Morphological changes of two lichens’ species as the effect of air pollution in palembang city, indonesia

Keywords: Lichens, Flavoparmelia caperata, Caloplaca marina, Palembang city, air pollution.. Source of heavy metals in urban areas .... Heavy Metal Accumulation in Flavoparmelia caperata

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

Thai Nguyen - 2018

Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry

Dr Arinafril, Sriwijaya University, Indonesia

Mr Do Xuan Luan, Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry

jams Two specimens of Flavoparmelia caperata and Caloplaca marina were placed

together in the survey sites to compare the speed and morphological and color change of each specimen across each survey area Changes in humidity, temperature,

experimental location, and vehicle density all affected the changes in lichens in the experiment The results show that the effect of vehicle smoke is not clear on the lichen, other external factors will reflect more on the change

Keywords:

Lichens, Flavoparmelia caperata, Caloplaca marina, Palembang city, air pollution

Number of pages:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance and assistance from many people and I am extremely privileged to have got this all along the completion of my project All that I have done is only due to such supervision and assistance and I would not forget to thank them

I respect and thank Dr Arinafil for providing me an opportunity to do the project work in Sriwijaya University and giving us all support and guidance which made me complete the project duly I am extremely thankful to Dr Arinafil for providing such a nice support and guidance, although he had busy schedule managing the corporate affairs

I owe my deep gratitude to my project guide Mr Luan, who took keen interest

on our project work and guided us all along, till the completion of our project work by providing all the necessary information for developing a good system

I would not forget to remember my friends, who helped me during i was being the work in Sriwijaya University and for their encouragement and more over for their timely support and guidance till the completion of my project work

Thai Nguyen, September, 2018

Sincerely,

Vu Son Tung

TABLE OF CONTENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

TABLE OF CONTENT iv

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF TABLES viii

PART I: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background and Research rationale 1

1.2 Research’s objectives 2

1.3 Research questions and hypotheses 2

1.4 Limitations 2

PART II: LITERATURE REVIEW 3

2.1 Heavy metals in urban areas 3

2.1.1 Heavy metal 3

2.1.2 Source of heavy metals in urban areas 4

2.1.3 Heavy metal from non-exhausted vehicles 6

2.1.4 Road contruction activities 6

2.1.5 Another source 7

2.2 Lichens 8

2.2.1 General Characteristics 8

2.2.2 Physiology of lichens 9

2.2.3 Flavoparmelia caperata 10

2.2.4 Caloplaca marina 11

2.3 Biomonitoring air quality 11

2.4 Lichens as Biological Indicators 13

2.5 Lichens as Bioindicator of air pollution 15

2.6 Morphological response to lichens 21

2.7 Heavy Metal Accumulation in Flavoparmelia caperata and Caloplaca marina 23

PART III: METHODS 25

3.1 Material 25

3.2 Methods 25

3.2.1 Study area 25

3.2.2 Sites selection 26

3.3 Research procedure 28

3.3.1 Taking lichens and preparation 28

3.3.2 Identification of lichens 28

3.3.3 Transplant Preparation 29

3.3.4 Analysis of Changes in Morphology of Lichens 29

PART IV: RESULT 30

4.1 Environmental factors at the location of the transplant 30

4.2 Transportation 31

4.2.1 Transportation in Palembang city 31

4.2.2 Vehicle status in the survey area 32

4.3 Visual changes in Flavoparmelia caperata and Caloplaca marina 33

4.3.1 Location 1 33

4.3.2 Location 2 34

4.3.3 Location 3 35

4.3.4 Location 4 35

4.3.5 Location 5 36

4.3.6 Location 6 37

4.3.7 Location 7 37

4.3.8 Location 8 38

4.3.9 Location 9 39

4.3.10 Location 10 39

4.4 Summary of survey results 40

PART V: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 41

5.1 Discussion 41

5.2 Conclusion 41

REFERENCES 42

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Caloplaca marina living on the roof 9

Figure 2: Flavoparmelia caperata 10

Figure 3: Caloplaca marina 11

Figure 4: Concept behind the Lichen Community Indicator 14

Figure 5: Methods Use of lichens as bio indicators 19

Figure 6: Map of research locations 26

Figure 7: Sample images are placed at one point 29

Figure 8: Day 1(left) and day 3(right) 33

Figure 9: Day 0(left) and day 6(right) 34

Figure 10: Day 0 and day 8 35

Figure 11: Day 0(left) and day 14(right) 35

Figure 12: Day 0 and day 10 36

Figure 13: Day 0 and day 11 36

Figure 14: Day 0 and day 25 37

Figure 15: Day 0 and day 16 37

Figure 16: Day 0 and day 3 38

Figure 17: Day 0 and day 8 38

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Concentration Pb (ɥg/Nm3) in the ambient air of Palembang city 5

Table 2: Heavy metal accumulation in some species of lichens in different geographies 17

Table 3: Heavy metal accumulation of μg/g dry weight in samples of Flavoparmelia caperata and Caloplaca marina lichens 24

Table 4: List of material 25

Table 5: This table gives information on the transplant places 27

Table 6: Environmental factors in the location of the transplant and control area 30

Table 7: Number of traffics in each area per an hour 33

Table 8: This table shows the date on the lichens change occurred 40

PART I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Research rationale

Palembang City is the second-largest city on Sumatra after Medan and the

capital city of South Sumatra province of Indonesia As one of big city in the province, Palembang is also keeps some of potential destinations in town One of them are Musi River which is also becomes the signature icon, together with the well-known Ampera Bridge Furthermore, since ancient times, Palembang has been a cosmopolitan port city which absorbs neighboring, as well as foreign, cultures and influences

Palembang is located in the tropical rainforest climate with significant rainfall even in its driest months The climate in Palembang is often described with "hot, humid climate with a lot of rainfall throughout the year" The annual average temperature is around 27.3 °C (81.1 °F) Average temperatures are nearly identical throughout the year

in the city Average rainfall annually is 2,623 millimeters During its wettest months, the city's lowlands are frequently inundated by torrential rains However, in its driest months, many peat lands around the city dried, making them more vulnerable

to wildfires, causing haze in the city for months

After the crisis a decade ago, it has promoted the economic development of Indonesia This rapid development of Indonesia is mainly due to fossil fuels, mainly oil, followed by natural gas and coal Exploitation of fossil fuels to accelerate development leads to significant environmental degradation Air pollution is perhaps the most serious environmental problem in Indonesia Industry and transportation are the main sources of urban air pollution Moreover, Indonesia did not reach its initial

2005 target for a period of complete exhaustion As a result, Pb levels along with other

pollutants such as CO, NOx, SO2, and total suspended particulates have exceeded or at least reached the defined air quality standards Urban air pollution will not be less, but will certainly be more serious in the future Unfortunately, the capacity of Indonesian authorities to manage urban air quality is still very limited and the budget for improving urban air quality remains low, especially 1% of the total That is why efforts to improve urban air quality management cannot be handled by environmental managers in Indonesian cities, but outside stimulation in the form of manpower, Consultancy and equipment along with financial support are very important

1.2 Research’s objectives

 Measure the number of vehicles at lichens location

1.3 Research questions and hypotheses

 This study wants to address the following questions:

morphology ?

1.4 Limitations

 Difficult travel through each set of experiments

 Time to count the car can not be too accurate because of limited time and

limited movement

 Short survey time so the results of the survey may not be able to raise the

accuracy of the test

PART II: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Heavy metals in urban areas

2.1.1 Heavy metal

Heavy metal (heavy metal) is a metal with a density of five or more, with an atomic number of 22 to 92 This heavy metal group has ± 40 types Heavy metals are considered dangerous for health if they accumulate excessively in the body, accumulation of heavy metals causes’ high concentration in the body Some of them can be carcinogenic Similarly, foodstuffs with high heavy metal content are considered not suitable for consumption (Ridhowati, 2013) Heavy metal is an essential element that is needed by every living thing, but some of them (in certain concentrations) are poisonous In nature, this element is usually present in dissolved or suspended substances (bound to solids) and is present as an ionic form These heavy metals are in our environment in the form of solid, liquid and gas that can be found in soil, water and air Heavy metals can enter the human body generally through good food from plants (vegetables, fruits) that grow in farmland contaminated with many heavy metals or from chemicals used in agricultural land Heavy metals can also accumulate in the human body because they consume animal meat or fish that are contaminated with heavy metals Heavy metals in the atmosphere can reach the soil and accumulate in plants through dry and wet deposition processes Dry deposition of heavy metals and acid compounds in plants increases during dry periods, and stronger effects are detected after rainfall In plants, heavy metals accumulated in the leaves affect chlorophyll, cell membranes, stomata and can inhibit plant growth (Kalaivanan and Ganeshamurthy, 2016) Deposition refers to the phenomenon where pollutants are

transferred from air to the surface of the earth Sources of pollutants come from motor vehicle emissions, combustion residues, and sources from industry Pollutants fall to the surface in the form of dust or through rain and fog This process allows pollutants deposition comes from very distant sources, so it is very difficult to determine specific sources Atmospheric deposition is considered the main process that removes pollutants from the atmosphere and an important source of nutrients and contaminants for the ecosystem Elements, especially heavy metals deposited on soil, water and in plants can cause damage to the environment and human health due to transfer and accumulation in the food chain (Pan and Wang, 2015) Heavy metal pollution is emitted into the air in the form of small particles caused by high temperature expansion The properties of metals in their movement in the air depend on the physical and chemical properties of the metal, the size of the particles formed, weather conditions, changes in wind and wind speed Metal parikel in the form of aerosols has

a very small settling speed, easily transferred by wind and dissolved with rain water

2.1.2 Source of heavy metals in urban areas

Metal footprints in urban areas are derived from a variety of human activities, such as industry, construction activities, vehicle exhaust, building material corrosion, vehicle parts corrosion, waste disposal, and coal and other fuels Motor vehicles are a significant source of heavy metal contamination in urban areas (Yan et al., 2013) Heavy metals such as Pb is additives used as anti-tapers in motor vehicles Despite the use of Pb there has been removed gasoline, traces of heavy metals still found in the air Routine measurements conducted at several points of Palembang City indicate that there has been a decrease of concentration in Pb in air (Table 2.1) although the

concentration tends to decrease, the use of some motor vehicle components still uses

Pb metal Brake wear is the most important source of Pb emissions on the road (Zhang

Al emissions Iron, copper, zinc, aluminum and other metal metals, for example, manganese, nickel, titanium, tin, bromine, cadmium and molybdenum are also found

as non-flue emissions

2.1.3 Heavy metal from non-exhausted vehicles

The main sources of non-exhaust vehicular emissions that contribute to road dust are tire, brake and clutch wear, road surface wear, and other vehicle and road component degradation This study is an attempt to identify and investigate heavy metals in urban and motorway road dusts as well as in dust from brake linings and tires Road dust was collected from sections of the A-4 motorway in Poland, which is part of European route E40, and from urban roads in Katowice, Poland Dust from a relatively unpolluted mountain road was collected and examined as a control sample Selected metals Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, Fe, Se, Sr, Ba, Ti, and Pd were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma (ICP)-optical emission spectroscopy, and atomic absorption spectroscopy on a range of size-fractionated road dust and brake lining dust (<20, 20–56, 56–90, 90–250, and >250 μm) The compositions of brake lining and tire dust were also investigated using scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive spectroscopy To estimate the degree

of potential environmental risk of non-exhaust emissions, comparison with the geochemical background and the calculations of geo-accumulation indices were performed The finest fractions of urban and motorway dusts were significantly contaminated with all of the investigated metals, especially with Ti, Cu, and Cr, which are well-recognized key tracers of non-exhaust brake wear Urban dust was, however, more contaminated than motorway dust It was therefore concluded that brake lining and tire wear strongly contributed to the contamination of road dust

2.1.4 Road contruction activities

The road is an infrastructure important role that plays a major role in

encouraging social and economic activity However, road construction also resulted in environmental pollution Improving road accessibility is Road Construction Activities one way to prevent congestion through road construction activities Dust is one of the hazards generated from construction activities due to the excavation and soil scanning process Dust from construction activities contains some metals especially Fe because most of the road construction materials are Iron Iron mostly used in road construction

as in bridge components, obstacles and concrete The welding and corrosion work of the iron part causes iron emissions to the environment (Dam-0, 2015) In addition, heavy trucks and machines used at construction sites are important factors for increased metal load from roadside dust due to oil burning, brake wear and tire wear that produce particulates which are then deposited on the ground (Abah et al, 2013 )

2.1.5 Another source

Other sources include certain industrial processes, burning, road weathering, and poor waste management, pesticide use etc Heavy metal emissions come from natural sources in the environment including geogenic, industrial, agricultural, pharmaceutical, domestic waste, and atmospheric sources Environmental pollution can also occur through metal corrosion, atmospheric deposition, soil erosion, metal ions and heavy metal washing, suspension sedimentation and evaporation of metals from water and soil sources Natural phenomena such as weathering and volcanic eruptions have also been reported to significantly contribute to heavy metal pollution Industrial sources include metal processing in refineries, coal burning in power plants, oil burning, plastics, textiles, microelectronics, wood preservation and paper processing plants (Nagajyoti et al 2010; Widowati et al, 2008)

2.2 Lichens

2.2.1 General Characteristics

Lichen is a composite organism consisting of a symbiotic relationship between one species of fungi and one or more species of algae Both living organisms are in a symbiotic relationship where algae provide energy sources through photosynthesis and fungi provide shelter and protection for algae (Sett and Kundu, 2016) About 20,000 species exist throughout the world, lichens cover eight percent of the earth's surface growing almost anywhere: on soil, rocks, trees, even on man-made surfaces Moss can grow in the most extreme, inhospitable environments, including mountains, deserts and Polar Regions Generally lichens grow on trees and semaksem as epiphytes, do not take nutrients from the surface where they grow, but absorb nutrients from the atmosphere Moss can vary in size, color and shape and can change color when it rains because it absorbs water and produces food energy This is one of the extraordinary qualities of moss, maybe even the key to their survival in a harsh climate (Nash III, 2008) Morphological characteristics of lichens which do not have cuticles result in very high sensitivity of lichens to microclimate changes, especially temperature and humidity (Garty, 2001) Lichen requires morphological adaptation to compensate for daily fluctuations in air temperature and humidity to maintain water in the body, for example by water sacs, water storage cells, dense rhizoid, and folded leaves In general, lichens are poikilohidrik organisms whose metabolism depends on the availability of surrounding water Moss will grow fast at high humidity and will reduce its growth rate (dormant) at low humidity conditions Functional diversity in response

to changing microclimate conditions makes the spread of moss very broad Lichens can be found in all climatic conditions in all terrestrial ecosystems and some aquatic ecosystems (Nash III, 2008)

Figure 1: Caloplaca marina living on the roof 2.2.2 Physiology of lichens

The growth of lichens is very slow compared to other organisms This is caused

by extreme environmental factors, such as temperature, lack of nutrition, radiation and other inhibiting factors Generally the annual growth of mosses is in tenths or units of

mm per year The typical annual radial growth rates for lichens are: 0.5 mm for crustose, foliose: 2 mm to 5 mm and Fruticosa: 4.8 mm to 11.1 mm (Armstrong, 2004) The photosynthesis process in lichens takes place in photobiotic (algae or cyanobacteria) and requires carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to make carbohydrates This process in which electromagnetic radiation (sunlight) is converted into chemical energy (sugar) Water is important for transporting material around in lichens and as a hydrogen source Growth of lichens is very slow compared to other organisms This is caused by extreme environmental factors, such as temperature, lack of nutrition, radiation and other inhibiting factors Generally the annual growth of mosses is in tenths

or units of mm per year The typical annual radial growth rates for lichens are: 0.5 mm for crustose, foliose: 2 mm to 5 mm and Fruticosa: 4.8 mm to 11.1 mm (Armstrong, 2004) The photosynthesis process in lichens takes place in photobiotic (algae or

cyanobacteria) and requires carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to make carbohydrates This process in which electromagnetic radiation (sunlight) is converted into chemical energy (sugar) Water is important for transporting material around in lichens and as a source of hydrogen

2.2.3 Flavoparmelia caperata

Flavoparmelia caperata: It has 20 cm diam, often forming conspicuous,

extensive patches., ± closely oppressed but becoming somewhat detached towards the center Lobes wide 5-13 mm, wavy, rounded at the apices, ± contiguous at the tips but overlapping at the center, the margins often indented Upper surface yellow to yellow-green, occasionally grey-green (in shade), often coarsely corrugate especially towards the center, pustulate-sorediate Soredia coarse and granular, occasionally adhering and forming gnarled lumps Lower surface black, brown towards apices, rhizomes absent from a narrow zone along the margin Ascomata rare, to 8 mm diam, disc red-brown, the thalline exciple ± sorediate Ascosporic 15-19(-22) x (-8) 9-10 µm, ellipsoidal

Figure 2: Flavoparmelia caperata

2.2.4 Caloplaca marina

Caloplaca marina: An encrusting yellow-orange to bright orange lichen The

thallus is composed of small granules or 'islands' of tissue but is never powdery When well developed the lichens may be composed of small convex islands of tissue often with a paler edge Disc-like, convex and deep reddish orange fruiting bodies occur on

the surface of the thallus Caloplaca marina is one of several species

of Caloplaca found on rocks at or above high water Caloplaca thallincola may occur

at the same position but prefers sheltered conditions Caloplaca thallincola is a lighter orange with a distinct lobose margin Caloplaca maritima is also similar but is never

orange and the thallus is composed of more convex, paler, wax-like islands of tissue Identification to genus or species level may require simple chemical tests

Figure 3: Caloplaca marina

2.3 Biomonitoring air quality

Biomonitoring is the use of biological responses by systematically measuring and evaluating changes in the environment Biondicators are organisms or biological responses that indicate the entry of certain substances in the environment (Sujetoviene,

2013) A monitoring system with biomonitoring does not cost much because it uses organisms that are already available in nature Bioindicators are exposed directly in nature to reflect the overall environmental system Therefore, biomonitoring provides

an opportunity for monitoring that is not constrained by expensive tools and limited samples In addition, monitoring systems with biomonitoring need not be done continuously, but can be done periodically

Biomonitoring using organisms is mostly used as a determination of the quantity of the presence of contaminants, it can be classified as a sensitive or accumulative biomonitor Sensitive biomonitors tend to be optical types and are used

as an integrator of the impact caused by the presence of contaminants, and as a preventive response in other words as an alarm system for environmental change Optical effects that occur such as morphological changes in the sense of behavioral changes related to the environment and over the changes in aspects of chemical and physical composition based on the activity of differences in enzyme systems, photosynthesis and respiration activities Accumulative biomonitors have the ability to transfer contaminants into their bodies (inside / tissue layers) and are used as a measure of the concentration of contaminants present in the environment Bioaccumulation is the result of the balance process of combined intake / discharge biota and into the environment

Bioindicators are useful in three situations (Conti and Cecchetti, 2001): when indications of environmental factors are not natural environments that are shifting due

to climate change, 2) where indications of environmental factors are difficult to measure, for example because the presence of pesticides and residues results in a toxic effluent content complex and 3) can be measured, as in a factor state where

environmental factors are easy to measure but difficult to interpret for example whether environmental changes that occur based on observations made have significant ecological factors The use of biomonitoring methods is stated to be more efficient than using monitoring technology by relying on mapping ability using high-performance monitor intensity sampling technique This is because the bioindikator scara directly tied to the conditions that exist in the environment Their responses to impacts changes that occur are more representative of the cumulative effect in function and have a greater scope of ecosystem diversity than active monitoring technology

The bioindicator used can be selected based on several factors, including: it can

be easily measured and shows the observed response to the ecosystem; has a specific response that can predict how species or ecosystems will respond to stress; measure responses with acceptable accuracy and precision based on knowledge of pollutants and their characteristics

These baseline results are of great interest to forest and air managers, serving as the first large-scale comprehensive assessments of forest health for the study region

2.4 Lichens as Biological Indicators

Lichens are often likened to canaries in a coal mine because some species are extremely sensitive to environmental change, a major reason for their popularity as bioindicators for natural resource assessment (e.g., Nimis et al 2002) The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Program of the U.S Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (USFS), includes lichens among a suite of forest health indicators (Stolte et al 2002) that are monitored nationwide on a permanent sampling grid (Will-Wolf 2005) Formally known as the FIA Lichen Community Indicator, these data are periodic surveys of epiphytic (tree-dwelling) lichen communities conducted by specially trained field crews

The structure of a lichen community in a forest intrinsically provides a wealth

of information about forest health, function, and local climatic conditions

The structure of a lichen community in a forest (eg., species presence and abundance) intrinsically provides a wealth of information about forest health, function, and local climatic conditions Analysts can extract particular properties of the community data, such as indices of indicator species and community gradients, to address a wide variety of monitoring questions At present, the three primary objectives of the Lichen Community Indicator are to evaluate and monitor biodiversity, air quality, and climate Survey data may be directly applied for biodiversity monitoring, whereas the latter two applications involve multivariate gradient models

LICHEN COMMUNITY

CONDITION OF RESOURCE

Forest productivity, biodiversity, health

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS

N- and S-based air pollutants direct toxicity and acidifying and fertilizing

effects

Indicates

Indicates Cause-

Cause-effecet

Figure 4: Concept behind the Lichen Community Indicator

N = Nitrogen S= Sulfur

2.5 Lichens as Bioindicator of air pollution

The lichen shell is very sensitive to air pollution so it can be used as an air pollutant biomass (Frati et al., 2005) The lichen class is a symbiotic association of millions of photosynthetic microorganisms (phycobiont) incorporated into the fifth hypha network (Conti and Cecchetti, 2001) Phycobiont and mycobiont form a very stable and rigid "micro ecosystem" Therefore, mollusks can survive under extreme heat or very cold temperatures The moss cover does not have an epidermis to absorb nutrients and water from the atmosphere This explains why a lichen shell can be an air pollutant Environmental change causes changes in the diversity of lichens, their morphology, physiology, genetics, and the ability to accumulate air pollutants This sensitivity satisfies the selective elements of biological substances The use of lichen scales as biological agents has long been used by mapping out the lichen cover The morphology of the moss is not influenced by seasonal factors, so accumulation can occur throughout the year Lichen layers often have a long life span, making them used

as permanent precipitants of atmospheric deposition (Conti and Cecchetti, 2001) There are a large number of factors that can affect the concentration of pollutants accumulated in the lichen shell These factors include the inputs of pollutants, their nature and composition, climatic factors such as components of precipitation, temperature, wind, drought, and environmental factors localities such as vegetation, surface quality and height of the area (Caggiano and Garty, 2001) According to a study conducted by Giordani (2007), the variability of epiphyte mosses correlated with average annual precipitation and mean annual temperature Differences in moss cover patterns associated with air quality vary widely in many parts of the world However,

the accumulation of metals in the lichen is not only dependent on the availability of the metal-elemental environment but also in the form of lichen growth and the current climatic conditions so dependent in geographic location (Majumder et al., 2012) The results of various studies related to the accumulation of heavy metals in different lichens are summarized in Table 2.2 All moss covers have different sensitivity to air pollutants Sensitive often followed the chain; Crustosa (flat) <foliose (leafly moss lichens) <fruticosa (Sett and Kundu, 2000) Applanata Dirinaria lichens collected in industrial parks and near the highway were able to demonstrate sensitivity as heavy metal bioacumulators (Pandey et al., 2000) The physodes, Parmelia sulcata, and Xanthoria Parietina are collected in different places such as residential, industrial, expressway and industrial areas capable of accumulating heavy metals at different concentrations (Parzych et al., 2016) ) The same study was conducted by Caggiano et

al (2015) in the oil processing industry using implants of Plastismatia glauca Evernia prunastri, Ramalina fraxinea, and Pseudevernia furfuracea, also showed a significant accumulation in each of the ligands

Lichen is used as a bio indicator or bio monitoring in two ways, namely active and passive methods, can be seen in (Figure 2.5.) Active bio monitoring includes exposure of well-defined species under controlled conditions, while passive bio monitoring refers to chemical observation or analysis of native plants Active bio monitoring can be divided into transplants, and the Lichen bags method (Conti and

Concchetti, 2001; Szczepaniak and Biziuk, 2003)

Table 2: Heavy metal accumulation in some species of lichens in different geographies

Parmelia caperta (N) India Urban area (µg/g) 25.7±0.74 314±14.5 50.4±3.22 Kar et al., 2013

Usnea amblyoclada Cordoba Urban area (µg/g) 5.15 5.13 8.23 31.87 Carreras et al., 2004

Parmelia sulcata (N) Ghana Gold mine (µg/g) 1.02±0.96 0.26±0.56

Turkey Highway (mg/kg) 2-8 27-Oct 34-76 12945-19445 266-530 2-8 8-28 25-77 Aslan et al., 2011

Dirinaria applanata India

India Industry (µg/g) 0.175 7.865 0.271 0.865 0.144 0.125 Pandey et al., 2000

Usnea dasypoga (T) Norwegia Urban area (µg/g) 0.17±0.01 3.01±0.24 23.3±1.6 1.32±0.13 246±14 2.0±0.13 4.12±0.13 141±9 Yemets, 2012

Figure 5: Methods Use of lichens as bio indicators