Ebook Atlas of the human body: Part 2

Part 2 book Atlas of the human body presentation of content: The endocrine system - Glands and hormones, the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system and immunity, the digestive system, the urinary system and water balance, water balance water balance,... and other content.

The Endocrine System

• Glands containing specialized endocrine cells that produce regulatory

chemicals (hormones )

• Hormones regulate diverse body functions, such as water balance, growth,

and reproduction

Hormone Action

• Hormones: chemical messengers that have specific regulatory effects on

cer-tain cells or organs

• Mechanism of hormone action:

•Endocrine cells release hormones

•Hormones travel in the bloodstream to all body cells

•Hormones bind specific receptors (proteins in the cell membrane,

cyto-plasm, or nucleus) on target cells

•Hormone-bound receptors affect cell activities (e.g., membrane permeability,

metabolic reactions, synthesis of specific proteins, cell division )

• Hormones visit every cell, but only affect specific cells

•Target cell possess specific receptors that bind the hormone.

•Nontarget cells will have different receptors that bind different

hormones

The Endocrine Glands

• Specialize in hormone secretion

• Thyroid gland (Coloring Exercise 7-6)

• Parathyroid glands (Coloring Exercise 7-2): embedded in the posterior

surface of the thyroid gland

• Adrenal gland (Coloring Exercises 7-7, 7-8): consists of the cortex K1and

the medulla K2

• Pancreas (Coloring Exercise 7-3): also regulates digestion (Coloring

Exercise 11-5)

• Gonads (testes , ovaries ): primarily involved in reproduction

• Pituitary gland (Coloring Exercises 7-4 and 7-5): controls the thyroid

gland, adrenal gland, and gonads

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the Endocrine Glands

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

Color each structure and its corresponding term at the same time, using the same color On the top figure:

1 Color the endocrine cell

in a light color, andthe blood vessel lightred

2 Color the hormone ecules a dark color inthe cell and as they jour-ney in the blood to othercells

mol-3 Color the target cell and the receptor thatbinds the hormone

4 Color the two new cellsproduced when thehormone binds thereceptor

5 Color the nontarget cellthat has receptors that bind a different hor-mone

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

Read all instructions before proceeding On the bottom figure:

1 Color the endocrineglands and otherhormone-secretingstructures ( to )

2 Note that theparathyroid glands areonly visible on the pull-

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The Endocrine System: Glands and Hormones

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Calcium Metabolism

• Blood calcium (Ca2+ ) concentration critical for health

• Ca2+ levels determined by events in:

• Bone : bone synthesis reduces T blood Ca2+, bone breakdown increases

(c) blood Ca2+

• Kidney : increased Ca2+retention increases blood Ca2+, increased Ca2+

loss (in the urine C1) decreases blood Ca2+

• Intestine : increased absorption of dietary Ca2+ increases blood Ca2+

• Blood Ca2+levels regulated by coordinated actions of three hormones

Parathyroid

and kidneyStimulus for Low blood calcium High blood calcium Parathyroid hormone

Secretion

breakdown E1 cBone synthesisF1

Kidney Effects cCa 2+ retention E2 cCa 2+ loss in urine F2

absorptionG1

Regulation of PTH and Calcitonin Synthesis

• The bottom figure at right illustrates the regulation of PTH and calcitonin

syn-thesis by negative feedback

• Hormone induces a change, and the change inhibits production of the

hor-mone

• The normal blood Ca2+concentration is six diamonds (representing

9–11 mg/100 mL blood)

• Regulation of PTH secretion

• Low blood Ca2+(four diamonds) stimulates PTH production

• PTH increases blood Ca2+to normal (six diamonds)

• PTH secretion is no longer stimulated

• Note: High blood Ca2+inhibits PTH secretion

• Regulation of calcitonin secretion

• High blood Ca2+(eight diamonds) stimulates calcitonin production

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1 Color the calcium ions

in the blood If you wish,color the background ofthe blood vessel red

2 Color the organsinvolved in calcium me-tabolism (bone ,kidney , and intestine) Color both the kid-ney and the urine C1

yellow

3 Color the hormonenames in the terms list( , , ), usingcontrasting colors

4 Color the arrows, senting the actions ofthe different hormones.First, color arrows E1

repre-and E2using the samecolor used to color PTH

in the terms list peat this process for F1,

Re-F2, and G1

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

On the bottom figure:

1 Color the 4 parathyroidglands Color the thy-roid gland The sites

of vitamin D3 synthesisare not shown

2 Begin with the left-handfeedback loop, involvingPTH

3 Starting at the top, colorthe Ca2+ ions , andthen the hormone name

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(Low Ca2+)

( Ca++)

(High Ca2)

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Glucose

• Critical energy source, acquired from

• Diet (sugars, starches)

• Amino acids (from proteins )

• Fatty acids (from fats )

• Blood glucose concentration is tightly regulated

• Hypoglycemia: insufficient blood glucose

• Hyperglycemia: excess blood glucose

• Regulated by pancreatic hormones

• Insulin lowers blood glucose levels

– Cells take up and use glucose to meet energy needs, and store the excess

• Glucagon raises blood glucose levels

– Liver generates glucose

• Growth hormone, epinephrine, and cortisol also raise blood glucose levels

Insulin Glucagon

(muscle cells , c Glucose breakdown for

cSynthesis of protein

from amino acids E3

Liver Effects cGlucose storage (as cGlycogen breakdown

glycogen ) E4 into glucose F1

cGlucose synthesis from

amino acids F2

Adipose Effects cFat synthesis E5from

glucose (multistep pathway)

Stimulus for Secretion High blood sugar (feasting) Low blood sugar (fasting)

Regulation of Insulin and Glucagon Synthesis

• The bottom figure at right illustrates the regulation of insulin and glucagon

synthesis by negative feedback

• Normal blood glucose concentration: six hexagons (representing 90 mg/100

mL blood)

• Regulation of insulin secretion

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1 Color the glucose ions

in the blood Lightlycolor the organs involved

in glucose metabolism( , , and )

2 Color the nutrients ever they are found; glu-cose (hexagons ), glyco-gen (hexagon strings ),amino acids (triangles ),proteins (triangle strings), and fats (ovals ).Use related colors for and , and for and

wher-3 Color the arrows senting insulin actions(E1to E5) using the colorused for insulin Colorthe arrows representingglucagon actions (F1, F2)using the color used forglucagon

repre-✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

On the bottom figure:

1 Color the beta andalpha cells of thepancreas

2 Begin with the left-handfeedback loop, involvinginsulin

3 Starting at the top, colorthe glucose molecules Color the cartoon repre-senting feasting and thenthe hormone name

4 Color the changed ber of glucose mole-cules resulting fromthe hormone action A

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Structure of the Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

• Cherry-sized gland located in a depression of the sphenoid bone, posterior to

optic chiasm

• Surrounded by bone, except where it connects with the hypothalamus of

the brain by the infundibulum

• Divided into two parts:

• Posterior lobe : nervous tissue

• Anterior lobe : glandular tissue

The Hypothalamus and the Posterior Lobe

• Posterior lobe is physical extension of the hypothalamus

• Individual neurons synthesize and secrete hormones

• Hormones synthesized in the neuron cell body (in the hypothalamus) and

secreted from the axon terminal (in the posterior lobe) into capillaries

• Capillaries receive blood from an artery and drain into a vein

• Posterior lobe hormones travel in the blood stream to any site in the body

• Two main hormones synthesized in hypothalamus and released from posterior

pituitary gland:

• Oxytocin

• Antidiuretic hormone

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

• Causes water retention

• Promotes the reabsorption of water from the kidney into the blood

• Results in reduced volumes of concentrated urine , increased volumes of

dilute blood

• Released when an individual is dehydrated or has low blood pressure (for

instance, from bleeding)

• ADH deficiency (diabetes insipidus L1) causes excessive water loss (large

urine volume is produced)

Oxytocin

• Causes contractions of the uterus and triggers milk ejection from the

breasts

• Used medically to induce labor.

• Secretion stimulated by the pressure of the baby’s head on the cervix during

childbirth and when a baby P nurses

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1 Use light colors to colorstructures to

2 Save red, purple, andblue for later

3 Color blood vessels ,, and purple, red,and blue (respectively)

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

1 Color ADH molecules

as they leave the rior lobe, the kidney ,the concentrated urine( , use dark yellow),and the arrow represent-ing the reduced urinevolume

poste-2 Color the cartoon of a uation when ADH secre-tion will be increased

sit-3 Color the increasedurine volume in a patientwith diabetes insipidus

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Anterior Lobe and the Hypothalamus

• Remember that the hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland by

the infundibulum

• Infundibulum contains neurons extending into the posterior lobe and

blood vessels extending into anterior lobe

• Certain hypothalamic neurons control anterior pituitary by releasing

hormones

Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones

• Released from terminal of short axons into blood vessels (the portal

circulation )

• Each releasing hormone regulates the production of specific pituitary

hor-mones

• Releasing hormone named after a hormone they affect (see table, below)

• Secretion of releasing hormones controlled by negative feedback and neural

stimuli (see Coloring Exercises 7-6 and 7-8 for examples)

Hormones of the Anterior Lobe

• Five types of endocrine cells, specializing in the production of a particular

hormone, secrete into a capillary bed

• Capillaries receive blood from an artery and drain into a vein

• Some anterior pituitary hormones act on their target organs to stimulate the

production of other hormones.

Growth hormone Stimulates growth of bones, c: GH releasing hormone

Promotes protein synthesis T: Somatostatin (SRIF)Increases blood sugar levels

Promotes tissue repair

Prolactin Stimulates milk production in T: Dopamine

the breast

Thyroid-stimulating Stimulates thyroid hormone c: Thyrotropin releasing

hormone (TSH) production by the thyroid hormone (TRH)

gland (see Coloring Exercise 7-6)

Adrenocorticotropic Stimulates production of c: Corticotropin releasing

hormone (ACTH) steroids from adrenal hormone (CRH)

gland , especially cortisol (see Coloring Exercise 7-8)

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1 Use light colors to colorstructures to Usethe same colors as inthe previous ColoringExercise Save red, blueand purple for later

2 Color the short amic neurons thatproject to the portal cir-culation

hypothal-3 Use a dark color for thereleasing hormones ( ,circles) as they passdown the neurons.Although there are manydifferent releasinghormones, just use onecolor

4 Lightly shade the portalcirculation , using lightpurple

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

1 Color structures , ,and dark purple, red,and blue (respectively)

2 Color the growthhormone molecules and their target organ ,using related colors Ifyou wish, lightly shadethe table row discussinggrowth hormone withthe same color

3 Repeat step 2 for theother pituitary hormones

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Estrogen Progesterone Testosterone

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Thyroid hormones

Thyroid Hormones

• Produced by the thyroid gland

• Modified amino acids; contain iodine molecules

•Thyroxine (T4, four iodine molecules)

•Tri-iodothyronine (T3, three iodine molecules)

•T3is more powerful than T4, but they exert the same actions

•T4can be converted into T3in tissues

Actions of Thyroid Hormones

• Stimulates growth and brain development in children

• Enhances some effects of the sympathetic nervous system

•Increases heart rate, blood pressure

•Stimulates brain activity

• Increases metabolic rate (rate at which cells burn nutrients to produce

energy )

•More energy available to accomplish body functions

•Adipose tissue is burned to produce energy

•Body temperature increases, because heat is produced as a byproduct

of metabolic reactions

Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

• T4, T3synthesis stimulated by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH, from

pituitary gland )

• TSH synthesis stimulated by thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH , from

the hypothalamus )

• TRH secretion stimulated by stress and cold , inhibited by heat

• T4and T3inhibit the production of TSH and TRH

•Negative feedback

•Maintains thyroid hormone concentrations within normal limits

Thyroid Hormone Dysfunction

Hyperthyroidism Abnormal stimulation of Heat intolerance, weight loss,

(excess thyroid thyroid gland (Grave’s anxiety, rapid heart rate,

large thyroid (goiter)

Hypothyroidism Thyroid atrophy, pituitary Cold intolerance, weight gain,

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1 Color the thyroid gland, and some thyroidhormones ( , diamonds)leaving the thyroid gland

2 Color the baby’s body and brain , represent-ing growth and brain de-velopment (respectively)

3 Color the adult’s brain ,heart , and abdominaladipose depot , repre-senting actions at thesesites

4 Color the food , ATPmolecule (representingenergy), and thermome-ter (representing bodyheat)

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

1 Color the hypothalamusand TRH molecules(circles ) leaving thehypothalamus

2 Color the anteriorpituitary gland andTSH molecules (squares) leaving the pituitary

3 Color thyroid hormonemolecules (diamonds )traveling to the anteriorpituitary gland and hypo-thalamus to inhibit theactivity of the thyroidgland Color the negativesigns representingnegative feedback

4 Color the cartoons of coldand stressed people ,representing situations

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Coloring Exercise 7-7 ➤ Adrenal Hormones: Epinephrine

and Aldosterone

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

Color each figure part and its name at the same time, using the same color Save light red, dark red, green, brown, and yellow for later.

1 Color the adrenalmedulla and cortex .

2 Color the arrows senting the different ad-renal hormones ( ,

repre-to ) and the carrepre-toonsreflecting their actions

3 On the middle figure,color the different organsaffected by norepineph-rine/epinephrine ( to)

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

On the bottom left figure:

1 Color the kidney brown, the urine light yellow, and the bloodvessel light red

2 Color the letters ing sodium (Na ) andpotassium (K )

indicat-✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

On the bottom right figure:

1 Color the adrenal cortexand the kidney

2 Color the large arrowleaving the adrenal cor-tex, representing aldos-terone

3 Color the letters ing sodium (Na ) andpotassium (K ), andthe renin-angiotensinsystem (RAAS )

indicat-4 Color the negative signs,

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Adrenal Gland

• Inner medulla , synthesizes norepinephrine and epinephrine

• Outer cortex , synthesizes adrenal steroids

• Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone ): regulate salt balance (see below)

• Glucocorticoids (cortisol ): important in the stress response (for instance,

starvation on a desert island; see Coloring Exercise 7-8)

• Sex steroids : induce male characteristics in females (facial hair, etc.);

minimal effects in males

Norepinephrine and Epinephrine

• Closely related hormones

• Help body respond to emergency situations

• Effects include

• Pupil dilation

• Dilation of airways , to permit deeper breaths

• Increased blood pressure and heart rate

• Increased conversion of glycogen into glucose in the liver

• Decreased activity of gastrointestinal tract

• Dilation of blood vessels in muscle

• Contraction of the bladder

• Increased metabolic rate of cells

• Secreted when the sympathetic nervous system is activated

Aldosterone

• Acts at kidney to increase sodium (Na) retention and decrease

potas-sium (K) retention

• Less Na leaves body in urine ; blood Na concentrations increase

• More K leaves body in urine; blood K concentrations decrease

Regulation

• Secretion stimulated by high plasma potassium , inhibited by low plasma

potassium

• Low plasma sodium levels stimulate release indirectly, via the

renin-angiotensin system (RAAS)

• Aldosterone increases blood Na levels and decreases blood K levels

• These changes reduce aldosterone secretion by negative feedback U

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(blood) (blood)

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Cortisol

• Synthesized in adrenal cortex

• Helps body respond to stress by increasing available nutrients for energy and

tissue repair

Roles

• Storage forms of nutrients are converted into readily available forms and

secreted into blood

• Liver : glycogen converted to glucose

• Muscle and connective tissue (not shown): protein converted to

amino acids

• Adipose : fat converted to fatty acids

• Nutrients used to

• Generate glucose from amino acids (gluconeogenesis)

• Provide energy (all nutrients)

• Repair tissues (amino acids)

• Inhibits the inflammatory response and immune system in high doses

(medic-inal use)

Regulation

• Secretion regulated by the hypothalamopituitary axis and negative

feedback

• Pituitary adrenocorticotropin (ACTH ) induces cortisol release

• Hypothalamic corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH ) induces ACTH

release

• CRH release stimulated by physical (starvation, trauma or emotional stress)

• Cortisol from adrenal gland inhibits CRH and ACTH release

Dysfunction: Cushing Syndrome

Cushing syndrome caused by excess activity of the pituitary or adrenal

gland or overmedication with corticosteroids

Thinning extremities, muscle wasting Cortisol stimulates muscle breakdown

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1 Lightly color the organstargeted by cortisol:(liver , muscle , andadipose )

2 Color the nutrientswherever they are found(blood and tissues) Userelated colors forglucose and glycogen, amino acids andproteins , and fattyacids and fats Usethe same colors as inColoring Exercise 7-3

4 Color the arrows , representing metabolicactions of cortisol

5 Color the injured tissueand the ATP molecule, representing uses forthe nutrients

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

On the bottom left figure:

1 Color the hypothalamusand CRH moleculesleaving the hypothala-mus

2 Color the anteriorpituitary gland andACTH molecules leaving the pituitary

3 Color the adrenal cortexand cortisol molecules, traveling to the ante-rior pituitary gland andhypothalamus to inhibittheir activity Color thenegative signs M repre-

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• Blood (Coloring Exercises 8-3 to 8-5): the fluid of life, carrying substances to

cells (oxygen, nutrients) and away from cells (carbon dioxide, waste products)

• Blood vessels: pathways for blood movement

• Heart: propels blood through blood vessels

Heart

• The heart (Coloring Exercises 8-6 to 8-8) is a fist-shaped, muscular organ

located in between right and left lungs, above the diaphragm

•Upper base A1, lower apex A2

•Protected by bony cage of ribs

• Surrounded by connective tissue sac (the pericardium )

• Cardiac muscle (Coloring Exercise 4-1) provides force that propels blood

Blood Vessels

• Blood vessels (Coloring Exercises 8-9 to 8-16) contain up to three tissue types,

which may be separated by layers of elastic tissue

•Inner tunic: endothelium

– Squamous (flat) epithelial cells (Coloring Exercise 1-7)

– Provides smooth surface for blood flow

•Middle tunic: smooth muscle

– Contracts to shrink vessel diameter

– Controlled by autonomic nervous system

•Outer tunic: connective tissue

– Strengthens and supports blood vessel

• Blood leaving the heart passes through different types of vessels, listed

below in order

1 Arteries Thick outer tunic Carry blood from heart; resist

Two smooth muscle layers strong forces created by heartExtensive elastic tissue

Thinner walls than arteries; pressure; convey blood to capillarieslots of smooth muscle

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An Overview

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

Color each structure and its name at the same time, us- ing the same color.

1 Color all of the labeledparts ( to ) Do notuse red, blue, or purple

2 Use the same color for, A1, and A2

3 Use a dark color to line the pericardium

out-4 On the bottom figure,begin with the heart onthe far left As youmove left to right, colorthe different vesseltypes ( to ) Use thefollowing color scheme:arteries red, arterioleslight red, capillariespurple, venules light blue, veins darkblue Note that there aremany more branchingsthan are shown here

5 As you read through thetable, color the differenttunics in each vesseltype ( to ) in themiddle figure Note thatcapillaries (at the bottom

of the diagram) are posed solely of endothe-lium

com-6 Color the valves inthe vein by lightly shad-ing over the tunics youcolored in step 2

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The Cardiovascular System

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heart base apex right lung left lung diaphragm ribs

pericardium

arterioles capillaries venules veins valves

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A 1

A 2 B.

Pulmonary Circulation: Gas Exchange

• Involves the right side of the heart

• Carbon dioxide moves from blood to lungs, oxygen from lungs to blood

• Blood arriving in lungs is relatively low in oxygen (deoxygenated)

• Blood is bluish in color

• Blood leaving the lungs is relatively high in oxygen

• Blood is redder in color

Systemic Circulation: Nourishment and Waste Removal

• Involves the left side of the heart

• All tissues (including the heart) receive oxygenated blood from the left side of

the heart

• Tissues remove oxygen, add carbon dioxide

Right Atrium

Right Ventricle

Pulmonary Arteries

Pulmonary veins

Pulmonary capillaries (lungs):

oxygen added,

CO 2 removed

Left Atrium

Left Ventricle Aorta Systemic Arteries

Capillary Beds (oxgen removed,

CO 2 added)

Systemic veins

Inferior L / Superior M Vena cava

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1 Use the following colorscheme:

Pulmonary andsystemic capillarybeds: variants of purple.Systemic arteries andpulmonary veins : vari-ants of red (could alsouse pink and orange ifnecessary)

Systemic veins andpulmonary arteries :variants of blue

2 Start with thepulmonary circulation(top part of theflowchart) Follow theblood through thepulmonary circulation,starting with the rightatrium Color thestructures on the right-hand page and lightlyshade the flowchartboxes on the left-handpage as you go If youwish, draw arrows to in-dicate the direction ofblood flow on thediagram

3 Repeat step two for thesystemic circulation, be-ginning with the leftatrium

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lung

Head andArms

Organs

Legs

right atrium right ventricle pulmonary arteries pulmonary capillaries pulmonary veins

left atrium left ventricle

aorta systemic arteries capillary beds systemic veins inferior vena cava superior vena cava

Blood Constituents

• Blood can be separated into components by centrifugation

• Heavier elements sink to the bottom of the tube

Hematocrit

• Volume percentage of erythrocytes in whole blood

• Normal hematocrit: 42%–54% (men) or 36%–46% (women)

• Anemia H1: low hematocrit (too few erythrocytes)

• Hemolytic anemia: abnormal destruction of erythrocytes (e.g., sickle-cell

anemia)

• Deficiency anemia: insufficient erythrocyte building blocks (such as iron or

vitamin B12)

• Aplastic anemia: insufficient erythrocyte synthesis in bone marrow,

reflect-ing bone marrow damage or cancer

• PolycythemiaH2: high hematocrit

• Too many erythrocytes: bone marrow disorder, living at high altitude

• Insufficient plasma: dehydration

Regulation of Erythrocyte Synthesis

1 Blood oxygen levels drop

2 Low blood oxygen stimulates erythropoietin synthesis by kidney

3 Erythropoietin stimulates erythrocyte synthesis by the bone marrow

4 Erythrocytes carry more oxygen in the blood

5 Blood oxygen levels increase; the stimulus for erythropoietin secretion is

removed

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Whole blood

55% Plasma (liquid)

1% Other substances (nutrients, ions, wastes, gases, vitamins)

45% Formed elements (cells, cell fragments)

< 1% Leukocytes (white blood cells;

fight cancer &

infection)

99.1% Erythrocytes (red blood cells;

carry gases)

< 1% Platelets (thrombocyte fragments; clot blood)

8% Proteins (albumin, clotting factors, antibodies, hormones)

1 Color the different bloodconstituents ( to ),using variants of red for, , and

2 You can also lightlyshade the boxes in theflowchart if you wish

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

On the top right figure:

1 Color the plasma andleukocytes/platelets

in all three blood tubes

2 Color the erythrocytes inthe first tube (normalhematocrit) using thesame color as you usedfor , above

3 Color the erythrocytes inpatients with anemia H1

and polycythemia H2ing variants of red

us-✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

On the bottom figure:

1 Beginning with step 1,color the oxygen mole-cules in blood and thekidney Proceedthrough steps 2–5,coloring the differentelements as you go

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Formed Elements

• Blood cells can be identified in blood smears

• Blood droplet placed on microscope slide and “smeared” to produce a thin

film

• Smears usually stained with Wright’s stain to visualize nuclei, granules, and

cytoplasm

• Differential blood count: identifies the number of each white blood cell

(WBC) type in one microliter of blood: elevations or decreases can indicate

disease

Erythrocyte Pink, no nucleus or Carries oxygen, See Coloring

granules; packed with carbon dioxide, Exercise 8-2

hemoglobin A1 hydrogen ions

Neutrophil Nucleus: lobed, Phagocytosis of ↑: infection, arthritis,

usually visibleCytoplasm: pale pink

Eosinophil Nucleus: purple Fight parasites, ↑: allergic events, drug

(1%–3% Granules: large, may inhibit allergic reactions, parasitic

Lymphocyte Nucleus: deep purple Involved in specific ↑: acute infection,

(25%–38% Granules: few if any immune responses lymphoid malignancy

Basophil Nucleus: dark blue, May mediate ↑: Rare, may indicate

(1% of WBCs) often obscured by allergic responses viral infections,

Granules: large, dark blueCytoplasm: pink

Monocyte Nucleus: purple Precursor to ↑: infection (usually

of WBCs) Cytoplasm: light blue (macrophages

phagocytose microbes)

Platelets Granules: purple Blood clotting ↓: cancer treatment,

cancers

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✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

Color each structure and its corresponding term at the same time, using the same color

1 Color a few erythrocytesbright red in each figure

2 Color the hemoglobinmolecule A1using a related color

3 Color the names of thesix other formedelements ( to ) us-ing dark colors (not blue,pink, or purple) Usethese colors to outlinethe box surrounding therelevant figure, and (ifyou like) the row of thetable

4 Use the colors listed inthe table to color the nu-cleus, granules, and cy-toplam of the differentblood cells For instance,color the eosinophilnucleus purple, the cyto-plasm pale pink, and thegranules dark pink (C)

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GranuleCytoplasm

• Process that prevents loss of blood cells and plasma following vessel

injury

• Vessel wall components include:

• Endothelium : inner epithelial lining

• Smooth muscle : determines vessel diameter

• Extracellular matrix (especially collagen ): surrounds blood vessel

• First stage: Vasoconstriction

• Vascular smooth muscle contracts

• Vessel diameter shrinks, limiting blood loss

• Second stage: Platelet plug formation

• Platelets , other blood components contact collagen

• Platelets become sticky, forming a platelet plug G1

• Third stage: Coagulation (clotting) and hemostasis

• Fibrinogen : soluble plasma protein (dissolved in plasma)

• Fibrinogen converts to fibrin , which forms solid threads

• Fibrin strands and red blood cells form a clot

Control of Blood Clot Formation

• Multi-step pathway controls conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin

• Initiated by two stimuli

• Exposed collagen

• Tissue factor : membrane receptor made by damaged endothelial cells

(and other cells)

• Many other factors stimulate (coagulants) or inhibit (anticoagulants) the

clotting pathway

• Factor (thrombin) that activates clot formation also stimulates clot dissolution

by activating plasmin

exposed collagen

prothrombinase

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damaged cells make tissue factor J

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G1the same color min is symbolized byscissors

Plas-2 The flowchart boxes belled with letters canalso be colored if youwish

la-3 Note that the labeledstructures are NOT toscale

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Injury

Vasoconstriction

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Orginal

size of

vessel

Platelet plug formation

Name Structure Function

Superior vena Large vein Delivers deoxygenated blood from

Inferior vena Large vein Delivers deoxygenated blood from

Right atrium Thin-walled heart chamber; Receives blood from venae cavae and

Right AV Valve separating right Prevents backflow of blood from the

valve atrium and ventricle; ventricle to the atrium

three cusps

Right Thin-walled heart chamber Receives blood from right atrium,

ventricle (thicker than atria); lower delivers it to pulmonary trunk

right

Pulmonary Three-cusp valve at Prevents backflow from pulmonary

valve pulmonary trunk entrance artery into right ventricle

Pulmonary Large artery Delivers blood to pulmonary arteries

trunk

Right , left The only arteries carrying Deliver deoxygenated blood to lungs

pulmonary deoxygenated blood

arteries

Right , left Site of gas exchange Add oxygen to blood, remove carbon

lungs between air and blood dioxide from blood

Right , left The only veins carrying Deliver oxygenated blood to left atrium

pulmonary oxygenated blood

veins

Left atrium Thin-walled heart chamber; Receives blood from pulmonary veins,

Left AV valve Valve separating left atrium Prevents backflow of blood from the

and ventricle; two cusps ventricle to the atrium

Left ventricle Thick-walled heart Receives blood from left atrium;

chamber; lower left delivers it to aorta

Aortic valve Valve at aorta entrance; Prevents backflow from aorta into left

Aorta Thick-walled artery Delivers oxygenated blood to body

Chordae Tendons connecting Prevent valves from turning inside out

tendineae papillary muscle and valves

Papillary Muscles connecting Help chordae tendineae keep valves in

muscle chordae tendineae to place

heart muscle

T S R Q P O N

M

L K

J

I

H G F E D

C B

2 For the endocardium ,just color this heart walllayer in cross section(the narrow line) The en-tire interior of the heartthat is visible is actuallyendocardium

3 If you wish, draw arrows

to represent the flow ofblood through the heart.Use blue arrows for deoxygenated blood and red arrows foroxygenated blood Thepathway of blood flow isshown in the flowchart

of Coloring Exercise 8-2

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™FLASHCARDS 29 AND30

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P T S O Q N M I G

arteries arteries

Arterial Supply to the Heart Muscle

• The flowchart below illustrates blood flow through the coronary arteries

• All cardiac arteries send smaller branches to nourish the heart muscle

• Anastomosis: communication between two arteries

• If one artery is blocked, the blood can travel through the other artery

Venous Drainage of the Heart Muscle

• Blood from the walls of the right atrium and ventricle drains into the anterior

cardiac veins

• Blood from the walls of the left atrium and ventricle eventually drains in the

coronary sinus (sinus: large channel draining deoxygenated blood)

• The flowchart below illustrates the patterns of blood flow through the

coronary veins.

right atrium

anterior cardiac veins coronary sinus

great cardiac vein

middle cardiac vein

L

N

M J

Left Ventricle

Ascending Aorta Aortic Arch Rest of Body

right coronary left coronary

marginal anterior

interventricular circumflex

posterior interventricular anastomosis

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

Color each structure and its corresponding term at the same time, using the same color

1 The locations of the tricles and atria arelabeled for orientationpurposes Rememberthat these structures arechambers within theheart, not structures onthe outside of the heart

ven-2 Use red-related colors forthe arteries (such asreds, pinks, and oranges)

3 Go through the flowchart and both views (an-terior/posterior) together,following the blood as itleaves the left ventricle

4 Color the vessels, andlightly shade (or outline)the flowchart boxes, in al-phabetical order ( to )

5 Outline the circlesurrounding the anasto-mosis between theposterior and anterior in-terventricular arteries

6 Color all of the offshoots(arterioles) of the arter-ies the same color asthe supplying artery

I

H A

E

Rightventricle

D

H L

G

Left atrium

Leftventricle

Right atrium

Right ventricleLeft

ventricle

H N

H

K H

F M

C L I

Cardiac Cycle

• Events that occur during one heart beat

• Diastole  relaxation

• Systole  contraction

Diastole Atrial Systole Ventricular Systole

valves open?

valves open?

Oxygenated and Atria to Atria to Ventricles to aorta/

de-oxygenated blood flow? ventricles ventricles pulmonary artery

Conduction System of the Heart

• Specialized muscle cells (conducting cells) convey signals

• Electrical signals stimulate nearby muscle cells to contract

• Sinoatrial node: initiates heart beat by generating action potentials

• Action potential spreads through conducting cells

Events

1 Sinoatrial node initiates action potential

•Frequency of action potentials determines pulse

•72 action potentials/minute: pulse  72

2 Action potential spreads through atrial muscle cells , causing the atria to

contract (atrial systole).

3 Action potentials arrive at atrioventricular (AV) node , where there is a

short delay Action potentials cannot spread directly from atrial muscle cells to

ventricle muscle cells.

4 Action potentials spread from AV node down the bundle of His , and down

the right and left bundle branches L1.

5 Action potentials spread through Purkinje fibers

6 Purkinje fibers excite ventricular muscle cells (ventricular systole, not shown).

The contraction begins at the bottom of the heart, squeezing blood upwards.

M

LK

JI

H G F

E

D C

B A

System

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

Color each structure and its corresponding term at the same time, using the same color On the top figure:

1 Color all of the elements

of one diagram beforeproceeding to the next,beginning at the far left.Save red and blue

2 Color the name of thestage in black

3 Color the arrows senting contraction (ifrelevant) of the atria

repre-or the ventricles

4 Color the valves ( to) (They are onlylabeled on the first dia-gram.) Note if they areopen or closed

5 Color the arrows senting blood flow Usered for oxygenatedblood flow (left heart, )

repre-and blue fordeoxygenated bloodflow

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

On the bottom left figure:

1 Color the elements ofthe cardiac conductingsystem

2 The movement of actionpotentials through theatria (right heart, ) isrepresented by arrows.Action potential conduc-tion through the ventri-cles is not shown

Diastole Atrial systole Ventricular systole

A H

•Abdominal aorta , which branches into two common iliac arteries

• Each section has numerous branches supplying organs (dashed boxes, below)

with oxygenated blood

Left Ventricle

Ascending Aorta

Aortic Arch

Thoracic Aorta

Abdominal Aorta

Common iliac (left and right)

coronary (2)

left upper extremity

pelvic organs internal iliac (2)

lower extremities external iliac (2)

celiac trunk

left gastric splenic

hepatic

renal (2) kidney

stomach spleen

liver

superior mesenteric gonadal (2)

inferior mesenteric

lower part of large intestine

(9-10 pairs) chest wall

left subclavian

Left common carotid

head and neck (left side) heart

right common carotid

head and neck (right side)

right subclavian

right upper extremity

K J F

CBA

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

1 Go through theflowchart and the figuretogether Color thestructure, the box in theflowchart, and the termwith the same color

2 Follow the path of theaorta ( through ) as

it eventually splits intothe two common iliac arteries

3 Color the branches ofthe ascending aorta first,then the branches of thethoracic and abdominalaorta Note that only onepair of intercostal arter-ies is labelled, and theceliac trunk is veryshort Paired arteries areindicated by (2) after thename in the terms list

4 Finally, color thebranches of thecommon iliac arteries

5 If you wish, color the gans using the samecolor as you used for therelevant artery Forinstance, color the stom-ach with the color youused for the gastricartery

or-M

E

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™FLASHCARDS 31 AND32

G

A F

K

B

C

L M

D T

P O N

Systemic Arteries

• This Coloring Exercise shows the relationship between selected arteries of the

upper extremity, neck, and lower limb

• Arteries of the head: see Coloring Exercise 8-11

• Branches of the aorta: see Coloring Exercise 8-9

• Genicular artery is an anastomosis: junction of multiple arteries

• Enables blood to bypass damage to one of the participating arteries

left subclavian left common

carotid

right common carotid

B

D

See plate 8-11

brachial

volar (palmar) arches K

volar (palmar) metacarpals L

digitals M

vertebral axillary

F

A Aortic Arch

C brachiocephalic

E right subclavian

ulnar radial

follow scheme for the right side

anterior tibial U

dorsalis pedis V

dorsal metatarsals W

posterior tibial X

peroneal Y

popliteal femoral

left common iliac

internal iliac external iliac

deep femoral

genicular S

R

T Q

N G

H

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

1 Go through theflowchart and thediagram, following theorder of the letters.Lightly shade (or outline)the box on the

flowchart, and the term

in the list, with the samecolor used to color theartery

2 Most arteries are paired—they occur on both sides of the body Onlyone side is labeled forarteries to , but try

to locate and color eachartery on both sides ofthe body

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™FLASHCARDS 33 AND34

A

F E C

G

H I

J K

S

T Q

U

W V

Y X

brachiocephalic right comon carotid

right subclavian vertebral

axillary brachial radial ulnar volar arches volar metacarpals digitals

left common iliac

internal iliac external iliac femoral

deep femoral popliteal genicular anterior tibial dorsalis pedis dorsal metatarsals posterior tibial peroneal

Arteries of the Face and Skull

• Branches of the external carotid arteries supply the face and skull

• The name of the artery describes the area it supplies

Arteries of the Brain: The Circle of Willis

• The internal carotid AND the vertebral arteries supply the brain

• Circle of Willis: large anastomosis supplied by the internal carotid and

vertebral arteries

• Blockage to one artery does not completely block the brain’s blood supply

C M

A brachiocephalic trunk

L right subclavian

I temporal

J frontal

H superficial temporal

G maxillary

K occipital

E facial

F labial

D superior thyroid

right external carotid

B right common carotid

Nright internalcarotid

left posterior cerebral

right posterior cerebral

right posterior communicating

right middle cerebral

right anterior cerebral anterior

communicating

left anterior cerebral

left middle

cerebral

left posterior communicating

O basilar

aorta left common carotid

left external carotid

follow scheme for right external carotid

Circle of Willis

MN

C

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

On the top figure:

1 Follow blood travelling tothe regions of the faceand skull ( to ) Gothrough the flowchartand the diagram, follow-ing the order of the let-ters Lightly shade (oroutline) the box on theflowchart and the term

in the list with the samecolor used to color theartery Only the rightside is shown

On both figures:

2 Using the same dure, follow blood travel-ling to the brain Colorarteries through ontop figure, and arteriesthrough on bottomfigure Only the arteries

proce-on the right side of theCircle of Willis arelabelled You can use thesame color scheme tocolor the arteries of theleft side

3 Note that arteries ing up the Circle of Willisare in circles, not boxes,

mak-in the flowchart

4 Some vessels aredescribed in theflowchart but not shown

in the Figure You cansee these vessels onFigures 8-9 and 8-10

T N

M L

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™FLASHCARDS 35 AND36

Spinal cordCerebellumMedulla

Cerebrum (frontal lobe)

O

N M

P Q R

S

T

N

L M

N

A B

D C

E F G

J

H

I

K

Veins: General Principles

• Two large veins return deoxygenated blood from body to heart

• Superior vena cava : drains body above the diaphragm

• Inferior vena cava: drains lower body (Coloring Exercise 8-13)

• Veins can be classified by location

• Superficial veins: near body surface, often in extremities (e.g., )

• Deep veins: often parallel arteries (e.g., )

Veins of the Upper Body

• Smaller veins merge to form larger veins, for instance:

• Brachial  basilic  axillary

• Axillary  cephalic  subclavian

• Subclavian  internal jugular  external jugular 

brachiocephalic

• Right brachiocephalic  left brachiocephalic  superior vena cava

• Most veins are paired, but the azygos vein is unpaired

M

A right internal jugular (scalp, face, neck)

right subclavian

C right brachiocephalic

right external jugular (skull, face, neck) B

left brachiocephalic

D superior vena cava

L right axillary

K

right brachial

(forearm, hand)

F azygos (drains chest wall)

E intercostals (chest wall, vertebrae)

right cephalic (upper

limb, lateral

surface)

basilic (upper limb, medial surface) I

wrist/hand veins (e.g volar digitalis) G

follow scheme for right side

deep veins superficial veins

F

DC

C

BA

M

MH

L

LI

K

A

ED

✍ COLORING INSTRUCTIONS

1 Go through the chart and the figure to-gether Some boxes listthe regions drained bythat vein

flow-2 Follow blood drainingfrom the head ( to ),then from the chest wall( to ), then from theupper limb ( to ).Color all hand veins the same color

3 Lightly color or outlinebox with the same color

as the term and thevein

4 Note that only the rightarm is shown

G M G F E

D A

™FLASHCARD 37

I K

J

D H

H I

G