Routledge handbook of urbanization in southeast asia

It contains six parts, which are each introduced by the editor: • Theorizing urbanization in Southeast Asia • Migration, networks and identities • Development and discontents • Environme

This collection of essays represents a major contribution in the understanding of the contemporary urbanization process in the diverse region of Southeast Asia It is signifi-cant because its shifts the focus from the economic role of urban centers to a concern with the “urban condition” recognizing the human challenges of the urban life which is now a reality for the majority of Southeast Asians Its interdisciplinary approach encom-passes themes such as patterns and the production of urban space, processes of the urban transition (including migration), development discontents, environmental governance and alternative urban development strategies This collection frames a new debate about urbanization that is rewriting the narrative of Southeast Asian urbanization.

Terry McGee, University of British Columbia

ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF

URBANIZATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

The study of urbanization in Southeast Asia has been a growing field of research over the past

decades The Routledge Handbook of Urbanization in Southeast Asia offers a collection of the major

streams and themes in the studies of the cities in the region A focus on the urbanization process rather than the city as an object opens the topic more broadly to bring together different per-spectives This timely handbook presents these diverse views to build a clearer understanding of theoretical contributions of urban studies in Southeast Asia and to provide a complete collection

of scholarly works that are thematically structured and a useful tool for teaching urbanization

in Southeast Asia

Following the introduction by the editor, the handbook is structured along central, emerging themes It contains six parts, which are each introduced by the editor:

• Theorizing urbanization in Southeast Asia

• Migration, networks and identities

• Development and discontents

• Environmental governance

• The social production of the urban fabric

• Social change and alternative development

This handbook will be an essential reference work for scholars interested in Urban Studies, cities and urbanization in Asia, and Southeast Asian Studies

Rita Padawangi is a Senior Lecturer at the Singapore University of Social Sciences Her

research interests and projects cover the sociology of architecture, participatory urban ment and social movements, with a focus on Southeast Asia She is also a coordinator of the Southeast Asia Neighborhoods Network, an initiative that involves urban studies scholars on Southeast Asia from various disciplines to combine field research, teaching and civic engagement

develop-on cities and their neighborhoods in the regidevelop-on

ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK

OF URBANIZATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Edited by Rita Padawangi

and by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

 2019 selection and editorial matter, Rita Padawangi; individual

chapters, the contributors The right of Rita Padawangi to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,

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or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and

explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Padawangi, Rita, editor.

Title: Routledge handbook of urbanization in Southeast Asia / edited

by Rita Padawangi.

Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2019 |

Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2018025632| ISBN 9781138681590 (hardback) |

Rita Padawangi

Peter J Rimmer and Howard Dick

Yap Kioe Sheng

Dean Forbes

Tim Bunnell, Daniel P.S Goh and Huiying Ng

AbdouMaliq Simone

6 Provisional notes on semi-urbanism 75

Abidin Kusno

7 Some conceptual and methodological issues in studying

Gavin W Jones

8 Challenges and opportunities of comparative urbanism:

Sin Yee Koh

9 Debilitating city-centricity: urbanization and urban-rural

Stephen Cairns

PART II

Rita Padawangi

10 Longing and belonging in a global city: skilled migrants in

Michiel Baas

Laavanya Kathiravelu and George Wong

12 Women workers and urban imagination in Indonesia’s

Nicolaas Warouw

Teresita Cruz-del Rosario

14 Between tradition and modernity: the ritual politics of indigenous

Yunci Cai

15 Networks beyond the nation: urban histories of northern

Taylor Easum

PART III

Rita Padawangi

16 Mega-regionalization of a nation: Philippine mega-regions and

Arnisson Andre C Ortega

17 Kota Kinabalu: checkered past, present challenges, bright future? 221

Simone Shu-Yeng Chung and Robin Chung

Yeoh Seng-Guan

19 From socialist modernism to market modernism? Master-planned

Hoai Anh Tran

20 Peri-urbanization in the Surabaya metropolitan area: an

Delik Hudalah, Tania Benita and Ikrar Eka Praya Gumilar

21 Contesting development: youth and industrial labor in

Suzanne Naafs

22 Transportation development and urbanization in the

Saksith Chalermpong

Teri Shaffer Yamada

25 The political ecology of uneven development and vulnerability

Rita Padawangi

Johannes Widodo

Jayde Lin Roberts

Phill Wilcox

Marie Gibert

33 Informality, advocacy, and governmentality in urbanizing northern

Ty Matejowsky and B Lynne Milgram

PART VI

Rita Padawangi

1.1 Decadal shifts in the focus on urban and regional development

discourse and practice in response to economic, political and

1.4 Regional gateways in the Asia-Pacific connected by the world’s

top ten passenger airport pairs by route for international and

1.6 The West Malaysian corridor linking the gateways of Kuala

1.7 The Greater Mekong Subregion transportation corridor

1.8 Greater Mekong Subregion railway corridor network 22

6.2 A cut in the wall: entrance from a kampung to condominiums and

6.4 The emergence of “middle class” rental spaces in kampung 86

9.1 Map of Java showing population density greater than 1,000

9.2 Map of Java showing showing population density greater

than 1,000 people per km2, combined with regions of high

rice productivity 125 9.3 Map showing the population density between 1,000 and 5,000

people per km2 surrounding the city of Semarang in Central Java 125

List of figures

9.4 Map showing the same population density range combined with

rice production, night light satellite imagery and land price data 126 9.5 Detail image of one of the statistical contours combining

14.1 Magavau performance at State Kaamatan Celebration in 2015 182

16.5 The high-story buildings of a mixed-use development

17.1 Map of area under Kota Kinabalu City Hall’s administration

17.2 Jesselton circa 1910 (above) View of Bond Street

17.3 Land reclamation parcels in Kota Kinabalu between

17.5 Kota Kinabalu and surrounding suburban residential and

17.6 New housing supply (completed) against CPO export value, 2005–2015

(above) New office and retail space supply (completed) against CPO

17.8 Sunday market on Gaya Street (above) Traditional tamu in

19.2 Land use description at Trung Hoa Nhan Chinh new urban area 254

19.3b Section of the main internal road in Linh Dam new urban area 25519.4 The homogenous built form in the new urban areas:

one form for the high-rises (above); another for the

20.2 Map of industrial concentration in the SMA in 1995, 2001, and 2010 271

22.2 Urbanized areas in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region from

22.3 Key transportation infrastructure in the Bangkok

22.4 Number of completed housing units in the BMR from

22.5 Market share of three types of housing (completed units)

22.6 Number of completed condominium units in the BMR

within and outside the 1 km buffer of rail transit corridors 30022.7 Locations of new condominium projects in Bangkok from

22.8 Locations of new single-family detached housing projects in

27.1 Per capita water consumption in Penang, 2000–2016 369

29.3 Spatial and structural diagram of shop-house typology 395

32.1 The juxtaposition of various kinds of alleyway patterning in

32.2 The social life of the alleyway: blurring public and

32.3 Local identity and neighborhood working communities:

32.4 “Rhythmanalysis” of a neighborhood: an example from

alleyway 246 Xô Viết Nghệ Tĩnh, (ward 22, Bình Thạnh district) 428

37.4 Press freedom indexes in Southeast Asia (1997–2016)

1.1 Ranking of gateways based on top 25 international container

1.2 Ranking of East Asian gateways based on top 20 hub ranking

in regional shipping, air freight and air passengers, 2015 15 7.1 Differences between urban and rural areas, Indonesia, around 2010 92 7.2 Lao PDR: Some indicators, according to place of residence, 2011 93

7.4 Population growth in core and periphery of Indonesian MURs,

1990–2010 98

8.2 Key statistics: Singapore, Johor, and Iskandar Malaysia 107 8.3 Selected demographic indicators in Brunei, Malaysia, Johor,

13.1 Top ten destinations of Filipinos and Filipinos in the Middle East

17.2 Historical population growth trend for Sabah and West Coast districts 226

20.3 MLI employment in the SMA in 1995, 2001, and 2010 26920.4 LQ index of industrial centers in the SMA in 2010 272

22.2 Urban rail transit lines in Bangkok (as of June 2017) 298

24.3 Hazard capabilities and risks in ASEAN major cities 33324.4 Data scoring of risk and capacities in ASEAN major cities 34037.1 Social media usages and urbanization in Southeast Asia (2016) 480

Diane Archer is an Urban Research Fellow at SEI Asia, Bangkok Previously, she was Senior

Researcher in the Human Settlements Group at the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London, and also worked at the Asian Coalition for Housing Rights (ACHR) in Bangkok Her expertise lies in urban climate change resilience, community-driven development, urban development, slum upgrading and Asian cities, particularly in Thailand Diane holds a PhD in Land Economy from the University of Cambridge, on the topic of social capital and participatory slum upgrading in Thailand

Michiel Baas is a Research Fellow with the Asian Migrations Cluster of the Asia Research

Institute, National University of Singapore He has published extensively on the topic of Indian student migrants in Australia and more recently on Indian mid-level skilled migrants in Singapore Besides that he has been working on the topic of new middle-class professionals in urban India

Tania Benita is a Research Fellow at the School of Architecture Planning and Policy

Development, Bandung Institute Technology, Indonesia Her research interests lie in sion support tools, rural-urban relations and environmental planning Tania’s recent research is focused on renewable energy management and peri-urban and metropolitan planning She has participated in renewable energy development initiatives in rural and remote areas through the program called Mobile Hybrid Powersource She is also an initiator of the CityPlan platform,

deci-a GIS-bdeci-ased deci-applicdeci-ation developed to provide ldeci-and use pldeci-an-reldeci-ated informdeci-ation for pldeci-anners, investors and builders

Piyapong Boossabong holds a PhD in Development Planning Studies from University

College London, UK He works as an Assistant Professor at the School of Public Policy, Chiang Mai University His recent works include “Articulating Public Agencies, Experts, Corporations, Civil Society and Informal Sector in Planning Bangkok Food Systems” published in the

International Society of City and Regional Planners Review, and “Governing Bangkok’s City Food

System: Engaging Multi Stakeholders for Smart, Sustainable and Inclusive Growth” published

in the Journal of City, Culture and Society.

List of contributors

Lily Bui is a PhD student at MIT’s Department of Urban Studies & Planning, Cambridge,

Massachusetts, USA Her research focuses on urban information systems and disaster risk reduction on islands She received her M.S from MIT’s Comparative Media Studies and dual bachelor’s degrees in International Studies and Spanish at UC Irvine, California, USA

Tim Bunnell is Professor in the Department of Geography at the National University of Singapore

(NUS) Tim is a human geographer who works mainly on urban transformation in Southeast Asia and that region’s wider constitutive linkages His recent publications have focused on relational geog-

raphies of urban and social change He is author of Malaysia, Modernity and the Multimedia Super Corridor (Routledge, 2004), and From World City to the World in One City: Liverpool through Malay Lives (Wiley-Blackwell, 2016) From 2013 to 2016, Tim was Principal Investigator on a collaborative

urban research grant at NUS on Aspirations, Urban Governance and the Remaking of Asian Cities

Yunci Cai is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Leicester, United Kingdom

She obtained her PhD in Museum and Heritage Studies from the Institute of Archaeology, University College London (UCL) Her PhD research, which explores the politics of herit-age instrumentalisation at four indigenous cultural villages in Malaysia, is funded by the UCL Overseas Research Scholarship and UCL Graduate Research Scholarship

Stephen Cairns is the Director at Future Cities Laboratory (FCL), Singapore-ETH Centre

He is also Principal Investigator of Urban-Rural Systems at FCL He was appointed to a Lectureship at the University of Melbourne, Australia, before taking up a Senior Lectureship at the University of Edinburgh, UK, and was appointed Professor of Architecture and Urbanism there in 2009 He served as Head of Department of Architecture, and Director of the Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture

Saksith Chalermpong is Associate Professor in Civil Engineering and Deputy Director of the

Transportation Institute at Chulalongkorn University, Thailand, where he teaches tion engineering and planning His research interests include urban transportation, land use and transportation, and equality issues He has published extensively in the field of transportation and has provided consulting services for several government agencies in Thailand, including Department of Land Transport, Office of Transport Planning and Policy, and Bangkok Mass Transit Authority He received his bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering from Chulalongkorn University, his master’s degree from MIT, Cambridge, USA, and his doctoral degree from UC Irvine, California, USA, both in the field of transportation

transporta-Robin Chung recently retired as Managing Director but remains a consultant for C.H

Williams, Talhar & Wong (Sabah), part of the WTW Group, one of Malaysia’s largest group practices of chartered surveyors, valuers, real estate agents and property managers With over

40 years of professional experience, he has valued every type of urban property and plantation

in Malaysia as well as timber areas and oil palm estates in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea

Simone Shu-Yeng Chung is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Architecture,

National University of Singapore She holds a PhD in Architecture from the University of Cambridge, UK, and an MPhil and MSc from Cambridge and University College London (UCL), UK, respectively A Rome Scholar in Architecture and Urban Design, she practised as

a registered architect in London after completing her studies at the Architectural Association, London, and the Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL

Teresita Cruz-del Rosario is an Adjunct Professor at the School of Global Studies, Thammasat

University in Thailand She was former Senior Fellow at the Centre for Asian Legal Studies at the Faculty of Law (NUS), Visiting Associate Professor at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy and Senior Research Fellow at the Centre for Asia and Globalisation (NUS) She has a background

in sociology, social anthropology and public policy from Boston College, Harvard University and New York University, all USA Her research interests are on migration, development and under-development, social movements and civil society, and comparative political transitions

Howard Dick is a Professorial Fellow in the Faculty of Business and Economics at the University

of Melbourne and a graduate of Monash and the Australian National Universities A specialist

on Indonesia with interests in cities, governance and logistics, he is author of Surabaya City of Work: A Socioeconomic History, 1900–2000 (Ohio University Press, 2002) and more recently co- author of chapters in the Oxford Handbook on Cities in World History (Oxford University Press, 2013) and Global City Challenges: Debating a Concept, Improving the Practice (Palgrave, 2013).

Taylor Easum is an Assistant Professor of History and International Studies at the University of

Wisconsin, Stevens Point, USA After completing his dissertation in Southeast Asian History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, he held a position as Faculty Fellow in Global Histories

at New York University His manuscript explores the integration of Chiang Mai into the modern Siamese state through the lens of urban space, and he has published articles on iden-tity, historical memory and religious movements in northern Thailand His research interests include urban history and heritage in Southeast Asia, sacred space, local and regional histories, and comparative colonialism

Dean Forbes is Matthew Flinders Distinguished Professor Emeritus at Flinders University,

Australia, and a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia He was a Public Policy Scholar at The Woodrow Wilson Center in Washington DC in 2013 and was Deputy Vice Chancellor (International and Communities) and Vice President at Flinders University from 2000–2013 Prior to Flinders, he held posts at The Australian National University, Monash University and the University of Papua New Guinea Dean’s current research projects are on uni-versities and the creation of the modern knowledge city and on cities of memory and meaning

Marie Gibert is an Assistant Professor of Geography at the University Paris Diderot, Department

of East-Asian Studies, France She was a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Asia Research Institute (ARI, National University of Singapore) from July 2015 to July 2016 She received her PhD

in urban geography from the University Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne in 2014 Her PhD thesis won the “Grand Prix de thèse sur la ville 2015” from Puca-Aperau and the “Prix de thèse sur l’Asie 2016” from GIS-Asie Her research deals with the dynamics of public and private spaces, vernacular architecture and the practices of city dwellers in postcolonial cities

Daniel P.S Goh is an Associate Professor of Sociology at the National University of Singapore

He specializes in comparative historical sociology, urban studies, cultural studies and the sociology

of religion He publishes widely on these topics in journals and edited books, the latest being the

co-edited book, Precarious Belongings: Affect and Nationalism in Asia (Rowman & Littlefield, 2017).

Ikrar Eka Praya Gumilar is at the Public Administration program at the Sol Price School

of Public Policy, University of Southern California His research interests span governance, public management and poverty reduction During his professional career, he worked in

List of contributors

top-tier government offices and the bilateral development partnership program in Indonesia He

is also a former research fellow at the Rural and Regional Planning Research Group, School

of Architecture Planning and Policy Development, Bandung Institute Technology, Indonesia, with a research focus on metropolitan development

Adnan A Hezri is a Visiting Scholar at the Centre for Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS)

Kyoto University, Japan He is also an Honorary Associate Professor in the Fenner School of Environment and Society at the Australian National University, where he had earlier obtained his PhD in Public Policy Dr Hezri specializes in comparative policy studies, spanning areas such as green economy, environmental policy, natural resources governance and sustainable development strategy

Delik Hudalah is an Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning at the School of

Architecture, Planning and Policy Development and senior researcher at the Research Center for Infrastructure and Regional Development, Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia He has focused his works on the transformation of urban frontiers in emerging cities, metropoles and mega-regions in the context of Asian countries’ transition to decentralization and democ-racy His particular interests are the interfaces, interactions and conflicts between urban and rural landscapes, between socio-economic changes and environmental protection, and between global forces and local aspirations in the production, planning and governance of Indonesia’s suburbs and peri-urban space

Gavin W Jones is Emeritus Professor at the Australian National University (ANU) After

11 years with the National University of Singapore (NUS), mainly in the Asia Research Institute,

he retired in December 2014 as Director of NUS’s JY Pillay Comparative Asia Research Centre His PhD was awarded at ANU in 1966, and his early career was with the Population Council

in New York, Thailand and Indonesia He was then with the Demography and Sociology Program at the ANU for 28 years, serving as head of program for an 8-year period

Laavanya Kathiravelu is an Assistant Professor at the Division of Sociology, Nanyang

Technological University (NTU), Singapore Her interests lie in the intersections between

migration, urban studies, and race and ethnicity Her first book is Migrant Dubai: Low Wage Workers and the Construction of a Global City (Palgrave Macmillian, 2016) She has also pub- lished in the Journal of Intercultural Studies, Urban Studies, as well as numerous book chapters

She was Fung Global Fellow at Princeton University, USA, between 2015–16 and prior to joining NTU, was a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity

Karl Kim is Professor of Urban and Regional Planning and the Director of the Graduate Certificate

Program in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance at the University of Hawaii He

is also Executive Director of the National Disaster Preparedness Training Center, funded by the U.S Federal Emergency Management Agency (ndptc.hawaii.edu) The center has trained more than 35,000 first responders and emergency managers in cities across the world Dr Kim is the author of numerous papers and reports on urban planning, transportation and disaster manage-ment He is also editor of a book series on disaster risk reduction and resilience (Routledge)

Sin Yee Koh is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Arts & Social Sciences, Monash University

Malaysia Her research interests include migration, citizenship, education, postcolonialism, and

urban inequality She is author of Race, Education, and Citizenship (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017) and co-editor of Cities and the Super-Rich (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).

Abidin Kusno is Professor at Faculty of Environmental Studies at York University in Toronto

where he also serves as Director of York Centre for Asian Research His recent publications include

Visual Cultures of Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia (Rowman & Littlefield, 2016), After the New Order (Hawaii University Press, 2013) and The Appearances of Memory (Duke University Press, 2010).

Merlyna Lim is a Canada Research Chair in Digital Media and Global Network Society and

Associate Professor in the School of Journalism and Communication at Carleton University, Canada Lim’s research and publications revolve around the mutual shaping of technology and society, and political culture of technology, especially digital media and information technology,

in relation to issues of power, justice/equality, democracy and citizen engagement In 2016, Lim was named a member of the Royal Society of Canada’s New College of Scholars, Artists, and Scientists

Danny Marks is an Assistant Professor of Environmental Studies at the Department of Asian

and International Studies of City University of Hong Kong Prior to this, he was a Postdoctoral Research Fellow with the Urban Climate Resilience in Southeast Asia project at the Munk School of Global Affairs of the University of Toronto He has spent many years conducting research and working in Southeast Asia, particularly in the fields of climate change adaptation and environmental governance He has published on climate change governance, disaster risk reduction and Thai domestic politics in numerous academic journals, blogs and newspapers

Ty Matejowsky is an Associate Professor who specializes in cultural anthropology He received

his PhD in 2001 from Texas A&M University, USA His research interests include fast food, economic anthropology, globalization, urbanization, culture change and development, and disaster studies Dr Matejowsky currently conducts his research in Southeast Asia, particu-larly the Philippines Recent publications include “The Incredible, Edible Balut: Ethnographic

Perspectives on the Philippines’ Favorite Liminal Food” (Food, Culture and Society) and “Like a

‘Whopper Virgin’: Anthropological Reflections on Burger King’s Controversial Ad Campaign”

(Studies in Popular Culture).

B Lynne Milgram is Professor of Anthropology, Faculty of Liberal Arts & Sciences at OCAD

University, Toronto Milgram’s current research examines Philippine women’s engagement in the global trade and consumption of secondhand clothing between the Philippines and Hong Kong and women’s work as street and public market vendors These enterprises straddle legal/illegal practice and have emerged as growing arenas of labour with increasing urbanization throughout

the Philippines Milgram has published widely on these topics including her co-edited book, Street Economies of the Urban Global South and “Gift-Commodity Entanglements: Repositioning (In) Formality in a Transnational Philippine Market Trade” (Anthropologica).

Suzanne Naafs is a cultural anthropologist who researches the impact of educational change

and global labour market restructuring for young people’s pathways into work, their aspirations for middle-class lifestyles and intergenerational mobility in urban Java, Indonesia Dr Naafs holds a PhD from Institute of Social Studies, The Hague (2012) and has held postdoctoral posi-tions at the University of South Australia (2014–15), and the Asia Research Institute, National

University of Singapore (2012–14) Her research has appeared in Children’s Geographies, Inside

List of contributors

Indonesia, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science and The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology.

Huiying Ng explores links between urban agriculture, open/welcoming spaces for new

imagi-nations of urban life, and community resilience She has worked in non-profit and research work and is currently developing research on agroecological learning assemblages in Southeast Asia, as a Master’s research candidate at the Department of Geography, National University of Singapore She is a founding member of the Foodscape Collective, a Singapore-based collective that works to learn about and imagine different food systems, and TANAH, a nature-food duo She is guided by ideas of ecological and activist citizenship, autonomy and human motivation, and works towards creating the social environments necessary to support these

Arnisson Andre C Ortega is a spatial demographer and urban geographer with research

interests in the spatial politics of peri-urban transformations, dispossession and gentrification, transnational migration and critical demography He is currently an Assistant Professor at the University of the Philippines Population Institute He received the 2017 Virginia A Miralao Excellence in Research Award from the Philippine Social Science Council (PSSC) for his

publication Neoliberalizing Spaces in the Philippines: Suburbanization, Transnational Migration, and Dispossession (Lexington, 2016).

Rita Padawangi is a Senior Lecturer at the Singapore University of Social Sciences (SUSS)

Before joining SUSS, she was a Senior Research Fellow at the Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore She received her PhD in Sociology from Loyola University Chicago, USA, where she was also a Fulbright Scholar for her MA studies Her research inter-ests span the sociology of architecture, participatory urban development, social movements and public spaces

Peter J Rimmer AM is an Emeritus Professor in the School of History, Culture and Language,

ANU College of Asia & the Pacific, The Australian National University He is a graduate of Manchester, Canterbury and the Australian National Universities Recent publications include

Asian-Pacific Logistics (Elgar, 2014) and Consumer Logistics: The Digital Wave (Elgar, 2018) with

Booi H Kam

Jayde Lin Roberts is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of the Built Environment at

the University of New South Wales, Sydney Her book, Mapping Chinese Rangoon: Place and Nation among the Sino-Burmese, was published by the University of Washington Press

in June 2016 In 2018, she recently completed her term as a Fulbright US Scholar in Myanmar, where she examined discourses of development in Yangon during a period of rapid urbanization

Kristian Saguin is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Geography, University of the

Philippines His research lies at the intersection of political ecology, urban studies and agrarian change Exploring the urban metabolic relations between Metro Manila and Laguna Lake, he has written about urbanization, environmental governance, infrastructure and fisherfolk livelihood in journals

such as Geoforum, Environment and Planning A and Aquaculture, among others.

Victor R Savage is currently a Visiting Senior Fellow at the S Rajaratnam School of

International Studies (RSIS) the Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore His

major research interests are climate and environmental change, human-nature relationships and changing urban landscapes in Southeast Asia.

Yap Kioe Sheng is an anthropologist with a doctorate from Amsterdam Free University, the

Netherlands In 2009, he retired from United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) where he was Chief of the Poverty Reduction Section and the Human Settlements Section Before then, he was Associate Professor, later Professor, of Housing and Urban Development at the Asian Institute of Technology in Bangkok for 13 years From

2010 to 2015, he was an Honorary Professor of Housing and Urban Development at Cardiff University’s School of Planning and Geography, UK He had also worked at UN-HABITAT

in Nairobi, from 1982 to 1987 He has worked extensively in Asia and in Africa and written articles and books on urban poverty, low-income housing and urbanization

AbdouMaliq Simone is presently Professorial Fellow, the Urban Institute, University of

Sheffield, Research Associate at the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity, Germany, and Visiting Professor of Urban Studies at the African Centre for Cities,

University of Cape Town Key publications include In Whose Image: Political Islam and Urban Practices in Sudan (University of Chicago Press, 1994), For the City Yet to Come: Urban Change

in Four African Cities (Duke University Press, 2004), City Life from Jakarta to Dakar: Movements

at the Crossroads (Routledge, 2009), Jakarta: Drawing the City Near (University of Minnesota Press, 2014) and New Urban Worlds: Inhabiting Dissonant Times (Polity, 2017) with Edgar Pieterse, Improvised Lives: Rhythms of Endurance for an Urban South (Polity, 2018).

John Taylor is an urban planner and activist He was the founder and Director of the local

Indonesian NGO Yayasan Kota Kita (Our City Foundation) whose mission is to improve ticipatory planning and budgeting processes and encouraging civic engagement in community and urban development (kotakita.org) Since 2016 he has served as the International Project Manager of UNDP’s National Urban Poverty Reduction Program in Bangladesh Over the last

par-16 years he has worked in Latin America, Africa and Asia on a range of urban governance and planning issues

Hoai Anh Tran is an Associate Professor in the Department of Urban Studies, Malmö

University, Sweden Her fields of research include urban and housing policies in transitional societies, social transformations and urban changes, urban space production, looking into the issues of social equity, urban space quality and social cohesion

Nicolaas Warouw is a lecturer at School Humanities and Social Sciences at the University of

New South Wales, Australia He previously taught Anthropology at Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia He has done research and written on the working class in its relation to modernity and cultural change in Indonesia’s industrial towns in Java

Johannes Widodo is an Associate Professor at the Department of Architecture, National

University of Singapore He is co-Director of the Tun Tan Cheng Lock Centre for Asian

Architectural and Urban Heritage in Melaka (Malaysia), and Executive Editor of Journal of Southeast Asian Architecture His research areas include Architecture History, Typology &

Morphology, and Heritage Management He is the founder of mAAN (modern Asian Architecture Network) and iNTA (International Network of Tropical Architecture) He

List of contributors

received his first professional degree in Architecture from Parahyangan Catholic University, Indonesia, a Master of Architectural Engineering degree from Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, and a PhD in Architecture from the University of Tokyo

Phill Wilcox obtained her PhD from the Department of Anthropology at Goldsmiths,

University of London in 2018 She conducted her doctoral fieldwork in Luang Prabang, Laos and was supported by an Emslie Horniman Scholarship from the Royal Anthropological Institute and studied Lao language at the Southeast Asian Studies Summer Institute at the University of Wisconsin-Madison She is now a Research Associate in the Faculty of Sociology at Bielefeld University, Germany

George Wong is currently a PhD candidate at the Sociology Department in the School of

Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore He has previously obtained an

MA in Sociology in the same department as well as a BSc in Political Science and Sociology from the Singapore Management University His research interests intersect three areas: migrants and migration, urban studies and contemporary political theory Currently, he is focusing on reorganizing the concept of “migration regimes” as a framework to analyze urban migrants as features of contemporary labour mercantilism outside of Marxist and neoclassical economist interpretations, borrowing works from Polanyi and Foucault

Teri Shaffer Yamada, a trained Buddhologist with a PhD from the University of California,

USA, is currently Chair of the Department of Asian and Asian American Studies at California State University, USA She has been active in Cambodia Studies since 1997 and in 2002 co-founded the Nou Hach Literary Association in Phnom Penh, which published the only literary journal in Cambodia Concurrently, she expanded her research to casino capitalism in Phnom Penh and the effects of unregulated urbanization on that city’s sustainability

Yeoh Seng-Guan is an Associate Professor at the School of Arts & Social Sciences, Monash

University Malaysia He is an urban anthropologist and has done fieldwork in Malaysia, the

Philippines and Indonesia He also produces ethnographic documentaries He is editor of The Other Kuala Lumpur (2014) and Media, Culture & Society in Malaysia (2010).

Rita Padawangi

Since Terry McGee’s book The Southeast Asian City (1967), scholars have further revisited

perspectives on cities in Southeast Asia Evers and Korff (2000) used the term “Southeast Asian Urbanism” in a book based on twenty years of research in which they posited several strategic aspects in studying cities in the region Rather than finding a general pattern, they examined intersections between culture and identities with contemporary urban economies The term

“pattern” was of interest in Peter Rimmer and Howard Dick’s The City in Southeast Asia (2009),

which referenced McGee’s work in proposing a general pattern as intersections between cal data and contemporary developments The book followed up their article in 1998 that called for attention to the re-emergence of “Westernization” in “Southeast Asian cities” through globalization since the 1980s

histori-Another stream of studies has shied away from proposing a general pattern as well as from using the term “Southeast Asian city” Tim Bunnell, Lisa Drummond and Ho Kong Chong (2002) did not propose a general regional model but rather emphasized on diversity of urban experiences while acknowledging the interconnectedness of cities in Southeast Asia In another edited volume, Robbie Goh and Brenda Yeoh (2003) recognized McGee’s account but proposed more recognition of the heterogeneities of urban cultures and moving away from

“Western” templates of urban developments

Taking into account these various perspectives over time, this handbook is a collection

of major streams and themes in studies of urbanization in Southeast Asia The objectives of the handbook are twofold First, it attempts to build clearer understandings of theoretical contributions of urban studies in Southeast Asia Second is the pedagogical objective: provid-ing a collection of scholarly works that are thematically structured to teach urbanization in Southeast Asia

The target audience of this handbook is first, academics studying urbanization in Southeast Asia These would include, but are not limited to, sociologists, anthropologists, geographers, urban planners, architects and public policy scholars This handbook will also be useful for students as a comprehensive collection of key concepts, theories, contemporary issues and methodologies in studying urbanization in Southeast Asia A broader audience would include policymakers to be able to identify with the academic literatures and the scholarly perspectives

on issues with regards to urbanization in Southeast Asia

Urbanization and the city

It is useful to clarify the terms in studies on urbanization before going into specifics, particularly the terms “urbanization”, “urban” and “city” The terms “urban” area and “city” are often used interchangeably to reflect a group of population within a geographical boundary Coming from the Latin word “civitas”, the word “city” refers to a community within a specific geographical area and the civilizations associated with it Subsequently, social scientists have proposed more elaborate understandings, such as a theatre of social action (Mumford 1938), a place where stran-gers meet and form ideas in a public space (Sennett 1977), and a place with social institutions, political structure, rule of law and market (Weber 1921) “Citizenship” refers to membership of that community The term “urban” comes from the Latin word “urbs” that refers to the area within the city wall Hence, “urbanization” indicates expansion of that formerly enclosed area Without a physical city wall, the expansion often materializes in changing boundaries or popula-tion within the same city boundary

Understandings of the “city” and the “urban” have so far been rooted in European and North American contexts Works of classical social theorists such as Weber’s “The City” was based on medieval cities, while Marx and Engels’ critique on the conditions of the working class was based in England (1892) The proliferation of studies of urbanization from Europe and North America is an indication of urgency to consider cities and urbanization in Southeast Asia

in urban theories

Historians have found that cities and urbanization in Southeast Asia are not new ena, although there have been shifting scales At least three centuries ago urban centers in the current region experienced “the age of commerce”, with cities trading within the region and with China, India and Europe (Reid 1993: 67–77) Earlier civilizations are traceable in Angkor,

phenom-in which urban plans, phenom-infrastructures and monuments that reflect an advanced civilization phenom-in the ninth century (ICOMOS 1992) Ruins of old kingdoms’ capitals such as Bagan in present-day Myanmar and Trowulan in Indonesia reflect the existence of cities that were organized

on cosmic order, as explained by Victor Savage in this volume Possibilities of pre-Indianized urbanization are still debated, but certainly urban areas of Southeast Asia are results of multiple historical layers

Contemporary urbanization challenges in Southeast Asia

Urbanization in Southeast Asia reflects comparable trajectories, although built forms and ties are not necessarily similar First, is the rapid growth of cities, propelled by industrialization and financialization as economies are globally interlinked Massive scales of development are not only in terms of the urban population but also the sizes of projects, particularly in cities that continue to be magnets of capital investment and people (Rimmer and Dick 2009; Sassen 2012) Second, is the uneven development, through which polarizations of societies, livelihoods and living conditions are perpetuated in pursuit of economic growth (Harvey 2012; Smith 1984) Third, is the pervasive environmental degradation that follows urban development All of these trajectories are not exclusively Southeast Asian, but are likely to have similarities among cities with shared histories and cultural relationships

socie-The complexity of contemporary cities and urbanization processes require innovative research methodologies that combine multiple approaches As Southeast Asia continues to urbanize, hinterlands and areas that are remote from the city are becoming parts of the urban constellations – by means of social relations, economies, communication, transportation and environmental landscapes (McGee 1991) Concurrently, urban centers that become economic

urbaniza-Studying urbanization in Southeast Asia

The different approaches in studying urbanization in Southeast Asia do not always amount to theorizing from the region, both on urbanization and on cities The different ways of categorizing and defining what is “urban” in Southeast Asia are indirect consequences of the region’s artificial construct that have become challenges to conduct comparative analyses, as pointed out by Gavin Jones, Stephen Cairns and Sin Yee Koh in this volume There is also the challenge of contextu-alizing the present to the historical background Therefore, critical examinations of boundaries, connections and histories are important to sharpen the studies’ theoretical contributions

In spite of these analytical challenges, studies of urbanization in Southeast Asia continue to address the impacts and processes of the three general patterns of rapid development, inequality and environmental degradation For comparative studies and those that are close to pragmatic implementations, nation-states have become a useful organization to obtain data For example, Karl Kim and Lily Bui’s chapter about disasters in urbanizing Southeast Asia in this volume, Yap Kioe Sheng’s on peri-urbanization as well as Merlyna Lim’s on cyber-urban activism in Southeast Asia, relied on data from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the United Nations, which are constructed along nation-state boundaries, as they are the most readily available for research in areas that are rapidly changing However, studies with long historical perspectives and on geographical identities are questioning state boundaries as defin-ers of societies in Southeast Asia, as demonstrated by Taylor Easum’s chapter and Laavanya Kathiravelu and George Wong’s, among others Discussions of research methodologies to study urbanization in Southeast Asia have also pointed out the problems of relying on definitions and boundaries set by international organizations

The book structure

The handbook is structured following central themes of urbanization challenges in Southeast Asia, questions on methodologies, as well as research trajectories The three general urbaniza-tion challenges – rapid urban growth in globalizing societies and economies, social inequalities and environmental degradation – are juxtaposed with issues in studying urbanization in Southeast Asia, namely the interaction between area studies and general theorization of urbani-zation, the social, cultural and political constructions of the Southeast Asia region, and research methodologies The six parts of this handbook address combinations between the issues in research and challenges of urbanization, allowing interaction between existing studies and the-orization to examine what lies ahead The six parts: – 1) theorizing urbanization in Southeast Asia; 2) migration, networks and identities; 3) development and discontents; 4) environmental governance; 5) the social production of the urban fabric; and 6) social change and alternative development – will be discussed in greater detail in each sectional introduction

Limitations and future research

Although the handbook is an attempt to be as comprehensive as possible in covering various geographies, key issues, perspectives and research methodologies, this handbook is not without

its limitations First, the spread of studies is uneven Readers may notice that Jakarta, Metro Manila and Bangkok are featured in multiple chapters Furthermore, big cities such as Yangon, Phnom Penh and Ho Chi Minh City obtain coverage but not others in their respective coun-tries The uneven spread of city representation in this handbook is reflective of the challenge

in existing studies of urbanization in Southeast Asia: the unequal attention given to various geographies Scholarly attention to urban studies in Southeast Asia tends to concentrate in places that are politically, socially and economically dominant, such as the capital cities of the largest countries in Southeast Asia or the economically dominant ones like Singapore, while Timor Leste is a blind spot, with the exception of Merlyna Lim’s chapter on cyber-urban activism

To confront this limitation, the handbook is structured along key issues rather than locations There is also an effort to cover urbanization in East Malaysia, as demonstrated by Yunci Cai’s chapter on heritage in Sabah and the chapter by Simone Chung and Robin Chung on the urban-ization of Kota Kinabalu This limitation is a signal that attention and focus in academic research are influenced by social, political and economic inequalities in the region It is also a call for future studies of urbanization in Southeast Asia to more comprehensively cover various geographies.The second limitation is that the topic coverage may not be comparable across localities For example, while there is a significant amount of studies in Metro Manila, Jakarta, Bangkok and

Ho Chi Minh City on a wide range of issues from social inequality to environmental hazards, studies in other cities may only cover a specific feature Examples from Yangon in Myanmar and UNESCO World Heritage City Luang Prabang may be more specific to certain issues such

as heritage and culture This is another reminder for future studies of urbanization in Southeast Asia, not only to comprehensively cover various areas and locations, but also to bring a wider range of issues in these various localities to be more accessible to wider groups of scholars

References

Bunnell, Tim, Lisa B.W Drummond and Ho Kong Chong (eds.) (2002) Critical Reflections on Cities in

Southeast Asia, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

Engels, Friedrich (1892) The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844, New York: Cosimo Evers, Hans-Dieter and Rüdiger Korff (2000) Southeast Asian Urbanism: The Meaning and Power of Social

Space, Münster, Germany and London: Lit-Verlag.

Goh, Robbie B.H and Brenda S.A Yeoh (eds.) (2003) Theorizing the Southeast Asian City as Text: Urban

Landscapes, Cultural Documents, and Interpretative Experiences, Singapore: World Scientific.

Harvey, David (2012) Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution, London: Verso.

ICOMOS (1992) ‘World Heritage List, identification (Nomination: The archaeological parks of Angkor, Roluos, and Banteay Srei)’ Available at http://whc.unesco.org/document/153994 (accessed 29 August 2017)

McGee, Terence G (1967) The Southeast Asian City: A Social Geography of the Primate Cities of Southeast

Asia, New York: Praeger.

McGee, Terence G (1991) ‘The emergence of desakota regions in Asia: Expanding a hypothesis’, in

Norton Sydney Ginsburg, Bruce Koppel, and Terence G McGee (eds.) The Extended Metropolis:

Settlement Transition in Asia, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, pp 3–35.

Mumford, Lewis (1938) The Culture of Cities, Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.

Reid, Anthony (1993) Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press Rimmer, Peter J and Howard Dick (2009) The City in Southeast Asia, Singapore: NUS Press.

Sassen, Saskia (2012) Cities in a World Economy (4th edition), Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press Sennett, Richard (1977) The Fall of Public Man, New York: W.W Norton & Company.

Simone, AbdouMaliq and Edgar Pieterse (2017) New Urban Worlds: Inhabiting Dissonant Times, Cambridge,

UK: Polity Press

Smith, Neil (1984) Uneven Development: Nature, Capital, and the Production of Space, Atlanta, GA: University

of Georgia Press

Weber, Max (1921) The City, Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.

PART I

Theorizing urbanization in

Southeast Asia

The first section starts with “Gateways, corridors and peripheries” by Peter Rimmer and Howard Dick, which looks at cities in Southeast Asia as connected urban centers since their ear-liest formation Examining the contrast between mainland and island Southeast Asia, Rimmer and Dick call for more attention to contextualize Southeast Asia within the Asia Pacific and for sensitivity to the different geographies within Southeast Asia Questioning of boundaries

is also applicable to cities, as rural areas are continuously encroached by urbanization urbanization in Yap Kioe Sheng’s chapter is reminiscent of Terry McGee’s (1991) formation of desakota, albeit on a larger scale due to increasingly globalized urban economies

Peri-Besides identifying patterns, future-oriented perspectives also emerge studying the tion of Southeast Asia The influence of the creative economy, according to Forbes, needs to be taken into account to address the broader complexity of urban development in Southeast Asia Meanwhile, Tim Bunnell, Daniel Goh and Huiying Ng suggest aspiration and urban mobility

urbaniza-as future-oriented concepts, which include four key strands: (i) rural to urban migration and mobilities; (ii) migrants’ remaking of themselves and city space; (iii) the middle class city; and (iv) increasingly global constitutive geographies of city transformation

Rather than focusing on themes and patterns, AbdouMaliq Simone and Abidin Kusno offer perspectives to study the “messiness” of urbanization in Southeast Asia Simone’s chapter on the politics of increments in the making of the urban echoes Kusno’s “semi-urbanism” by focusing on the relational economy Kusno criticizes the insufficient attention paid to irregu-larity and fragmentation in the urbanization process, as well as to the binary frameworks in analyzing the city

The second section of this part is on the methodological challenges in studying urbanization

in Southeast Asia Gavin Jones points to problems in definitions, boundaries and data rability across cities and countries in Southeast Asia Jones proposes addressing the problems

compa-by using satellite imagery to analyze urban growth Nevertheless, conventional data sources from respective government offices are also still useful in providing comparative analysis, as

demonstrated by Sin Yee Koh’s chapter on refining comparative research on urbanization in Brunei-Miri and Singapore-Iskandar Malaysia Stephen Cairns’ chapter, while questioning city-centric understanding of urbanization that is continuously perpetuated by various official documents, demonstrates the possibilities of using remote sensing to address boundary issues in urbanization research.

In conclusion, this part demonstrates the potential avenues in constructing urban theories from Southeast Asia First, it is important to be cognizant of urban transformations in the region

to be able to grasp the perspectives offered in this part Second, the various perspectives in theorizing urbanization in Southeast Asia are results from various disciplines and strands in urban studies Each of these perspectives requires suitable methodological approaches in future research Although the choices here are not exhaustive, they represent a range of existing meth-odologies and their challenges, such as ethnography that has been utilized by Bunnell et al and Simone in shaping their perspectives, demographics and statistics with their limitations as exam-ined by Jones, comparative urbanism as Koh demonstrated, and satellite imaging as explored

by Cairns

1 GATEWAYS, CORRIDORS

AND PERIPHERIES

Peter J Rimmer and Howard Dick

Southeast Asia as a region was only ‘discovered’ after the mid-twentieth century Thus the discourse frame itself was contingent, while the internal structure was for several decades con-tested by nationalisms and neocolonialism During the Cold War period, cities were very much subsidiary to nation-states Since then, along with a tidal wave of globalization, city-regions have emerged into new prominence that challenges political structures and familiar imaginings, not least by academics themselves The result is an intellectual mess

Southeast Asia’s cities have always been gateways to and from the wider world The broad concept of ‘gateway’ is more flexible than ‘port city’ in allowing modes of transport and com-munication to be studied together at their urban intersections The spatial tools of gateways and corridors have been applied at a global level to inform the planning of sustainable infrastructure for the transcontinental ‘space of flows’ and used extensively in policy studies within both Canada and Europe (Pain 2007a, 2007b, 2012) However, the physical infrastructure of gate-ways and corridors is insufficient Efficient logistics also require good management within and across borders as an enabling environment for economic development (Chin 2012)

Gateways and corridors provide a useful framework for understanding the emerging structure

of urban and regional development in Southeast Asia We begin by reviewing the academic discourse on cities in Southeast Asia since the 1950s This has been an awkward conversation between area studies perspectives that have tended to ‘exoticize’ and urban studies that have tended to ‘globalize’ (McGee 2007; Jones 2014; Sutherland 2014) As a step towards blending area and urban studies, we contextualize cities in Southeast Asia by identifying gateways and corridors

at both global and Asia-Pacific levels Southeast Asia is seen to enjoy the good fortune of dling busy international trade routes, but the benefits have diffused very unevenly with a manifest core-periphery pattern that especially disadvantages Island Southeast Asia Trade, investment and technological change are still mediated by geography and path dependency (Mahoney 2000) We suggest that the political entity of Southeast Asia-as-ASEAN is not a good regional frame for ana-lyzing urban and regional development More differentiation would better inform policy-making

strad-Urban Southeast Asia ‘discovered’

Not until the mid-1940s did the term Southeast Asia find acceptance to designate the diverse tropical zone located south of China, west of the Pacific Islands, north of Australia and east

of India (Dobby 1950; Fisher 1964; Kratoska, Raben and Nordholt 2005) There was general agreement that colonial rule and interference in this crossroads region linking China and Japan with India and Europe had disrupted the pre-colonial pattern of port cities associated with centuries-long international trade (Reid 1980, 1993; Blussé 2013) Colonial rule and a sharp reduction in ocean shipping costs gave rise to specialization in a narrow range of com-modity exports such as sugar, rice, coffee, tobacco, rubber and tin that were exchanged for imported consumer goods from metropolitan countries All this gave rise to an urban hier-archy comprising nine prime port cities: Bangkok (Thailand), Jakarta and Surabaya (Dutch East Indies), Manila (American Philippines), Rangoon (British Burma), Saigon-Cholon and Hanoi-Haiphong (French Indochina), and Singapore and Penang (British Malaya) (Huff 2012) Yet as late as 1930, none of these cities or city pairs exceeded 600,000 in population and most second cities were much smaller Urban primacy was amplified during the Japanese Occupation of the 1940s and its unstable aftermath The breakdown of colonial controls and worsening rural insecurity led to migration from the countryside that soon created cities exceeding one million (Huff and Huff 2014) By the 1950s scholars were writing about the

‘million city’, primacy and the ‘pseudo’ or ‘parasitic’ nature of the rapid urban development

of these war-torn colonies (Fryer 1953; Hoselitz 1954; Ginsburg 1955) Since then the focus

on urban and regional development discourse and practice has shifted almost by decade in response to economic, political and social changes within countries and variations in academic theorizing and cross-country generalization

The notion of Southeast Asia as a defined geographic space gained substance in the mid-1960s following the overthrow of Sukarno and the end of low-level warfare (Confrontation) between Indonesia and Malaysia In 1967, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established as an intergovernmental arrangement between Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore, at first with a focus on security cooperation but in due course also becoming a forum for economic cooperation

In the academic sphere, Terry McGee (1967, 1970, 1971) was seminal in proposing the Southeast Asian city to be a distinctive ‘type’ of ‘Third World City’ with common urban ele-ments of colonial enclaves, kampongs and squatter settlements McGee was also influential among human geographers at the Australian National University who undertook pioneer-ing studies of the ‘informal sector’ in food, shelter and transport (Rimmer, Drakakis-Smith and McGee 1978; Forbes 1981) Dick and Rimmer (1980) argued for attention to linkages between corporate and unincorporated sectors with room for dynamic intermediate enterprises (Figure 1.1A)

In the 1970s, Southeast Asia’s cities were one by one being swept into an accelerating process

of globalization (Rimmer 1977) Singapore had been at the forefront of this trend as it grew beyond its traditional entrepôt role to become not only the regional hub for container move-ments, airline traffic and telecommunications, but also a center for multinational finance and manufacturing (Huff 1994) Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia soon followed this path but Bangkok under military rule in Thailand, Metro Manila in the Philippines under Mayor Imelda Marcos and Jakarta in Indonesia under Governor Ali Sadikin were unable to achieve such efficiency in their own sprawling and congested capital cities

During the 1980s scholarly attention turned to ‘world cities’ (Figure 1.1B) associated with growing trade, investment, technological transfers and the new international division of labor (Friedmann and Wolff 1982; Sassen 1991) Southeast Asia’s accelerating industrialization was the counterpart of the ‘hollowing out’ of the Japanese economy through offshore investment (Hatch and Yamamura 1986) The manufacture of less sophisticated components of high tech-nology products began to relocate from Japan in a ‘flying geese’ pattern, first to gateway hubs in

Smaller cities and towns

Smaller cities and towns

pjr

pjr

Figure 1.1 Decadal shifts in the focus on urban and regional development discourse and practice in

response to economic, political and social changes

Source: Based on (A) Rimmer 1977: 137, figure 2; (B) Friedmann 1997: 33, Figure 2.3; (C) Rigg 2003:

308, Figure 7.3; and (D) McGee 2002: 18, figure 2

the newly industrializing economies of Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan, before spreading

to the emerging ‘tiger’ economies of Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines, then eventually to China and Vietnam Around the outskirts of their capital cities and ports, rural villages were cleared to make way for new factories and industrial estates At the same time,

a growing middle class gave rise to new housing estates and a rapid increase in private motor vehicle ownership (Dick 1985, 1990; Rimmer 1986a) Such rapid transformation of land-use in turn imposed great strain upon already inadequate urban infrastructure, resulting in an intracta-ble crisis of logistics The Japan International Cooperation Agency and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) became vehicles for Japanese urban planners offering to remedy logistics deficien-cies (Rimmer 1986b)

In the 1990s the focus of scholarly attention turned to extended metropolitan regions (EMR) supported by retail consumption and finance capital (McGee and Robinson 1995) Some claimed, as shown in Figure 1.1C, that Southeast Asian EMRs had distinctively village-city

(desakota) characteristics associated with their extension into wet rice-growing areas (McGee

1989, 1991, 1997, 1998; Forbes, 1996) Others saw ‘First World’ confluences such as the new town gated communities bundled with industrial estates, toll roads, ports and airports that could

be addressed as part of a single urban discourse allowing well-informed comparative analysis (Garreau 1991; Rimmer 1993; Webster 1995; Dick and Rimmer 1998) These lenses suggested very different but not necessarily incompatible approaches

Notwithstanding the expansion of ASEAN to encompass ten nations by the successive sion of Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar, the Asian Financial Crisis

inclu-of 1997–98 showed the vulnerability inclu-of Southeast Asia’s ‘tiger’ economies to unstable national currencies and volatile capital flows (Figure 1.1D) The crisis originated in Thailand and quickly spread to Indonesia and beyond Southeast Asia to Hong Kong and South Korea, highlighting more complex regional and global interdependencies (McLeod and Garnaut 1998)

inter-An historical geography of urban and regional development in Southeast Asia sought to scend the crude nationalization of space by foregrounding cities in three dimensions—as nodes

tran-of the world economy, as gateways to their hinterlands and as systems in their own right—to provide complementary perspectives for studying global and economic integration inside and beyond the nation-state (Dick and Rimmer 2003) A corollary was to move beyond any notion

of Southeast Asia as a closed system equating to ASEAN In reality Southeast Asia continued

to be a porous sub-system of the world economy, and national capitals were also frontiers with and gateways to an always under-rated cosmopolitanism as well as test-beds for new information technologies (Bunnell 2004)

By the end of the 2000s there had been a shift from examining individual cities within the ASEAN bloc to gauging how the set of capital and second cities within the region related to each other and not just to their hinterlands (Rimmer and Dick 2009) This approach offered a way to analyze the processes shaping the growth and transformation of cities after the Global Financial Crisis of 2008 Such processes included the ‘privatization’ of climate with glaring disparities in the availability of air conditioning between rich and poor; the ‘industrialization’

of consumption manifest in the proliferation of shopping malls and global retail franchises; the

‘capitalization’ of urbanization through land banking by Asian conglomerates; and the tation’ of space through rapid motorization and the relative decline of public transport Their implications for urban governance, privatization and decentralization were based on compre-hending the two ‘developmental pathways’ for cities in Southeast Asia In the cases of Singapore and Kuala Lumpur, land use is directed by the government but implemented by the market;

‘contes-in the more typical case, land use ‘contes-in megacities, large second cities, third-tier cities and other significant urban concentrations is influenced by government but driven by the market

Gateways, corridors and peripheries

In the 2010s, the challenge to scholars has been to address the global-local nexus (Bunnell 2013) This has involved ‘drilling down’ from a global perspective to recognize the dependence

of material prosperity upon international flows, through the Asia-Pacific network of tion, trade and migration, to accommodate spillovers from Japan, China and India, before examining urban and regional development in Southeast Asia Here we identify gateways and corridors at global and Asia-Pacific levels before highlighting disparities between Mainland and Island Southeast Asia

produc-Gateways and corridors

Rankings of the world’s top 25 international container, air freight and air passenger hubs vide a good basis for identifying which gateways in Southeast Asia qualify for inclusion in the world league (Table 1.1) Somewhat arbitrarily, our criterion for world gateway status is a city’s presence in at least two of the three rankings Multiple hubs within a 100-km radius are joined together into a single unit (e.g Kuala Lumpur and Port Kelang), while administrative borders may also be crossed to form gateways (e.g Singapore and Tanjung Pelepas) Where centers appear in only one ranking, they are deemed to be specialist container, air freight or air passenger hubs The advantage of this system is that over time gateways and specialist hubs are promoted or relegated based on changes in their relative economic power

pro-Table 1.1 Ranking of gateways based on top 25 international container shipping, air freight and air

Note: Port hubs (million TEUs): Busan (19.5), Qingdao (17.4), Rotterdam (12.2), Kaohsiung (10.3),

Antwerp (9.9), Xiamen (9.2), Hamburg (8.0) and Yingkou (5.9); Air freight hubs (thousand tonnes):

Anchorage (2.0), Miami (1.7), Chicago (1.2), Leipzig (0.9), Abu Dhabi (0.8), Luxembourg (0.7) and

Cologne (0.7); and Air passenger hubs (million pax): Istanbul (42.3), Madrid (33.8), Munich (31.1),

Barcelona (29.1), Rome (28.2), Toronto (25.1) and Miami (21.2)

Source: LL-CL 2016; IATA 2016.

This exercise yields a global archipelago of 17 gateways across a broad swathe of the world (Figure 1.2) Nine are in the Asia-Pacific, four in Europe and two each in the Middle East and North America—none is in Africa, Oceania and Central or South America Although the absence of data on Internet cities underplays the importance of North America, the dynamic role played by the Asia-Pacific in the world economy is emphasized: Bangkok, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur have global status along with Beijing, Hong Kong, Seoul, Shanghai, Taipei and Tokyo.

Asia-Pacific gateways are interconnected into a global corridor that we have elsewhere referred

to as Main Street, an east-west continental axis along which flows of goods, people, tion and money are facilitated by shipping lines, airlines, telecoms and banks (Figure 1.3) The functions of the Asia-Pacific gateways on this global axis are also designed to serve as a ‘power switch’ for the cul-de-sac of Oceania in much the same way as European gateways serve Africa and North American gateways serve Central and South America Since 2013, China’s ‘Silk Road Economic Belt’ and ‘Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century’—the One Belt One Road (OBOR) Initiative—has reinforced these domains A multimodal transport belt is proposed across Eurasia complemented by a sea-road linking intermediate ports between Asia and Europe and affirming connections with Africa and Central and South America

informa-At the Asia-Pacific level, regional gateways are based on their representation in at least two of the shipping, air passenger and airfreight rankings For this exercise, a different set

of shipping, airfreight and air passenger metrics are used to identify regional gateway status Shipping is gauged in terms of cargo tonnage, airfreight in total tonnage and air passengers in total throughput of the top 50 hubs Multiple hubs within a 100-km radius are consolidated into

a single gateway (e.g Kuala Lumpur and Port Kelang to form the Kelang Valley) while national boundaries are again transgressed (e.g Singapore and Tanjung Pelepas) This exercise identifies

15 regional gateways (Table 1.2) As they feature in all three lists, Singapore and the Kelang Valley are represented among the top echelon of regional gateways such as the Pearl River Delta (>41 million) Tokyo (38 million), Beijing-Tianjin (31 million), Seoul National Capital Region (26 million) and Shanghai (24 million) (Schneider et al 2015) Kansai (23 million) is unique

in that it is represented in shipping and air freight but not in air passengers Representation of

pjr

Three top-25 rankings

Dubai Bangkok

Taipei Tokyo Los Angeles

Kuala Lumpur Shanghai

Doha

New York Hong Kong

Beijing

Two top-25 rankings

Figure 1.2 Global gateways

Source: Based on Rimmer and Kam 2018.

EURASIA NORTH AMERICA

(East Coast)

AFRICA CENTRAL AND

OCEANIA

NORTH AMERICA (West Coast)

CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA (West Coast)

ASIA EUROPE

Gateway

One Belt

South South South- east South- east

Hub Hub

Hub

east North- east North-

west North- west

One Road

ranean Mediter- ranean

Figure 1.3 The global gateway and corridor system

Source: Based on Rimmer 2014: 423.

Table 1.2 Ranking of East Asian gateways based on top 20 hub ranking in regional shipping, air freight

and air passengers, 2015

Shipping Air passenger Air freight

Gross weight × 1 million metric tonnes

Million Million Thousand

Pearl River Delta (Hong Kong +

Kelang Valley (Port Kelang + Kuala

Lumpur

Seoul National Capital Region (Seoul

Note: Regional port hubs (million tonnes): Qingdao (476.2), Port Hedland (452.9), Busan (347.7), Dalian

(320.7), Kwangyang (272.0), Xiamen (200.5), Nagoya (197.9), Ulsan (170.8), Dampier (169.9), Newcastle (163.9), Hay Point (115.8), Kaohsiung (110.9), Gladstone (104.6), Kitakyushu (99.3), Saigon

New Port (93.7); Air freight hubs (thousand tonnes): Sydney (39.9) and Kunming (37.5).