Ebook Differential diagnosis of dental diseases: Part 1

Part 1 book “Differential diagnosis of dental diseases” has contents: Morphology of primary dentition, developmental disturbances of teeth, dental caries, dental stains and discolorations, gingival enlargement and its management, radiolucencies of jaw, oral ulcers,… and other contents.

Differential Diagnosis of Dental Diseases

Priya Verma Gupta

MDS (Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry)

MA Rangoonwala College of Dental Sciences,

Azam CampusCamp, PuneMaharashtra (India)

Differential Diagnosis of

Dental Diseases

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Differential Diagnosis of Dental Diseases

© 2008, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers

All rights reserved No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author and the publisher.

This book has been published in good faith that the material provided by author is original Every effort is made to ensure accuracy of material, but the publisher, printer and author will not be held responsible for any inadvertent error(s) In case of any dispute, all legal matters are to be settled under Delhi jurisdiction only.

First Edition: 2008

ISBN 978-81-8448-372-7

Typeset at JPBMP typesetting unit

Pooja Verma Ahmad

London (United Kingdom)

Sujata Sarabahi

MS (Gen Surg.) MCh (Plastic Surg.) DNB MNAMSSafdarjung Hospital andVMM College, New Delhi

Shrirang Sevekar MDS

Pedodontics andPreventive Dentistry

Two decades back dental surgery was a growing branchbut now it has grown up well Previously dental surgeonsused to prefer extraction of tooth but now they are beingpaid to save the tooth In order to achieve they should beable to assess, diagnose the disease and treat accordingly

To differentiate two similar dental diseases one shouldknow the pros and cons of the specific disease which willhelp the students and clinicians

I would like to thank my mentors Drs (Profs) N SridharShetty and Amita Hegde for the knowledge given to me

Priya Verma Gupta

SECTION 1: DENTAL DISEASES

1 Morphology of Primary Dentition 3

2 Developmental Disturbances of Teeth 43

3 Pain 59

4 Pulp 79

5 Dental Caries 118

6 Dental Stains and Discolorations 161

7 Gingival Enlargement and its Management 180

8 Halitosis 201

9 Oral Ulcers 216

10 Radiolucencies of Jaw 227

11 Diseases of Jaw 246

12 Diseases of Salivary Glands 251

13 Disorders of Taste 268

14 Diseases of Tongue 271

15 Diseases of Paranasal Sinuses 282

16 Endocrine Disorders affecting Oral Cavity 289

17 White and Red Lesions 300

18 Benign Neoplasm of Oral Cavity 316

19 Malignant Neoplasm of Epithelial Tissue 322

20 Sequel of Radiation on Oral Tissues 343

21 Chronic Orofacial Nerve Pain 346

22 Fever 349

23 Cheilitis 357

24 Vitamins and Oral Lesions 360

25 Oral Manifestations of Bleeding Disorders 375

26 Oral Implications of Medication 383

27 Oral Changes in Old Age 386

28 Syndromes of Oral Cavity 395

SECTION 2: CAUSES OF SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS • Anatomic Periapical Radiolucencies 405

• Anatomic Radiopacities of Mandible 405

• Anatomic Radiopacities of Maxilla 406

• Bad Taste 406

• Bilateral Parotid and Submandibular Swelling 407

• Tumors of The Jaw—Benign 407

• Benign Tumors of Oral Soft Tissues 408

• Bleeding Gums 409

• Halitosis 410

• Brown Lesions on Lips 412

• Burning Sensations in Tongue 412

• Calculus Formation 413

• Xerostomia 414

• Soft Tissue Growth of Oral Cavity 414

• Cutaneous Fistulas and Sinuses 415

• Cysts of Soft Tissues 415

• Delayed Tooth Eruption 416

• Developmental Disturbances affecting Skull, Jaw 417

• Developmental Disturbances affecting Teeth 417

• Diffuse Facial Swelling 418

• Diseases of Maxillary Sinus 419

• Taste Disorder 419

• Disturbances during Formation of Hard Dental Tissue 420

• Drugs causing Lymphadenopathy 421

Contents xi

• Dry Mouth 421

• Yellow Conditions of Oral Mucosa 422

• Elevated Lesions on Lip 423

• Exophytic Anatomic Structures 423

• Salivary Gland Pain 424

• Facial Nerve Palsy 425

• Projected Radiopacities of Tooth 425

• False Periapical Radiopacities 426

• Nonhemorrhagic Soft Tissue Growth of Oral Cavity 427

• Flushing of Face 428

• General Brownish, Bluish or Black Condition 429

• Generalized Radiopacities 429

• Generalized Rarefaction of Jaw Bones 429

• Generalized Red Conditions and Multiple Ulceration 430

• Gray/Black Oral Pigmentation 431

• Headache of Dental Origin 431

• Headache due to Infections 432

• Intraoral Bleeding 432

• Persistent Oral Ulcers 432

• Pits of Oral Cavity 433

• Intraoral Brownish, Bluish or Black Conditions 433

• Labial/Buccal Mucosa and Vestibular Lesions 434

• Intraoral Sinuses and Fistulas 435

• Intraoral Soft Tissue Swelling 435

• Cystic Lesions of Jaw 436

• Giant Cell Lesions of Jaw 437

• Keratotic White Lesions 437

• Lesions around Crown of Impacted Tooth 438

• Midline Lesions of Maxilla 439

• Lesions of Facial Skin 439

• Lesions of Hard Dental Tissues 440

• Lesions of Lips 441

• Lesions over Dorsal and Lateral Surfaces of Tongue 441

• Lesions over Ventral Surface of Tongue 442

• Mobile Tooth 443

• Lumps in Tongue 444

• Malformation affecting Soft Tissue 445

• Malformations affecting Teeth 445

• Malignant Tumor of Jaw 447

• Mandibular Joint Clicking 447

• Mass in Neck 447

• Midline Neck Swelling 448

• Mixed Lesions of Jaw 448

• Mixed Lesions of Teeth 448

• Multilocular Radiolucencies of Oral Cavity 449

• Multiple Exophytic Oral Lesion 449

• Multiple Separate Radiolucent Lesions of Jaw 450

• Multiple Separate Radiopacities 450

• Multiple Separate Well-defined Radiolucencies 450

• Multiple Well-defined Radiolucencies 451

• Myofacial Pain Dysfunction 451

• Nonkeratotic White Oral Lesions 451

• Normal Radiolucencies of Mandible 451

• Normal Radiolucencies of Maxilla 452

• Odontogenic Tumors of Jaw 452

• Oral Bleeding 453

• Oral Blue/Purple Vascular Lesions 453

• Oral Burning Sensation of Tongue 454

• Oral Candidiasis 454

Contents xiii

• Oral Inflammatory Hyperplasia 454

• Oral Multilocular Radiolucencies 455

• Oral Radiolucency with Ragged and Ill-defined Borders 455

• Oral Tumors 455

• Oral Ulcers 456

• Osteomyelitis 456

• Palatal Swelling 457

• Periapical Mixed Lesions 458

• Pericoronal Radiolucencies 458

• Persistent Anosmia (Abnormality of Smell) 458

SECTION 3: DIFFERENTIATING TABLES • Acute Herpetic Gingivostomatitis and Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis 461

• Acute Necrotizing Gingivitis and Primary Herpetic Gingivostomatitis 461

• Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis and Secondary Stage Syphilis 462

• ANUG/Desquamative Gingivitis and Chronic Destructive Periodontal Diseases 462

• Ameloblastoma and Adenomatoid Odontogenic Tumor 463

• Syndromes associated with Oral Lesions 464

• Categories of Tooth Fracture 465

• Chronic Mandibular Hypomobilities 466

• Deciduous Teeth 467

• Deciduous/Permanent Teeth 467

• Dental Calculus 468

• Drugs Causing Oral Lesions 470

• Facial Pain 471

• Gingiva 472

• Histologic Features of Oral Lesions 474

• Identification of Deciduous Teeth 475

• Infectious Diseases: Systemic Manifestation and their Oral Manifestations 478

• Inflammatory Disorders of the Joints 479

• Major and Minor Aphthous Ulcers 481

• Mandibular First, Second and Third Molars 481

• Mandibular Central Incisors and Mandibular Lateral Incisors 482

• Maxillary and Mandibular Canines 482

• Maxillary First, Second and Third Molars 484

• Mucosal Lesions of Tongue 484

• Oral Pain 485

• Orofacial Pain Syndromes 486

• Permanent Filling Materials 487

• Permanent Mandibular and Maxillary Incisors 488

• First Premolar and Second Premolar 489

• Sequence of Tooth Eruption 490

• Temporary Filling 491

• Upper Central Incisors and Upper Lateral Incisors 492

• Maxillary Molar and Mandibular Molar 493

• Differential Diagnosis of Pain 494

• Epilepsy and Syncope 495

• Facial Signs Suggestive of Diseases 496

• Identifying Features of Categories of Temporomandibular Disorders 497

• Anatomical Differences of Primary and Permanent Dentition 499

• Histological Differences of Primary and Permanent Dentition 501

Index 503

Primary teeth are often called deciduous teeth The word

“deciduous” comes from a Latin word “decidere” –meaning, “to fall off” Deciduous teeth fall off or are shedlike leaves from a deciduous tree These teeth are shed andthen replaced by permanent successors This process ofshedding the deciduous teeth and replacement by thepermanent teeth is called exfoliation Exfoliation begins 2

or 3 years after the deciduous root is completely formed

At this time the root begins to resorb at its apical end andresorption continues in the direction of the crown untilthe entire root is resorbed and the tooth finally exfoliates

Importance of Primary Dentition

1 The loss of primary teeth tends to disturb the eruptionsequence of permanent teeth

2 The primary teeth are used for performing mastication

of food, digestion and assimilation during one of hismost active periods of growth and development

3 Primary dentition is very important for the nance of proper diet

mainte-4 Maintenance of adequate spacing and arch continuity

1

Morphology of Primary Dentition

for the emergence of permanent teeth is one of themost important functions of primary teeth.

5 Flared roots of the primary molars resist the mesialdisplacement of the coronal portion of the tooth andhelps in preserving sufficient space for the premolarsand permanent canines

6 The primary teeth also performs a function thatstimulates the growth of the jaws through mastication,especially in the development of the height of thedental arches

7 Another important function of the primary teeth isthe development of speech Early and accidental loss

of the primary anterior teeth may lead to difficulty inpronouncing the sounds ‘f’, ‘v’, ‘s’, ‘z’, and ‘th’ thusrequiring speech correction

8 Primary teeth also serve a cosmetic function byimproving the appearance of the child

9 Maintains a normal facial appearance

10 Resorption helps in guiding the erupting permanenttooth into the proper location

11 Prevents the migration of adjacent teeth thusmaintaining the integrity of arch

MORPHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN

PRIMARY AND PERMANENT DENTITION

(FIGS 1.1 AND 1.2)

The Crown

1 The primary tooth has a shorter crown than thepermanent tooth

Morphology of Primary Dentition 5

Fig 1.1:Primary tooth Fig 1.2:Permanent tooth

2 The enamel and dentin layers are thinner in theprimary tooth

3 The occlusal table of a primary tooth is relativelynarrower than the permanent tooth

4 The primary tooth is much more constricted in thecervical portion of the crown

5 The enamel rods in the gingival third extend in aslightly occlusal direction from the DEJ (Dentino-enamel-junction) in primary teeth whereas theyextend slightly apically in the permanent dentition

6 The contact areas are very broad and flat

7 The color of the primary teeth is usually whiter thanthe permanent teeth

8 The crowns of the primary anterior teeth are widermesiodistally than the cervicoinsical length of thepermanent teeth

9 The buccal and lingual surfaces of the primary molarsare flatter, thus providing a broader contact with theadjacent tooth.

10 The buccal and lingual surfaces of the molars,especially the first molar converge towards theocclusal surface

11 The buccolingual diameter of the occlusal surface ismuch less than the cervical diameter

12 The cervical ridge of enamel in the anterior crownlabially and lingually is much more prominent inprimary dentition

13 The cervical prominence gives primary crown abulbous appearance and accentuates the narrowcervical portion of deciduous roots

14 There is less tooth structure protecting the pulp inprimary teeth

15 Usually there are no depressions on the labial surface

of the crowns of the incisors i.e Mamelons are absent

16 The cingulum of anterior teeth is prominent

17 The cusps are short, the ridges are not pronouncedand the fossae are correspondingly shallow

18 The buccal cusps on molars are not sharp, with theircusp slopes meeting at an obtuse angle

19 The second primary molars are larger than the firstmolars

20 In totality the crowns of primary teeth are seen shortwhen compared with the permanent teeth

Morphology of Primary Dentition 7

4 The mandibular molar has larger pulp chambers thanthe maxillary molar in the primary tooth

5 The form of the pulp chamber follows the surface ofthe crown

6 Usually there is a pulp horn under each cusp

6 There is absence of a root base in the primary molars

7 The roots erupt directly from the crown and there is

no root trunk

8 The position of the apical foramen is variable due toresorption

It has been thought that the primary teeth are capable

of a greater inflammatory response to insult because ofthe greater blood supply They are also considered to beless sensitive to pain because of incomplete development

of the neural network

MORPHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL TEETH

Maxillary Central Incisor (Figs 1.3A and B)

• Number of pulp horns – 3

Morphology of Primary Dentition 9

2 Mamelons are absent on the deciduous teeth

3 The labial surface is unmarked by grooves, depressions,

or lobes

Lingual Aspect

1 Well developed marginal ridges

2 Highly developed cingulum

3 The depression between the marginal ridges and thecingulum forms the lingual fossa

4 The cingulum is convex and occupies the cervical 1/2

to 1/3 of the surface

Mesial and Distal Aspects

1 The crown appears wide in relation to its total length

2 The labiolingual measurements make the crown appearthick

3 The curvature of cervical line, is distinct, curvingtoward the incisal ridge

Incisal Edge

1 The incisal edge is centered over the main bulk and isrelatively straight

2 The incisal edge is proportionately long

3 The mesial surface joins the incisal edge at an acuteangle and the distal surface at a more rounded, obtuseangle

4 The incisal edge is formed from one developmentallobe

1 The roots are S-shaped, bending lingually in the cervicalthird to half and labially by as much as 10o in the apicalhalf

2 The root is much longer relative to the crown lengthwith tapered end

3 It is widest at the cervical ridge labiolingually

4 Both pulp chamber and canal are large when compared

to permanent tooth

5 The pulp canal tapers evenly until it ends in the apicalforamen

MAXILLARY LATERAL INCISOR (FIGS 1.4A TO D)

• Number of pulp horns - 3

• Number of root - 1

• Number of developmental lobe-1

1 A lateral incisor’s crown is smaller than a centralincisor’s crown in all dimensions

2 Only the cervicoincisal length is greater than itsmesiodistal width

3 Distoincisal angles of lateral incisors are more rounded

4 The labial surface when viewed from the incisal aspect

is more convex

Morphology of Primary Dentition 11

5 The lingual fossa is deeper as compared to centralincisor

6 The marginal ridges are more pronounced as compared

2 The root appears constricted at its cervical third

3 There is a mesial concavity on the root surface

4 The distal surface is generally convex

Figs 1.4A to D: (A) Labial aspect, (B) Lingual aspect,

(C) Mesial aspect, (D) Incisal aspect

MAXILLARY DECIDUOUS CANINE (FIGS 1.5A TO D)

• Number of pulp horns-3

• Number of root-1

• Number of cusp-1

• Number of developmental lobes-4

Labial Aspect

1 It is bulkier than the primary incisors in every aspect

2 The crown is more constricted at the cervix

3 More convex on its mesial and distal surfaces

4 The root is more slender

5 The canine is greater in mesiodistal diameter

6 The crown has a diamond shaped appearance

7 It has a long, well developed, sharp cusp

Fig 1.5A: Labial

aspect

Fig 1.5B: Lingual aspect

Fig 1.5C: Mesial aspect

Morphology of Primary Dentition 13

8 Maxillary canine cusps are often very sharp with twocusp ridges

9 The mesial slopes of the canines are longer than thedistal cusp slopes

10 These mesial cusp slopes are flat to concave and lesssteeply inclined than the shorter distal slopes whichare more convex

1 A tubercle extends from the cusp tip to the lingual ridge

2 The lingual ridge extends from the cusp tip to thecingulum

3 It divides the lingual surface into mesiolingual anddistolingual fossae

Fig 1.5D: Incisal aspect

4 The cingulum on a maxillary canine crown is bulkywith well-developed cusp.

5 The lingual surface of the crown may present a slightconcavity called the lingual fossa

6 Primary canine has a ‘fang-like’ appearance

Mesial and Distal Surfaces

1 Canine is much wider at the cervical third of the crown

2 The crown and the root at the cervical third are widerlabiolingually

3 There is increased length of the mesioincisal edge

4 The labial and the lingual surfaces converge as theyapproach the cervical area

5 The increase in crown dimension, in conjunction withthe root width and length permits resistance againstforces that the tooth must withstand during function

6 The function of this tooth is to punch, tear andapprehend food material

Incisal Aspect

1 The crown is rhomboidal-like a square that has beenslightly shifted

2 The labial ridge is relatively pronounced

3 The cingulum is obvious

4 The tip of the cusp is slightly distal to the center of thetooth

5 The mesial cusp slope is longer than the distal cuspslope

Morphology of Primary Dentition 15

Root

1 The root is long, thick in diameter and slightly flattened

on proximal surfaces

2 The root is bulky in the cervical and middle third

3 Tapering occurs mostly in the apical third region wherethe root tip is bent labially

Pulp Cavity

1 The pulp cavity conforms to the contor of the tooth

2 The central pulpal horn is projecting incisally fartherthan the remainder of the pulp chamber

3 Distal horn is larger than the mesial projection

4 Very little demarcation between the pulp chamber andthe canal can be seen

MAXILLARY FIRST MOLAR (FIGS 1.6A TO D)

2 It is wider buccoligually than mesiodistally

3 It has two major cusps – a mesiobuccal and amesiolingual

Fig 1.6A: Labial aspect Fig 1.6B: Lingual aspect

Fig 1.6C: Mesial aspect Fig 1.6D: Occlusal aspect

Morphology of Primary Dentition 17

4 There is a distobuccal cusp which is smallest of theentire cusp

5 The buccal surface is convex in all directions

6 The buccal surface is divided by the buccal groove

7 There is a well developed buccal ridge present onmesiobuccal cusp

8 A less developed ridge is present on the distobuccalcusp

9 It is much smaller in all measurements than the secondmolar

10 Its relative shape and size suggest that it was designed

to be a “premolar section” of the primary dentition

11 In function it acts as a compromise between the sizeand shape of the anterior primary teeth and the molararea

12 The crown appears squat since the mesiodistaldiameter is considerably greater than the crownheight

13 The mesial moiety of the crown has a greater height

in consequence of its more cervical projection ontothe root area

14 The lingual root is positioned exactly midwaybetween the two buccal roots

15 The cervical third of the buccal margin bulges and iscalled the buccal cervical ridge

Lingual Aspect

1 The crown of a first molar converges toward the lingualsurface

2 The mesiobuccal cusp is always the longest but secondsharpest.

3 The mesiolingual cusp is the sharpest but secondlongest

4 The distolingual cusp is small and rounded, if present

5 A tiny tubercle can sometimes be seen on the lingual cusp

mesio-6 The shorter diameter of the lingual cusp, leads to anarrower lingual diameter

Mesial Surface

The mesial surface is greater in diameter at the cervicalborder than at the occlusal This is true for all molar forms,but it is more pronounced on primary teeth than onpermanent teeth The mesiobuccal and lingual roots arevisible only from the mesial aspect The distobuccal root ishidden behind the mesiobuccal root The mesial marginalridge groove is sharp and deep in profile and continues inthe form of a shallow, narrow depression up the crownsurface toward the cervical line

3 All three roots may be seen from this angle, as thedistobuccal root is superimposed on the mesiobuccalroot so that only the buccal surface and the apex of thelatter may be seen

Morphology of Primary Dentition 19

Occlusal Aspect

1 Crown outline converges lingually

2 The crown converges distally also

3 The occlusal surface has a central fossa, a mesialtriangular fossa

4 It has well developed buccal developmental groove

5 Sometimes there is a welldefined triangular ridge oblique ridge

-6 The occlusal surface has three pits-central, mesial anddistal

7 The mesial pit-deepest and well defined, distal pitshallowest poorly defined

8 The distobuccal cusp is separated from the buccal cusp by a buccal groove

mesio-9 The occlusal pit-groove pattern is frequently shaped

H-10 Supplemental grooves can be seen

11 The crown may have three or four cusps

12 On the 3–cusp form there is only a central and a mesialpit and an oblique ridge which often unites themesiolingual with the distofacial cusps The centralgroove connects the two fossa, the central fossa andthe mesial triangular fossa

13 The distal, facial and mesial developmental groovesradiate from the central pit

14 On the 4-cusp form, there are three fossa – mesial,central and distal A small pit is usually present ineach fossa Grooves originating at the distal pit arethe distofacial triangular, distolingual, and the distalmarginal grooves

15 An oblique ridge runs from the distobuccal cusp tothe mesiolingual cusp

Pulp Cavity

1 Consists of a chamber and three canals

2 The chamber consists of three or four pulpal horns and

is more sharply pointed than the outer contour of thecusp

3 Mesiobuccal is the largest of all the pulpal horns

4 The mesiolingual pulpal horn is angular and sharp

5 The distobuccal horn is the smallest

6 It is sharp and occupies the extreme distobuccal angle

Root

1 They are long and slender and they spread widely

2 The roots are three in number – mesiobuccal, buccal and lingual

disto-3 The lingual root is the longest and diverges in a lingualdirection

4 The distobuccal root is the shortest

5 The trifurcation or bifurcation of roots begins diately at the site of the CEJ (cemento-enamel-junction)

imme-MAXILLARY SECOND MOLAR (FIGS 1.7A TO D)

Morphology of Primary Dentition 21

Fig 1.7A: Buccal aspect Fig 1.7B: Palatal aspect

Fig 1.7C: Mesial aspect Fig 1.7D: Occlusal aspect

2 Two equivalent buccal cusps can be seen from thisaspect with a buccal groove between them.

3 A primary second molar is much larger than aprimary first molar

4 The crown is narrower at the cervix

5 The roots from this aspect appear slender

6 They are much longer and heavier than those of themaxillary first molar

7 The crown of the second primary molar is dal in outline

trapezoi-8 A well defined cervical ridge which extends the fulldiameter of the buccal surface

9 The buccal surface is divided by the buccal grooveinto a mesiobuccal and a distobuccal cusp, the mesiobuccal being the larger

10 The morphological concordance between bothmaxillary and mandibular second primary molars andfirst permanent molars has been termed isomorphy

Palatal Aspect

1 It is convex, inclining slightly as it approaches theocclusal border

2 It is divided by the lingual groove

3 The mesiolingual is higher than the distolingual cusp

4 A fifth cusp, when present, occupies the mesiolingualarea at the middle third of the crown- referred to ascarabelli’s cusp

5 A lingual developmental groove separates the lingual and distolingual cusps

mesio-Morphology of Primary Dentition 23

Mesial Aspect

1 The crown is 0.5mm longer and about 2mm widerbuccolingually

2 The roots are up to 2mm longer

3 The cusp of carabelli is visible lingual and apical to themesiolingual cusp

4 The mesiobuccal root from this aspect appears broadand flat

5 The lingual root has the same curvature as the root ofthe first deciduous molar

6 The mesial surface presents a fairly high marginal ridge

7 The mesiobuccal angle is acute, the mesiolingual angle

3 The distal calibration of the crown is less than the mesialmeasurement

4 Distobuccal and distolingual cusps are about the samelength

5 A rather straight cervical line is evident both distallyand mesially

Occlusal Aspect

1 It has four well-developed cusps – mesiobuccal,distobuccal, mesiolingual, distolingual and a cusp ofcarabelli

6 The buccal developmental groove extends buccallyfrom central pit

7 The oblique ridge is prominent and connects themesiolingual with the distobuccal cusp

8 Distal to the oblique ridge one finds the distal fossa distal developmental groove

-9 The distal groove acts as a demarcation between themesiolingual and distolingual cusps

10 The occlusal surface has three pits The central pit islarge and deep which joins the shallow mesial pit andthe distal groove, which traverses the oblique ridge

to join the distal pit The distal pit is deep

Morphology of Primary Dentition 25

3 The distobuccal root is the shortest and narrowest ofthe three

4 The palatal root is the longest

5 The point of bifurcation between the mesiobuccal rootand the lingual root is 2-3mm apical to the cervical line

of the crown

6 The point of bifurcation between the distobuccal andthe lingual root is more apical than any other points ofbifurcation

7 Unlike the first molar the mesiobuccal root may be aslong as the lingual

MANDIBULAR CENTRAL INCISOR (FIGS 1.8A TO D)

• Number of roots-1

• Number of pulp horns-3

• Number of developmental lobe-1

3 It is smaller than the maxillary central incisor

4 Tooth resembles the permanent maxillary lateralincisor

5 The proximal sides of the crown taper evenly from thecontact areas

6 The root is long, evenly tapered down to the apex

7 The root is almost twice the length of the crown