
is u n d er conscious control, skeletal muscle is also called voluntary muscle
A ll muscles in th e body n eed e n erg y to contract or sh o rten T h is energy is supplied
in th e form o f A T P (a d e n o s in e -tri-p h o s p h a te ) w h ic h is th e result o f th e cells
‘burn in g ’ o r using n u trie n ts, causing oxidisation
For th e cells to produce ATP, th ey m ust h av e a n ad eq u ate supply o f oxygen, glycogen
an d o th e r nu trien ts
If th e body uses m ore oxygen th a n is available for strenuous exercise, lactic acid (a
w aste pro d u ct o f m etabolism ) builds up (o r accum ulates) in th e m uscles, causing
cram ps and muscle fatigue A fter strenuous exercise, we n e ed to b re ath e faster an d
o ur hearts b eat faster so th a t m ore oxygen is p um ped to th e tissues T h is h elp s th e
lactic acid to be re-absorbed and to be used for o th e r m etab o lic activities
T h e way we stand, sit and m ove is im p o rtan t to our general good h e a lth For th e skeletal muscles
to stren g th en and support th e body and its in te rn al organs, they h av e to fu n ctio n correctly W hen
th e axis o f th e body and th e axial skeleton are alm ost th e same, good posture is achieved
142
L abel th e figures.
© 1 standing straight with the shoulders pushed back and
the abdomen pushed forward
T h is causes th e abdom inal m uscles to becom e weak
and may result in digestive, respiratory a n d /o r back
problem s including an abnorm al curvature o f th e spine
w ith an excessive lumbar curve, called lordosis.
© 2 with his head pushed forward to balance his body
H e has to tilt his pelvis or h ip girdle forw ard T h is
results in rounded shoulders an d strained back muscles
w h ic h p re v e n t c o rre c t b re a th in g T h is p o stu re c an
lead to kyphosis (som etim es called hunchback) w hich
is an exaggerated curvature of the thoracic curve of the
spinal column.
© 3 standing with ,y>od posture
H e is stan d in g com fortably w ith his ear, h a n d and foot
Trang 21L o o k a t th e p ic tu r e s b elow a n d
com plete th is se n ten c e.
W h en exercising or lifting heavy item s or even
ben d in g to pick so m e th in g up off th e floor,
d on’t move too quickly don’t u se je rk y movements
> y o u r back (th e v e rte b ral colum n) sti
b e n d y o u r k n ees
w atch w h a t you a re doing
: y ourself! w ith a h a n d on y o u r th ig h if
n ecessary
© W ith a p a rtn e r, discu ss good po stu re w h e n m oving, sittin g a n d lifting.
If u nnatural m ovem ents are avoided - sudden tw isting and tu rn in g - we avoid dam aging th e delicate
alignm ent o f ou r bodies th a t keeps it fu n ctio n in g well
Exercising regularly, a t lea st 3 tim es a w e e k , can improve our g eneral h ealth by
strengthening muscles a n d bones, keep in g blood p re ssu re a t a normal level and
lowering blood cholesterol levels D u rin g exercise, the heart beats faster and the
volume of blood p u m p e d p er b ea t (th e stroke v o lu m e) increases T h e rate and
d e p th o f resp ira tio n also in crea se, fillin g th e lungs com p letely a n d increasing the
amount of oxygen available to th e tissu es E xercise and training programmes also
increase the power a n d e n d u ra n c e o f m u scles by repeating and p ra c tis in g complex
m ovem ents O verall, the body reacts positively to regular, short periods of exercise
and it brings a feeling of well-being m entally a n d physically.
143
Trang 22Disease is a n abnormal state in w hich part or all of the body is not able to perform
its required functions.
C)^ C o m m o n m edical term in o lo g y used in th e stu d y of disease
R e a d th e fo llo w in g te x t - th e w o rd s in ita lic s a re te r m s fr e q u e n tly u se d in E n g lish w hen discu ssin g disease.
1 4 4
To treat disease, th e type o f illness has to be assessed,
th a t is, a diagnosis is m ade according to th e various
signs and symptoms Signs are visible to th e nurse or
p h y sic ia n an d c a n be o b serv ed (su c h as rashes,
o ed em a, e tc ) w h ereas sym ptom s are n o te d by the
in d iv id u al h im self (c h an g e s in tem perature, weight, pain, e tc.) O fte n a definite group o f signs and symptoms acco m p an ies a disease an d th is is called a sW rom e
T h e nu rse’s role in observing signs and finding out the patient’s sym ptom s, re co rd in g th is in fo rm a tio n and
re p o rtin g it to th e physician, is in v alu ab le The
info rm atio n available is assessed and th e appropriate
therapy or treatment is ordered.
T h e study o f th e cause or th e theory o f th e cause(s)
of disease is called etiology W h e n th e origin of a
disease is n o t know n, it is term ed an idiopathic disease
T h e study w hich relates b o th th e physiologic aspects
an d th e p a th o lo g ic asp ects o f disease is called
pathophysiology.
Diseases are o ften classified o n th e basis ot seventy and
o n how long they last Acute illnesses are q u ite severe but usually only last a sh o rt tim e Chronic illnesses may be less severe b u t c o n tin u e for a long tim e, o r recu r o v e r a long perio d o f tim e Subacute illnesses are n o t as severe as acute illnesses n o r as lo n g -la stin g as c h ro n ic illnesses A
communicable (o r infectious) disease is o n e th a t c an be
tran sm itted from one person to an o th er T h e infected person
is said to be contagious - usually before signs an d symptoms appear
It a disease is contin u o u sly found in a c ertain region, it is said
Trang 23Staphyloccal infection % (paro titis), ch ick en pox (varicella), measles (rubeola
2 virus) an d G e rm a n m easles (ru b e lla ), fit in to th is
* .
W h e n a large num ber o f people in a c ertain region get
outbreaks o f th e Ebola virus - in Zaire in A frica - have
b een acu te an d deadly b u t re la tiv e ly sh o rt-liv e d
^ epidem ics E bola causes h aem o rrh ag ic fever and
jo im m ediate d e ath ) Influenza, often endem ic, can alsoT,U S T D s ° often reach epidem ic proportions
A disease found over a m uch w ider area, th ro u g h o u t
an entire country, c o n tin e n t or the world, is pandemic - A ID S
is now pandem ic - and th e recen t SA R S outbreaks appear to
be pandem ic for several m onths
Prom oting good h e alth and advertising dangers to h ealthy living
are the m odem techniques for p reventing disease T h e W orld
H ealth O rg an isatio n takes responsibility on an in te rn atio n al
level and all h e alth care workers and various o th er groups take
responsibility on a n ational and com m unity level
There are m arked v ariations in th e extent of a disease and its
effect o n th e individual T hese depend on w here th e organism rin g w o rm ^ o
e n tered th e body - the portal of entry - th e virulence or -5 x.
aggressiveness o f th e organism , th e ability o f th e organism to C f c
produce toxins or poisons, th e dose (o r q u an tity ) o f th e organism ^ £ %
and the c o n d itio n o r predisposition of the person ° + o
Trang 24PREDISPOSING FACTORS
IN THE OCCURRENCE OF DISEASE
T h e fo llow ing predisposing fa cto rs m a y n o t c a u se disease b u t ca n in crea se th e p ro b ab ility of illness occurring.
Living C o n d itio n s and H abits Physical Exposure Psychogenic Influences Sex
H eredity O c cu p a tio n P re-existing Illness A ge
J * W rite th e correct predisposing fa cto r fro m above, n ex t to its d efin itio n
1 D e g en erativ e processes in o ld er peo p le c an be a d irec t cause of
disease, b ut c ertain age groups are often m ore likely to get a particular disease - for exam ple, m easles |mi:zalz], caused by th e rubeola virus,
is more com m on in children
2 M ales are m ore likely to develop h eart disease and tem ales are more
likely to develop diabetes
3 Som e diseases seem to run in families - allergies, for exam ple, and
also diabetes
4 People w ho are ‘w orkaholics’, d o n ’t get en o u g h sleep, use drugs or
smoke or d o n ’t h av e a b alanced d iet, are at risk A lso areas which are overcrow ded and have poor sa n ita tio n are predisposing factors
5 C e rta in jobs may pred isp o se p eo p le to disease W o rk in g with
chem icals, radiation, dust in coal m ines o r asbestos (dust in building
m aterials), is hazardous to h ealth
6 B eing exposed to b o th excessive h e a t o r excessive cold for long
periods can be a startin g facto r of disease
7 W h e n th e body’s im m une system is w eakened by an illness or even
a slight cold, th e ch an ces o f c o n tra ctin g a n o th e r disease are much higher
8 E m otional stress and an x ieties can affect th e psych [saik] (th e mind)
w h ich c an result in physical signs such as head ach es, indigestion and lethargy
T h e hum an body is very w e ll organised to p ro tect itself from disease and
disease-producing organisms.
The barriers (the things th at prevent disease from entering or attacking the body)
are considered as ‘lines of defence’ in an order that helps to protect u s.
Trang 25Chemical and Mechanical Defences Against Disease
The first lines of defence are:
SKIN: T h e skin and th e m ucous m em branes are mechanical barriers th a t p re v en t disease from
en terin g th e body, b u t only w h en they are intact A ll th e m ucous m em branes (also ep ith elial
tissue) th a t line th e various tracts op en in g o n to th e body’s surface secrete m ucous w hich traps
(catches) any foreign m aterial and th e cilia (hairs) h elp to expel these im purities from th e body
S E C R E T IO N S : Tears, p ersp iratio n , saliva and gastric secretio n s h e lp to w ash away disease-
causing organisms and m ost secretions c o n ta in chem icals th a t c an destroy th e m
R E F L E X A C T IO N S : Sneezing and coughing expel any m icro-organism s from th e respiratory
tract and vom iting and diarrhoea expel th em from th e digestive tract
The next Unes of defence are the w hite blood cells:
P H A Q O C Y T O S IS : Som e o f th e w hite blood cells are able to absorb and destroy foreign and
waste m atter by a process called phagocytosis [fei'gau'sai'taosis] T h is process is m ainly carried o u t by
cells called neutrophils |nju:ltraulfilz] an d macrophages [m*krau'feidjiz]
N A T U R A L K IL L E R C E L L S (N K C E L L S ): T hese cells are a type o f lymphocyte [limWsait] th a t
can recognise cells w ith ab n o rm al m em branes, such as tu m o u r cells or cells infected w ith a virus,
and can kill th em o n c o n ta ct
IN F L A M M A T IO N : Inflammation is a reactio n th a t assists th e body to expel an irrita n t, n o t only
infective m icro-organism s O th e r irritants may be bum s, friction, cuts, X-rays o r chem icals A n
inflammatory reaction occurs w h en th e irrita n t is an infective organism and th is is th e n called an
infection A n in fla m m a to ry re a c tio n show s 4 classic sym ptom s an d th ese are: h e a t, redness,
swelling and pain
F E V E R is a n increase in body tem p eratu re above th e n orm al and is a sign th a t th e d efence
m echanism s are in o rder because th e phagocytes release substances th a t raise body tem perature
IN T E R F E R O N : T h is is a substance released by infected cells w hich stops o th e r cells becom ing
infected It prev en ts viruses from m ultiplying and also stim ulates th e body’s im m une system
IM M U N IT Y : T h e bo d y’s fin a l line o f d efen ce.
Im m u n ity is th e b o d y ’s fin a l line o f d efen ce a n d m a y be in born or a cq u ired (n a tu ra lly a cq u ired
or artificially a c q u ired ).
Im m unity is th e in d iv id u al’s personal ability to resist o r fight off th e effects o f a p articu lar m icro
organism or o th e r harm ful agent It is a selective ability w hich may be successful against o n e agent
but n o t an o th er
J * R ead the a b a te te.vt and look at the underlined words P u t a circle around the words that
these refer to N m r rew rite the sentence using the name instead of the pronoun or determ iner
Trang 26STERILISATION, DISINFECTION AN D ANTISEPSIS
STERILISATION [stera’laLz'eiJan] kills all living micro-organisms on an object Inoperating theatres, delivery rooms and when other sterile Isteraialj procedures are
perform ed, as m uch o f th e equipm ent as possible is sterilised - this includes all the
instrum ents and tools and also th e clothes (gowns, gloves, etc.) and drapes that are used
M ethods
Live steam under pressure using a n autoclave is th e m ost com m only used m ethod of
sterilisation
Dry heat an d irradiation are also used
G as - E th y le n e o x id e is used to sterilise th in g s w h ic h c a n n o t w ithstand high
tem peratures
Boiling for at least 4 minutes T h is is m ostly effective b u t may n o t kill spore-forming
organism s w h ic h n e ed a m u ch h ig h e r tem p e ra tu re a n d tak e a longer tim e to be
destroyed
DISINFECTION [dis'infek/an] kills all pathogens except spores b u t n o t all
harm less micro-organisms M ost d isinfecting agents are chem icals an d are used to
disinfect non-living surfaces only O th e r term s used for th ese chem icals are disinfectant,
bactericide and germicide.
D isin fec ta n ts Chlorine compounds (including household bleach), phenol (carbolic acid) and others.
ANTISEPSIS [aenti'sepsis] prevents pathogens from m ultiplying b u t does not necessarily kill them Because antiseptics are n o t as pow erful as disinfectants, they
are safe to use o n living tissue A n tisep tics may be a dilu ted d isin fec tan t and they
create a sta te called bacteriostasis Ibaek'tmsu'steisis] - w here th e micro-organisms are
k ep t in a steady state a n d c a n n o t multiply
A L T E R N A T I V E M E D I C I N E
i n i
m (From Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology)
System s o f m edicine such as acupuncture [a e k ju Y u jk tja ], chiropractice Ik a i'rau 'p ra k tisl, herbal medicine, homeopathy and osteopathy, are able to alleviate sym ptom s for reasons w hich are poorly understood
T h e m eth o d s used for tre a tm e n t of disease h a v e n o t usually b e e n su b je cted to te s tin g bv a random ized clinical trial and are o ften n o t fully accepted by o rth o d o x m edical science
‘Old wives’ tales’ are treatments that are accepted in communities and passed down through generations Massage, medicinal teas, various oils, flowers, herbs and spices, in different forms, are used for j unety
of illnesses and are often quite effective Faith healing has helped a lot of people and mans are n.-u L:«>lang into the results of traditional Chinese medicine.
Keeping healthy and fit by careful attention to diet and exercise is more important than deciding an uhjc/i
Trang 27EXPRESSION and WORD LIST
a lig n m e n t [a'lain'mantj (n u n c o u n t a b l e ) T he
alignm ent of som ething is its position in
relatio n to som ething else or its correct
position
a lte rn a tiv e m e d ic in e [rrl'tana'tiv medsan] ( a d j +
n ) A different form of medicine, in contrast
with traditional forms,
b a cteria [baek'tiaria] (n pi.) Micro-organisms, some
of which cause disease,
b e h a v io u r [ba'heivja] ( n u n c o u n t a b l e ) The way that
people or anim als do things, behave ( v )
[ba'heiv]
b o n e [baun] (n) T he hard parts inside the hum an
body th at form the skeleton,
c artila g e [karta'lidj] (n u n c o u n t a b l e ) A strong
flexible substance in the hum an body, found
especially at the ends of long bones and in
joints
cell [sell (n) T he smallest part of a plant or animal
that is able to function independently,
c la ss ific a tio n [klaesa'fik'ei/an] (n ) A division or
category so th a t things w ith sim ilar
characteristics are in the same group,
c o m p le m e n ta ry m e d ic in e ( k n m p b 'm e n tri medsan]
( a d j + n ) D ifferent forms of m edicine
w hich can be used together and complement
[knmpla'mentl each other,
c ram p [kraemp] (n.) A sudden, strong pain caused
by a muscle suddenly contracting,
d e fen c e [da'fens] (n.) ( ‘d e f e n s e ’ i n American E n g l i s h )
A ctio n th a t is tak en to p ro tect against
attack
dep o sits [da'pnzats] (n pi.) Substances th at have
been left som ew here as the result of a
chemical process,
d ep ressio n Ida'prejan] 1 (n u n c o u n t a b l e ) A mentat
state of sadness and not being able to enjoy
anything 2 (n.) A depression in a surface
is an area w hich is lower th a n the parts
surrounding it
d isease |da'zi:z] (n u n c o u n t a b l e ) A n illness th at
affects th e h e a lth of a person, anim al or
plant
d ra in [drein] (n.) A tvpe of pipe or tube that takes
away liquids, causing it to flow somewhere
else, drain ( r ) It y o u drain something, you
dry it by causing w ater lor liquid) to drain
out ot it
e n v ir o n m e n t [ en' v.uran'mant] ( n ) 1 Som eone's
e n v iro n m en t is all the circum stances,
people, things and events around them that influence th eir life 2 Your en v iro n m en t consists of th e p articular surroundings in which you live or exist 3 T he environm ent (n u n c o u n t a b l e) is the natural world of land, sea, plants and animals
e x c h a n g e [eks't/eind;] ( n ) A passing from one area
to another in different directions at the same time, e.g gaseous e x c h a n g e
fa tig u e [fa'ti:g] (n u n c o u n t a b l e) A feeling of extreme physical or m ental tiredness
f o r a m e n [fa'reim an] (n ) A natural opening in a bone or other body structure, foram ina (n
fra m e w o rk [freim'w3:kl (n.) A structure th at forms support or frame for something
fu n c tio n [fAgk'/an] (n.) T he function of som ething
is the useful thing it does or is intended todo
g a m e te [g«m'i:t] (n ) A sex cell, w hich is either the sperm of the male or the ovum (egg) of the female
g ro o v e [gru:v] (n ) A deep line cut into the surface
of something
h a em a to p o ie s is Ihem'st'au'pm'iisis] (n u n c o u n t a b l e )
(or haem apoiesis, haem atogenesis, haem atosis) T he differentiation process by which new blood cells are made
h o r m o n e |l«:'maun] (n ) A chem ical substance
w hich occurs naturally in the hum an body and stimulates other organs
jo in t [djaint] (n.) A place where 2 main parts come together In the body, it is where 2 bones meet and move together
lig a m e n t [liga'mant] (n ) A hand o f tough [t,\f],
fibrous, partly elastic tissue - im portant com ponents of joints
m eio sis (mei'ausis) (n u n c o u n t a b l e ) T h e type of
cell division th a t occurs in the ovaries and testes during th e reproduction of gametes
m ito sis [mai'tausisl (n u n c o u n t a b l e ) T h e type of cell division in w hich the chrom osom es
w ithin the nucleus of the cell are exactly duplicated into each of 2 daughter cells
m u s c le [m.vsall (n ) A structure com posed of bundles ot specialised cells capable of
c o n tra ctio n and relaxation to create movement
Trang 28anim als’ young (babies/children) can be
referred to as their offspring
o rg a n l^'gan) (n.) A collection of various tissues
integrated into a distinct structural unit to
perform specific functions
p a th o lo g y [paG'nls'd31] (n uncountable) T he study
of disease - its causes, m echanism s and
effects on the body
p h y sio lo g y Ifizfobdjil (n uncountable) T he study
of body functions, including physical and
chem ical processes of cells, tissues, organs
and systems, and their various interactions
p o s tu re IpDs'tJa) (n.) T he relative position of parts
of the body at rest or during m ovem ent
Good posture consists of balancing the body
weight around the body’s centre of gravity in
the lower spine and pelvis M aintaining good
posture helps prevent neck and back pain
p r o te c tio n [pra'tek'/an] (n uncountable) If
som ething gives or offers p ro te c tio n , it
prevents people or things from being harmed
or damaged
s tr u c tu r e fstrAk't/a] (n ) T h e way in w hich
something is made, built or organised
s u p p o rt [sa'psit] (n.) T he provision of som ething
to help a person or th in g stand alone,
to su p p o rt [sa'p^it] (v.) To provide w hat a
person or thing needs to stand alone
su rv iv al [sa'vaival] (n uncountable) Managing to live
and not die following difficult circumstances
parts th at are grouped together to perform a particular function
te n d o n [ten'dan] (n.) A strong, flexible, fibrous cord
th a t joins muscle to bo n e or muscle to muscle but is inelastic
tissu e [ti'Ju:] (n ) A collection of cells specialised
to perform a particular function
v iru s [vai'ras] (n ) T h e sm allest know n type of infectious agent It is d ebatable whether viruses are truly living organism s or just collections of m olecules capable of self- replicating u nder specific conditions Outside living cells, viruses are inert
fib ro u s [fai'bras] (adj ) A substance th at contains a
lot of fibres, or looks as if it does
im a g in a ry lim'aedg'inri] (adj.) Som ething that exists
in your m ind but not in real life
s tre n u o u s [stren'juas] (adj.) A n activity or action
which involves a lot of energy or effort
u n iq u e |ju:'ni:k] (adj.) T he only one of its kind.
to b re a k d o w n [breik'daun] (i> + prep.) To form smaller parts or particles
to p r o te c t [pra'tektl (v ) To prevent someone or
som ething from being harm ed or damaged
Trang 29PLAYING W ITH WORDS - MORE IDIOMS USING THE NAMES OF BODY PARTS
✓ Match an idiom in column A w ith its meaning in column B.
e.g (1 ) Use your head! (i) Think about what you are doing.
B
(a) It was a most surprising feet
(b) Please help me
(c) Don’t do anything risky
(d) They deceived me, their intentions weren’t clear
(e) Be hopeful (positive) - I’m sure you will get what you want
(f) I did the right thing - 1 guessed correctly
(g) He got extremely angry!
(h) She seemed to like the idea but then did nothing about it
(i) Think about what you are doing
(j) Ignore him
(k) She can’t endure or tolerate it
(1) Be encouraged, more confident
(m) I don't know what to do but I'll work it out as I go along,(n) He decided not to do it at the last minute - he was afraid,
(o) She always says the wrong thing
f u s e the idiomatic expressions in the following sentences, changing the verb tenses when necessary.
10 W h e n I h av e a problem , 1 th in k a b o u t it,
1 Use your head!
2 Don’t stick your neck out!
3 It was a real eye-opener!
4 1 knew 1 had hit the m il on the head!
5 Give me a hand.
6 He lost his head!
7 She paid lip service to the idea!
8 They pulled the wool over my eyes!
9 Keep your fingers crossed!
10 Take heart!
11 She always puts her foot in her mouth!
12 I’ll play it by ear !
13 He got cold feet!
14 Give him the cold shoulder!
15 She can’t stomach [stAmsk] it.'
1 I thou g h t she was very lazy u n til yesterday -
she had finished ev ery th in g w h en I arrived
it’s taking a risk b ut I really have to do it
6 Take each day as it com es, you are m aking
good progress You c a n in
these results!
7 T h a t was a n u n n ecessary th in g to say, he
was m ost offended, 'lo u are alw ay s
y o u r y o u r !
8 M artin lied ab o u t his qualifications and will
lose h is job - h e ju st d o esn t his
9 W h e n th e boss discovered th e lies and called
h im to th e office, h e accu sed M a rtin o f
h i s
work out a solution t h e n m y !
11 W h e n Lisa h e ard th a t h e r frien d was nauseated nearly every m orning and guessed
th a t she was pregnant, she h a d !
12 M ichael's son had an accident w hen driving
th e family car hom e from a party M ichael his w hen he found o ut th a this son had b een drinking
15 I d o n 't k n o w if my frien d s c a n put me up
w h en I go to L o n d o n , so I'll just it I can probably find a c h ea p ‘bed andbreakfast it they d o n ’t h av e enough room
$ Listening 21 - Idiomatic expressions Listen and check your answers 151
Trang 30find internal and external parts of the human body.
2 This is a long, narrow m arking o n a ho n e - in th e n K they
co n tain inter-costal nerves and blood vessels (6 '
3 T h e largest en d o c rin e g lan d , sttu a ted in th e neck Its fun ctio n depends o n th e am o u n t of nxline in th e hi- * \J (7)
4 O n e o f th e 2 m ain organs o f th e resp irato n system t4)
6 T h e back o r posterior part o f th e toot (or ot a 4 * * ! H 4 )
7 O n e o f th e m ale gonads, c o n tain ed in th e >:r turn, i*)
pump (5)
12 T h is body part lies a t th e distal end o f th e leg • 4 '
14 O n e o f th e low er extrem ities (3)
Across:
5 T h e inside o f th e neck is called t h e t 6 1
8 T h e external auditory (hearing) apparatus, i ’ 1
9 T h is is th e n am e given to th e ho rn area th a t c r w 't ' *t the hips, sacrum and th e symphysis-puhis (6)
10 T h e upper an terio r part ot th e leg ( 5 '
15 A n in cred ib le organ th a t store* g h c o g e n v /irr.m * and
red bUxxJ cells and rem oves poisonou* u.-xu: ^ r^ ta n c e s from th e bKxxl (5)
Trang 31DIET AND NUTRITION
Trang 321 5 4
M ak e lists o f food u n d e r th e fo llow ing h eadings C a n you pro n o u n ce all th e te correctly?
FOOD AND FOOD CROUPS
1 C a n you n a m e 1 piece o f fr u it a n d I vegetable starting
.y'L/tjjjpr start]
sta rtin g w ttti p startin g w ith ‘c ’
f i )
2 C a n you n a m e 2 or 3 berry f r u i t s ? ur
3 N a m e 3 citru s fru its: I '<■ ^
4 H ow m an y tropical o r ‘exotic’ fru its c a n you nam e?
W h a t is th e difference betw een a plum and a prune?
7 Now, w ith your p artner, label all th e food products you c a n id en tify on th is page.
8 C ircle th e odd one out in each o f th e follow ing groups Q ive a reason for th is choice
1 grapes raspberry’ strawberry blackberry
3 pum pkin tom ato zucchini carrot
4- m ushroom o nion courgette passion fruit
8 praw ns lobster octopus crabm eat
m eat and fish[mi:t 'n fij]
c S rb p h v d rate foods LJca:bau'haidreit]
olis and fats fciak n tarts I
“
)
Trang 33[miralz]
m B reakfast: [brekfost] is the first m eal o f th e day Do you h av e enough breakfast to keep
up your energy levels u n til midday?
Lunch: [Lint/] is a light meal e aten in the middle o f th e day W h e n you don’t have a long break, o r if you are n o t using a lot of energy, a sandwich or yoghurt and fruit is enough
D inner: [dins] is th e m ain m eal o f th e day and can be e a te n at m idday o r in th e evening
Supper: [sApa] is a light meal eaten in th e evening w hen th e m ain m eal was a t midday
A Snack: Isnaek] is n o t a m eal but is e aten betw een m eals, m id -m o rn in g o r m id- aftern o o n o r late in th e evening! A snack should be light an d nourish in g an d n o t reduce your a p p etite for a meal
A Salad: [saeiad] in English is n o t only lettu ce or varieties o f lettuce, b u t includes cold
m eat, cheese, hard -b o iled eggs o r seafood, cold o r raw [n>:] (u n co o k ed ) vegetables, pickled [pikaldj (b o ttle d in vinegar) vegetables and som etim es fruit
D ressing: [dresig] usually refers to salad dressing - a co m b in a tio n o f oil an d vinegar,
m ustard an d /o r m ayonnaise
Food intake
Food in tak e is essential if cells are to receive
nutrients for energy production Foods can be solid
or liquid and th e choice is individual and voluntary
but appetite is controlled by th e hypothalam us in
the brain P ro tein s, carbohydrates, fats, m inerals
and v itam in s are all essential if h e alth is to be
m aintained If any vital food is missing from the
diet, th e body w ill suffer from m alnutrition or
deficiency.
A w e ll-b a la n c e d d ie t is sim ple N o th in g is
forbidden, but som e foods n eed a h ig h er profile
th an others Because p ro tein s are n o t stored in
the body in th e sam e way as carbohydrates and
fats, p ro tein foods should be e aten o n a regular
basis
Y our tea c h er n ill sh o w you hotv to m ake
a food a n d d rin k n e tu w k to help you le a m a n d
re m e m b e r v o c a b u la ry U s in g th e n e tw o r k
th ro u g h o u t th is sectio n , sta rt by listing as m an y
b e v era g es as you c a n D iiid e th e m in to hot
a n d cold, alcoholic a n d non-alcoholic d rin ks.
Fluid intake
Fluid in tak e is as im p o rtan t as food intake T h e
n o rm a l p ro p o rtio n o f body w ater v aries from 50% to 70% o f a p e rso n ’s w eig h t W a te r is
im p o rta n t to liv in g cells as a so lv e n t, as a tra n s p o rt m ed iu m a n d as a p a rtic ip a n t in
m etabolic reactions
M ost people d rin k w h en th ey are thirsty, about
6 to 8 b e v era g es [bev'ridjaz] a day T o tal fluid
in ta k e is n o rm ally ab o u t tw o a n d a h a lf litres and com es from drinks and food, especially soups, fruit and vegetables T h e co n tro l c en tre for th e sense o f th irs t is lo cated in th e h y p o th a la m u s [haip'au'eaeiamas] in th e b rain D rinks c o n ta in in g alcohol [aelkaM] o r c affein e [ksefi:n] should n o t be
in clu d e d in th is to ta l b ecause th e y a c t as
d iu r e tic s [dai'ju:'retiksl a n d in crease w a ter loss
W h e n exercising vigorously a n d /o r in very h o t
w eather, th e body c a n d e h y d rate [dfcliai'dreit] very quickly In a person w hose h e a lth is norm al, th e
in ta k e o f fluids is ap p ro x im ate ly e q u al to th e
o u tp u t b u t th is a m o u n t varies considerably from day to day and from person to person
Trang 34THE HEALTHY DIET PYRAMID
[pira'm id]
A healthy diet contains amounts of all the substances show n in th e pyram id and
an adequate intake of fluid.
The pyramid illustrates that grains, cereals, fruit and vegetables need to be eaten
in larger quantities than other kinds of food and that a lim ited intake of fa ts, oils and sugars is recommended It has been advised that calories (taelatazl (or kilojoules) from the 3 m ain classes of nutrients are distributed as follows:
Fats: less than 30% , Carbohydrates: 58% and P rotein: 12%
E A T L E A S T
sugar, salt, alcohol,
b u tte r, m argarine, oils an d fat
E A T M O D E R A T E L Y
ch ic k en , tu rk ey , lean m eat, fish,
eggs, n u ts an d d airy p ro d u cts
T hese foods supply valuable
p rotein, iron and zinc (m eat)
and calcium and
phosphorous (dairy foods)
Both butter and margarine have the same high num ber of kilojoules: 615 kj per 30 g
L ean m eat = m eat w ith very little visible fat
D a iry P ro d u c ts include:
M ilk - Skim milk is low tat
Y oghurt and C h eese
E A T M O S T
b read , cereals, grains, pasta, p u lses (driedpeas, beans and len tils), fru it and vegetables
F ood from these
g roups sh o u ld form the basis of all o u r m eals,
p roviding com plex carbohydrates, fibre, p ro tein ,
v itam in s and m inerals
C an you n a m e th e 5 m a in categ o ries o f food n ecessa ry in a w e ll-b a la n ce d d ie t?
( 1 ) _(13 letters), ( 2 ) (7 letters), ( 3 ) _ (5 letter^ - T h i‘used to be called roughage), ( 4 ) _ (8 letters) and ( 5 ) (8 letters - These
2 substances are c o u n ted to g eth er) and (6 ) (4 letters)
^ L istening 22 - The h ealth v d ie t p y ra m id L iste n ca refully to th e reco rd in g a n d follou
Trang 35W H A T T O EAT A N D H O W MUCH
© Choose fro m th e follow ing groups, a n d w o rkin g w ith your pa rtn er, p la n a h e a lth y daily d iet.
A B A L A N C E D D IE T P L A N N E REAT M O ST
6 serves daily
Bread (wholemeal/wholegrain for extra fibre), rolls, toast, crackers
C ereal: preferably wholegrain Cooked or ready-to-eat
Rice, pasta: preferably wholegrain
6 serves daily Vegetables and/or fru it and fru it juices
1 serve daily Legumes and pulses (beans, peas, lentils, chick peas, etc.) if vegetarian
EAT MODERATELY
about 125 g
Lean meat (with the skin or fat cut off)
Veal, pork, beef, lamb or organ meats: liver, brain, kidneys, etc
C hicken, turkey, duck (or other poultry)
Fish, prawns, lobster and oysters or other seafood, or
Eggs (1 egg replaces 25 g meat)
1 serve daily N u ts (if vegetarian)
3 00 ml daily
M ilk products (low fat or skim milk is preferable for adults)
Yoghurt
C heese - about 50 g ricotta or cottage cheese replaces 200 ml milk
40 g of hard cheese replaces about 300 ml milk
EAT LEA ST
3 0 ml (1 tablespoon) O ils and fats: cooking oil or salad oil, mayonnaise, butter, margarine,
cream, sour cream
N o t required!
(a glass of soft drink or
a small serve of other
sweets supplies about
300 kj = 70 calories)
Sw eets: sugar, honey, jam, marmalade
(W hat’s the difference between jam and marmalade
C onfectionery: (sweets or bon-bons) caramels, toffees, chocolate, etc
Soft d rinks: Coca-Cola, lemonade, etc
C akes and desserts, sweet biscuits
Snacks: potato crisps, corn chips, cheese savouries, mixed nuts, etc
A lcohol: wine, beer, spirits
J * M a k e a list o f w h a t you ate yesterday W as it w ell-b a la n ce d ? C a n you p la n a w ell-b a la n ced
d iet th a t you could ea t nea rly every day u sin g th e u p d a ted food p y ra m id 1 A n occasional ind u lg en ce
is a llow ed, in clu d in g w in e if it is not co n tra in d ica ted !
© In te r v ie w y o u r p a rtn e r a n d fin d o u t w h a t m eals he/sh e h as a n d w h a t he/sh e eats m ost d ays.
A s k " W h a t do you have for b re a k fa s t? D o you have sn a cks d u rin g th e d a y ?”
Trang 36♦ E njoy a wide variety o f n u tritio u s food.
♦ E at p len ty o f b read a n d cereals (preferably w holegrain), vegetables (including
legum es) an d fruit
♦ E at a diet low in fat, especially low in satu rated fat.
♦ Maintain a healthy body weight by b alan cin g physical activ ity a n d food intake
♦ If you d rin k alcohol, limit your intake.
♦ U se only a sm all am o u n t o f sugar and eat only a sm all am o u n t o f food containing
added sugar
♦ Choose low salt food an d try n o t to add e x tra salt to food (H erbs can flavour food
an d decrease th e n eed for salt T h ey also supply v itam in s an d minerals.)
♦ Encourage an d support new m o th ers to breast-feed th e ir babies
♦ Eat food c o n ta in in g calcium T h is is particularly im p o rta n t for girls an d women
♦ E at food c o n ta in in g iron T h is is p a rtic u la rly im p o rta n t fo r girls, women,
vegetarians an d athletes
HOW NUTRITION AFFECTS YOUR HEALTH
D IE T P R O B L E M A S S O C IA T E D D IS E A S E
Too m any kilojoules (calories)
H igh in tak e o f satu rated fat
H igh intake of fats
H ig h sugar intake
H igh salt intake
Low fibre intake
Excess alcohol
Low iron intake
Low calcium intake
O verw eight, obesityInsulin d e p en d e n t diabetes
C a n ce r o f th e breast an d uterus
H eart disease
H e art diseaseBowel (in te stin al) can cerBreast can cer
E n dom etrial (u terin e) c an cer
O verw eig h t
D en tal cavities (caries)
H igh blood pressure
S troke (C V A ) - In tracran ial h aem o rrh ag e o r occlusion
of in tracran ial blood vessels
A n aem ia
O steoporosis
M a k e som e sentences using the tables on these pages to talk about the quantities of food needed or that should be avoided to p re v en t certain illnesses and diseases Use the follouing quantifiers:
Trang 37QUANTIFIERS
E xercise 1 W rite ‘a ’ / ‘a n ’ or ‘some’.
(a) book (g) •••■ inform ation
(b) air (h ) 5-dollar note
(c) rain (i) snow
(d) atom (j) apple
(e) sugar (k ) exercise
(fl .m olecule
E xercise 3 W ith a pa rtn er, th in k o f all
the expressions of q u a n tity th a t ca n be u sed in
the follow ing se n te n c e s
1 T h ere has b e e n rain this m o n th
2 T h e river is flooding - w ater is com ing
dow n from th e m o u n tain s
3 T h ere is s t i l l snow above 2,000 metres
4 You c a n ’t pick apples u n til they are
bigger
5 H o w m eat c a n you eat?
6 I w ould l i k e C o ca-C o la, please
7 T h e re a r e v io le n t program m es o n TV
8 I’ve g o t free tim e th is w eekend
9 V egetarians d o n 't e a t m eat
10 H e d o esn 't k n o w o f th e answers
E x erc is e 2 Com plete the questions using ‘m uch’ or ‘m any’.
(a) H o w people are th e re in here?
(b) H o w m oney h av e you got?
(c) H o w calories are th ere in a n egg?
(d) H o w b eer is th ere in th e fridge?
(e) H o w gold is in th a t ring?
( 0 H o w c h ild ren h av e you got?
(g) H o w p etro l is in th e car?
(h ) H o w food groups are there?
( i ) H o w in fo rm atio n did you get from
th a t new tex t book?
Now m a tc h a suitable answ er iv ith one of the questions:
1 It’s full
2 M ore th a n en o u g h to d o th e hom ew ork
3 N o t m uch - about 5 Euros!
4 T h ere are 5 m ain groups
5 It s 18 carat — about 30 grams, I suppose
6 W e’ve got 3 sons
Trang 38SPOT THE DIFFERENCE - IS/ARE THERE ANY LEFT?
© W ith your p a rtn er, look a t p ictu re s A a n d B a n d see how m a n y differences you can find.
C heese sandw iches
C h ick e n sandw iches
C heese rolls
Tom atoes
H ard-boiled eggs
Trang 39EXPRESSIO N S OF Q U A N T IT Y
Two young people were interviewed by a m arket research company and asked
about the types o f food th e y b u y e a ch w e e k B o th M ich ael a n d K a rin made
mistakes using the expressions o f quantity.
s U nd erlin e th e incorrect g ra m m a r a n d rew rite th e dialogues.
e.g M ichael says: I buy mam meats because 1 need a few energy
C H A N G E T O : 1 buy a lo t o f m eat, because I need a little energy
M ich ael: W h a t do 1 buy m ost? W ell, 1 buy mar
because I need a few energy to go to th e gym an<
leading a pretty busy life It’s easy to cook and I buy
any vegetables from th e freezer at th e
superm arket I d o n ’t buy som e fresh vegetables
because 1 only have a little fridge I buy m uch
packets o f ready-to-eat m eals so 1 have tim e to
do o th er things in th e evenings I have very
few tim e for cooking and I love pasta dishes
and fresh fruit 1 buy several fruit at th e m arket
on my way hom e from work I eat too m any
bread too, but I usually buy w holem eal bread
or the bread rolls w ith seeds and grains in it,
so I th in k th a t’s q u ite good for m e really
K arin : 1 am quite a fussy shopper! I like to buy m u ch th in g s at the h e alth food shops and 1 buy ‘free range' eggs and th in g s like
th a t I d o n ’t buy m any c h o co late or m u ch sw eets b ut I love ice cream! I'm allergic to any chem icals and colourings in food, so 1 look at th e labels and look at all the ingredients before 1 buy som ething
1 like cooking tor my triends and because m uch
o f th em are vegetarian, 1 always serve m any fresh fruit and vegetables too T h ey like tish so 1 buy fresh salm on or tro u t and cook it w ith too m any
b u tte r and lots o f a lm o n d s - it’s d e lic io u s but probably has tar too m uch calories! 1 always h av e breakfast - 1 enjoy h aving yoghurt and fruit and a big cup of milk cotfee w hile I w atch th e news before 1 go to
w ork 1 m cooking any c h ic k en for supper to n ig h t, w ith
m uch potatoes, som e spinach an d baby carrots - sounds good,
d o esn ’t it?
iv m eats
i for
Trang 40D W E IG H T STATUS - T H E BODY MASS IN D E X
There is no exact correct weight for good health but there is a healthy weight
range Women in some m odem W estern societies think th a t th in is beautiful but
the problems of anorexia and bulimia nervosa and other eating disorders have
shown that this is not the case It is not healthy to be fat either but if you have
a sm all frame (small skeletal structure) and don’t have much muscle, then it is
better to aim for a steady weight in the lower half of the healthy w eight range
O n the other hand, if you have a large frame or do a lot of exercise and have an
increased muscle mass, then you can aim to have a higher level in the normal
healthy range Problems w ith appetite can be made normal with regular exercise
and by using the diet pyram id as an everyday food guide.
2 0 -2 5 = healthy w eight range
(least risk of disease and death)
W h a t c o n c lu s io n s c a n you com e to abo u t th e average d ieta ry h a b its o f the