Environmental management practices applied in intensive farming by selected rice farmers in victoria laguna, philippines

LAGANSUA ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES APPLIED IN INTENSIVE FARMING BY SELECTED RICE FARMERS IN VICTORIA, LAGUNA, PHILIPPINES BACHELOR THESIS Thai Nguyen, 15/11/2018... Lagansua

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

JOHN LESTER M LAGANSUA

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES APPLIED IN INTENSIVE FARMING BY SELECTED RICE FARMERS IN

VICTORIA, LAGUNA, PHILIPPINES

BACHELOR THESIS

Thai Nguyen, 15/11/2018

DOCUMENTATION PAGE WITH ABSTRACT

Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry

Degree Program Bachelor of Environmental Science and Management

Student Name John Lester M Lagansua

Student ID DTN1454290083

Thesis Title Environmental Management Practices Applied in Intensive Farming

by Selected Rice Farmers in Victoria Laguna, Philippines

Supervisors Assistant Professor Maricel A Tapia

Dr Nguyen Huu Tho Supervisors’

Signature

Abstract:

Intensive farming has been seen as a problem to the environment mainly because

of the amount of chemical used There are certain environmental consequences of intensive farming and these are loss of natural habitats and the associated impact on the biodiversity, soil degradation such as erosion, depletion, and pollution (air and water) and especially it contributes to some climatic changes The study aims to assess the environmental management practices applied in intensive farming by selected rice farmers in three barangays in Victoria, Laguna, namely, Masapang, San Benito and San Roque The study employed mixed methods which gave emphasis to both qualitative and quantitative aspects As for the qualitative part, the study conducted the FGD wherein in-depth interviews were done The quantitative part, on the other hand, utilized survey questionnaire to determine the socio-demographic and socio-economic profile of the respondents, and their agricultural and environmental management practices Descriptive statistics were used to analyze quantitative data, which was given context through qualitative data analysis Results revealed that different agricultural practices were practiced throughout the crop cycle, including manual or hand weeding, puddling

of soil, application of urea fertilizer, application of complete 14-14-14 fertilizer, application of herbicide, spraying of pesticide, rice straw burning, flood irrigation and sprinkler irrigation method Associated with these practices are the environmental/ecological impacts caused by intensive farming on air, water, soil, biodiversity and climate change The research revealed that the most experienced impacts of the respondents are climate and air impacts, wherein climate change and foul smell were experienced by 100% of the total number of respondents As for the management practices, most farmers already perform mitigating measures, which were perceived to be effective However, not all the environmental management practiced tackles the environmental impacts that were determined Among those different environmental sectors, climate and air management practices really target the actual problem of environmental pollution and perceived to be effective because of

improvements observed On the other hand, management practices for the associated water pollution from intensive farming (such as eutrophication and water contamination) did not seem to address the actual problem as the strategies implemented were for conservation purposes only

Keywords: Intensive farming, Farm characteristics, Agricultural practices,

Environmental Impacts, Environmental management practices Number of pages: 109

Date of

submission: November 15, 2018

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This odyssey would not have been this successful without the help and

support of my home university, Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and

Forestry especially all the staff and professors of the Advanced Education

Program’s office who have showed their support in accomplishing this study, and

the director of the International Program’s Office, Dr Duong Van Thao for

giving me the opportunity to explore and to step out of my comfort zone by

studying abroad Also, I want to thank the University of the Philippines Los

Baños and all the staff especially Chancellor Fernando C Sanchez, Jr for

allowing me to conduct my undergraduate thesis in the host university

I sincerely thank Asst Professor Maricel A Tapia of Department of

Social Forestry and Forest Governance, College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Baños for expressing her willingness to supervise me Her substantial comments, suggestions and obliging censures are greatly valued and appreciated I would also like to thank my

Vietnamese adviser Dr Nguyen Huu Tho, Director of Office of Research and

International Affairs, Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry for his support and guidance Without their assistance and determination to be involved

in every step of the way throughout its process, this paper would have never been accomplished

I also want to acknowledge Mr Emmanuel C Atas, municipal agricultural officer and Mr Apolinario H dela Cruz, secretary of the

Sangguniang Bayan of the municipality of Victoria Laguna for providing all the

documents needed for this research, including the list of all rice farmers in their town, and the list of agriculture-related policies and regulations

Also, I want to extend my deepest appreciation to ninety (90) rice farmers from three selected barangays of Victoria; Masapang, San Benito and San Roque who wholeheartedly participated during the process of data gathering

I would also like to show gratitude to my Vietnam buddies; Luis, Enzo,

Jessica, Pau, Joy, Vea, Kristina and Francina, to my “tropang tinder” and to

my “forever tropas”; Jai, Min, Angge, Cha, and Rona for all the

encouragements and for somehow making this journey light and fun despite of all the outbursts and stressed moments we’ve shared together A special mention

to a very special person in my life, Allysha Joy de Castro for being my number

one supporter in everything I do, for being one of the sources of my happiness every time I feel depressed in life; and for not leaving me since the beginning of this research study until the end

I would also like to encompass my deepest and sincerest appreciation to

my family for their endless and abounding love, help, guidance and support as I conquer every challenge in my life I will be forever grateful to my parents,

Lodie C Lagansua and Rachille M Lagansua who have been supporting me

not just financially but emotionally and spiritually; I salute the both of you for all the sacrifices you have made just to assure that I will have a great future ahead of

me Also, thank you for all the experiences, life-lessons and opportunities that have made me who I am today

Most importantly, none of these would be possible without the help, care

and unending love of the Almighty God who has been my shield in every

mishap that I had experienced in life Truly God has blessed me with real good friends and loving family that serves as my greatest inspiration as I pursue my goals in life I am most thankful to God for giving me the opportunity, strength, ability, knowledge and wisdom to do this kind of research study and be able to accomplish it competently, because with God, nothing is impossible

I dedicate this milestone to everyone who has been part of my journey I must say that I am now ready to take another step as I explore the new chapter of

my life Thank you so much and may our God bless us all!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi

PART I INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Research Rationale 1

1.2 Research Questions 4

1.3 Research Objectives 5

1.4 Significance of the Study 6

1.5 Scope and Limitations 6

1.6 Definitions 7

PART II LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 Intensive Farming 9

2.2 Ecological/Environmental Impacts of Intensive Farming 15

2.3 Environmental Management Strategies/Practices 24

PART III METHODOLOGY 25

3.1 Research Method 25

3.2 Materials 26

3.3 Locale of the Study 27

3.4 Respondents of the Study 28

3.5 Sampling Method and Sample Size 29

3.6 Data Collection 30

3.7 Data Analysis 31

3.8 Conceptual Framework 32

PART IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 34

4.1 Socio-demographic and Socio-economic Profile of the Respondents 34

4.2 Farm Characteristics 40

4.3 Agricultural Practices 41

4.4 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Intensive Rice Farming 46

4.5 Environmental Management Practices and their Effectiveness 53

4.6 Overall Analysis 68

PART V CONCLUSION 72

5.1 Summary 72

5.2 Conclusion 75

5.3 Recommendations 76

REFERENCES 77

APPENDICES 89

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Location Map of Victoria, Laguna, Philippines 27

Figure 2 Conceptual framework of the study 33

Figure 3 Distribution of the respondents in different organizations 37

Figure 4 Sources of irrigation 41

Figure 5 Impacts on Climate and Air 47

Figure 6 Impacts on water 49

Figure 7 Impacts on soil 50

Figure 8 Impacts on biodiversity 51

Figure 9 Effectiveness of incorporation of urea fertilizer during tillage operation 56

Figure 10 Effectiveness of the use of insect predator to control pests 57

Figure 11 Effectiveness of incorporation of rice straw into the soil 58

Figure 12 Effectiveness of the efficient use of water when irrigating 60

Figure 13 Effectiveness of the use of sprinkler irrigation method 61

Figure 14 Effectiveness of irrigation scheduling 61

Figure 15 Effectiveness of draining extra water to keep rice field at saturated condition 64

Figure 16 Effectiveness of the use of organic/animal manure or compost 64

Figure 17 Effectiveness of green manure incorporation 65

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Distribution of rice farmers in different barangays in Victoria and the

total number of samples 30

Table 2 Summary table of the respondents’ age group 35

Table 3 Distribution of the respondents based on their gender 35

Table 4 Distribution of the respondents based on their educational attainment 36 Table 5 Membership of the respondents in organization 36

Table 6 Actual number of years working in rice farm 38

Table 7 Income of the respondents from rice farming 39

Table 8 Other source of income of the respondents 39

Table 9 Area of the respondents’ rice farm 40

Table 10 Farming practices applied in the farm 44

Table 11 Number and quantity of nutrients in rice grain and rice straw 46

Table 12 Air management practices 55

Table 13 Water management practices 59

Table 14 Soil management practices 63

Table 15 Biodiversity management practices 66

TABLES-APPENDIX

Appendix 1.1 Result of the FGD

Appendix 2.1 Survey Questionnaire

Appendix 3.1 Impacts on Air

Appendix 3.2 Impacts on Water

Appendix 3.3 Impacts on Soil

Appendix 4.1 Raw data of the effectiveness of incorporation of urea fertilizer during tillage operation

Appendix 4.2 Raw data of the effectiveness of using insect predator to control pests

Appendix 4.3 Raw data of the effectiveness of incorporation of rice straw into the soil

Appendix 4.4 Raw data of the effectiveness of efficient use of water when

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS EMPs - Environmental Management Practices

FGD - Focus Group Discussion

FIA - Farmers Irrigators Association

IPM - Integrated Pest Management

IRRI - International Rice Research Institute

MAO - Municipal Agricultural Officer

MAO - Municipal Agriculture Office

LGUs - Local Government Units

SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

GAP - Gintong Ani Programme

IRRI - International Rice Research Institute

PART I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Rationale

Of the total area of the Philippines, 41% is devoted to agriculture which is equivalent to 12.23 million hectares (Courageasia, 2016) When it comes to the GDP of the Philippines, only 11% was contributed by the agricultural sector, and

of the total employment, only 32% was shared by agriculture (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2012)

According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (2012), the country’s agricultural sector is made up of different sub-sectors; livestock (13%), poultry (11%), fishery (19%), agricultural activities and services (7%), and farming (50%), wherein 6% are corn, 4% are coconut, 5% are banana, 2% are sugarcane, 2% are mango as well as pineapple, and the largest which is 20% are rice, and 9% are for others

Although many of the Filipinos still believe that Philippines remain to be

an agricultural country despite of various plans to make it an industrialized economy (Encyclopedia of the Nations, n.d.), strictly speaking, it is not Recent studies submit that despite of the relatively well performance in the 1960s and 1970s, Philippine agriculture wavered in the following decades Agricultural growth decelerated and public investments for agriculture declined, and at the turn of the century, Philippine agriculture was no longer considered as a major contributor to the country’s total economic growth, although, it remains to be one

of the sectors contributing to the acceleration of inclusive growth (SEARCA,

n.d.) Agriculture, fishery and forestry directly account for just one-fifth (20%) of the economy’s total domestic output (GDP) Ever since the 1960s, the direct share of agriculture in the GDP had fallen below one-third, and by 1981, the sector’s share had decreased to only 23% (Habito & Briones, 2005)

Although the sector’s contribution to GDP has declined in recent decades, there have been recent signs of revival Agriculture has recovered with a high of 5.28% growth in the first quarter of 2017 after several quarters of decline Production in the farm subsector went up by 8.28% during the reference quarter

It contributed 53.66% to the total agricultural production; outputs in rice and corn farms increased by 12.38% and 23.44%, respectively Production gains were also noted among sugarcane, banana, pineapple, tobacco, peanut, mongo, cassava, tomato, garlic, onion and eggplant The livestock subsector posted a 3.22% growth in output in the first three months of 2017 It accounted for 16.85% of total agricultural output The poultry subsector with its 15.35% contribution to total agricultural production came up with 1.88% increase in the first quarter of

2017 The fisheries subsector produced 0.73% more output during the period It contributed 14.15% to total agricultural output On the average, prices received

by farmers increased by 3.34% in the first quarter of 2017 Price gains were higher in the livestock and fisheries subsectors at 5.96% and 7.17%, respectively The crops subsector posted an average price increase of 2.01%, while prices in the poultry subsector inched up by 0.29% from the 2016 record (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2017)

Among those different sub-sectors, farming has become more prevalent, particularly rice farming, because rice is one of the main agricultural crops in the Philippines and also considered to be the staple food for more than 3 billion people or nearly half of the world’s population (Ricepedia, n.d.) According to the data gathered by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) for 2009, Philippines is the 9th largest rice producer in the world (Nipuna Rice, n.d.), accounting for 2.8% of global rice production In 2010, the Philippines have imported 2.45 million tons of rice, making it considered that year to be the biggest rice importing country in the world (IRIN, 2016)

The major rice-producing parts of the country are Central Luzon (18.7%), Western Visayas (11.3%), Cagayan Valley (11%), Ilocos region (9.8%), SOCCSKSARGEN (7.5%), and Bicol region (6.8%) SOCCSKSARGEN is a newly created region in central Mindanao comprising North Cotabato, Sarangani, South Cotabato, and Sultan Kudarat provinces Almost 70% of the total rice area

is irrigated and the remaining 30% is rain-fed and upland Much of the country’s irrigated rice is grown on the central plain of Luzon, the country’s rice bowl Rain-fed rice is found in the Cagayan Valley in northern Luzon, in Iloilo Province, and on the coastal plains of Visayas and Ilocos in Northern Luzon Upland rice is grown in both permanent and shifting cultivation systems scattered throughout the archipelago on rolling to steep lands (Ricepedia, n.d.)

For almost three decades, farmers in the Philippines have been using chemical fertilizers, pesticides and growth regulators in their rice production strategies in order for them to sustain their harvest and to make their living

Regardless of the inputs’ high cost, and the farmers’ awareness that they can unfavourably affect soil quality and structure, food quality, human and animal health, and environmental quality, they still strongly use it because there are few alternatives that would be considered practical and feasible University-based research has strongly promoted the use of agricultural chemicals as the best means of achieving the highest possible crop yields (Mendoza, n.d.) This approach allows a stable increase of global harvests and offers an increase security of supply, however, the chemicals that go into intensive farming in the form of fertilizers and pesticides damage the environment by polluting and poisoning soil, air, water and biodiversity

1.2 Research Questions

Due to continuous high demand of rice because of the increasing population in the Philippines, the usual response is to increase production through intensive farming Thus, to form and to implement feasible environmental management practices in relation to intensive farming would be substantial to help them improve their environmental performance Intensive farming has been seen as a problem to the environment mainly because of the amount of chemical used There are certain environmental consequences of intensive farming and these are loss of natural habitats by the expansion of agricultural land and the associated impact on the biodiversity, soil degradation such as erosion, depletion, and pollution (air and water) that also contributes to some climatic changes

Main question: What is the assessment of environmental management practices

applied in intensive farming by selected rice farmers in Victoria, Laguna Philippines?

1 What are the socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the respondents?

2 What are the agricultural practices of rice farmers in Victoria, Laguna?

3 What are the environmental impacts of intensive rice farming practices?

4 What are the environmental management practices applied to mitigate such impacts?

5 How effective such environmental management practices are?

1.3 Research Objectives

The main goal of this research is to assess the environmental management practices of selected rice farmers practicing intensive farming in Victoria, Laguna

This research aims to:

 describe the socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics of each respondent from the selected barangays in Victoria, Laguna;

 document the agricultural practices of rice farmers in Victoria, Laguna;

 determine the actual environmental impacts of intensive rice farming practices;

 identify the environmental management practices employed by farmers to mitigate the environmental impacts of intensive rice farming;

 analyse the effectiveness of different environmental management practices towards promoting sustainability/ecological integrity

1.4 Significance of the Study

As this issue becomes more widely held, different environmental management practices can be employed Establishing effective management practices is essential to help farmers assess their environmental performance and

be more productive in growing rice This will help strengthen their ability as an individual by managing their farm rationally and effectively but with environmental consideration In addition, this will contribute to the information

of the government regarding the environmental management practices of rice farms in addressing the effect of intensive farming and will help government officials execute stronger and more effective policies and regulations Also, it will add knowledge to other rice farms that also perform intensive farming and help them promote such good environmental management practices Thus, farmers can produce tons of rice in a short period of time and have a higher income without rapidly terminating the environment

1.5 Scope and Limitations

This research was conducted in Victoria, Laguna, Philippines particularly

in three barangays, namely Masapang, San Benito and San Roque The study focused on the environmental management practices of selected rice farms, but also gave points to some environmental issues caused by intensive farming that the farm have experienced

On the other hand, in doing this kind of research, limitations are inevitable Some of these limitations that have been encountered during its whole process were time, because finding the exact location of each respondent is very time-consuming, and also the willingness of the respondents to be interviewed and their honesty as well when it comes to answering all the written survey questions There are also some limitations found in measuring environmental management practices and environmental impacts This includes the different beliefs of the respondents that affect their adaptation to such management practices Also, it includes the different location of the respondents, for example some respondents resides far from water bodies, so there have been no impacts recorded

1.6 Definitions

1.6.1 Intensive Farming

Intensive farming is an agricultural intensification and mechanization system that aims to maximize yields from available land through various means, such as heavy use of pesticides, herbicides and chemical fertilizers (Everything Connects, 2013)

Terms, 2001), for example, degradation of soil, water or air, changes that reduce flora or fauna habitat or make the local environment socially unacceptable (Fertiliser Association, 2012)

1.6.3 Environmental Management Practices (EMPs)

Environmental management practices are the techniques, plans and actions that allow organizations especially for any agriculture-related commerce

to minimize their impacts on the environment in all aspects, and serves as a tool

to help them assess and improve their environmental performance

1.6.4 Agricultural Practices

Agricultural Practices means the steps involved in agriculture which can

be seen generally done by farmers and gardeners Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and pesticides were developed long ago, but have made great advances in the past century (Vidyalaya, 2012)

PART II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter introduces the framework for the case study that includes the main focus of the research described in this study It also provides compiled literatures related to the study about intensive farming Different studies on environmental/ecological impacts were also included

2.1 Intensive Farming

Traditionally farming involves low levels of labour in relation to the land farmed Here the inputs like seeds, man hours, organic fertilizers, and other farming allied resources as well as the output (yield) is relatively low as compared to intensive farming Traditional farming methods like organic farming

or extensive agriculture work on the premise to ensure health of the farm land in terms of its longevity, and a high natural nutrient value The concept of resting the land after each harvest to give it time to recuperate itself through natural processes is also a major feature of sustainable agriculture With a changing scenario in the population curve that has just been climbing upwards and the need to support them through a large yield, traditional farming practices were forced to make way for intensive farming (Rajeev, 2010)

Intensive farming is an agricultural system that aims to get maximum yield from the available land This farming technique is also applied in supplying livestock People could say that under this technique, food is produced in large quantities with the help of chemical fertilizers and pesticides that are

appropriately used to save such agricultural land from pests and crop diseases (Farm Management, n.d.)

Intensive farming practices produce more and cheaper food per acre and animal, which has helped feed a booming human population and may prevent surrounding land from being converted into agricultural land, but has grown to become the biggest threat to the global environment through the loss of ecosystem services and global warming (Everything Connects, 2013)

This farming technique has gone beyond agricultural farming, such as fish farming and animal farming Intensive livestock farming (factory farming) and intensive aquaculture use the same concept of intensive agricultural farming to increase produce Its issues revolve around the use of modern technology to increase yield; crop, or meat and milk production And as in all technologies, intensive agriculture carries with it pros and cons For those in its favour vouch

by its help in increasing yield per acre, ensuring a proper and stable food supply for the growing population, while organic produce is expensive to achieve, hence only available to a few Advocates also stress on the use of less land needed for a high yield, which in turn they say actually saves forests from making way for farmland And as less land is used, it can be used for other purposes like setting

up infrastructure Transmission of diseases or pest resistant crops reduces the incidence of damage and lower production (Rajeev, 2010)

The study that was conducted by Thomas Conelly (1992) shows that many farmers in the frontier community of Napsaan located on the west coast of

more intensive system of irrigated rice production Their adoption of agricultural intensification enables Napsaan farmers to support a larger population by increasing the amount of rice they can produce on each hectare of land (Conelly, 1992)

In addition, lowland rice fields in the Philippines are about half irrigated and half rain fed Initially, the green revolution increased labour use intensity in rice production More rice crops were produced each year and more intensive management was applied (Otsuka et al., 1990)

Furthermore, the study that was conducted by Bruce Nussbaum (2014) revealed that Philippines as a rapidly growing population led to increased concerns about global shortage, scientists of many nationalities united to redesign agricultural practices and increase crop productivity Green Revolution, were concentrated particularly in countries with developing infrastructures in Asia and Latin America The result was a massive boom in crop productivity in these areas from the late 1960s onward Like wheat and other crops, rice was genetically modified to increase its yield—but only when grown with an excess of nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides, and intensive irrigation

The concept of farming is not new, its indiscriminate use is By 5000 BC, the Sumerians, who were highly practiced in the art of conducive agriculture had developed agricultural techniques that involved this technique, methods such as animal driven land cultivation, mono-cropping, organized irrigation, domestication of wild crop into edible ones, etc The Middle Ages saw the use of hydraulic and hydrostatic principles for irrigating land; water-raising machines,

dams and reservoirs, along with the three field system of crop rotation A rapid rise in industrialization saw the Green Revolution in the late 19th and 20th centuries, where machines like the tractor were introduced to speed up the agricultural process (Rajeev, 2010) More the progress in the field of agricultural science, the more the use of mechanics and enhanced productivity by the way of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and farm subsidies came fore In the beginning of the 21st century all traditional framing practices almost wiped out The ever-increasing population combined with the concept of providing cereals at a low cost, and for growing bio-fuels, biopharmaceuticals and bio-plastics has witnessed intensive farming methods at its best; high inputs of capital, labour, heavy usage of technologies to farm the land, use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, genetically modified grain's seeds to an extremely high yield However, this high yield has come with price, a heavy price; the biological intricacies of soil and nature have been lost (Rajeev, 2010)

Faced with a growing need for food around the world, in order to increase productivity, farms gradually introduced industrial methods to augment yield per unit of labour and per hectare Intensive farming used various means based on technological and scientific innovations, such as phytosanitary products, selection of varieties, and genetic engineering, to improve the performance of soils, plants and livestock (Alimentarium, 2017)

Hybrid Rice Program

The Philippine government has initiated a unique technology transfer

programme was launched under the Gintong Ani Programme (GAP) and now the

Makamasa Rice Programme of the Department of Agriculture (DA) The

programme's goal is to utilize available hybrid rice technology as an approach for increasing rice production through the improvement of productivity and competitiveness, and, ultimately, attaining rice self- sufficiency It consists of activities of multi-disciplinary hybrid rice research and development programme particularly: hybrid rice breeding and variety development; crop management technologies; extension and promotion of hybrid rice technologies through training, technology demonstration and information campaign; seed production and commercialization that includes seed procurement; and distribution strategy and provision of credit marketing and support services (Casiwan et al., 2003)

In March 2003, the government launched the Hybrid Rice Commercialization Programme (HRCP) as the flagship programme of the Million Jobs Office (under a special secretary), with Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) as the lead implementing agency in cooperation with provincial and local government units The program aimed to increase productivity and reduce poverty in rural areas (Casiwan et al., 2003)

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is a type of modern biotechnology that allows the transfer of a specific gene(s) from the same or another organism to produce desirable trait As a tool in plant breeding, genetic engineering has a great potential to safely deliver unique benefits to farmers and consumers that cannot

be achieved through conventional breeding methods Unlike conventional

breeding, this breeding method is more precise It greatly increases the accuracy

of incorporating only the gene of interest, and its associated trait, into a new variety Genetic engineering is only used in crop improvement when – the trait to

be introduced is not present in the germ plasma of the crop; the trait is very difficult to improve by conventional breeding methods; and it will take a very long time to introduce and/or improve such trait in the crop by conventional methods (PhilRice, n.d.)

Genetic engineering was done in rice since it is eaten and grown in more than 100 countries, including the Philippines It is a very good source of carbohydrates but lacks several essential nutrients for the maintenance of health, such as carotenoids exhibiting pro-vitamin A activity Reliance on rice for nutrition contributes to a serious public health problem of vitamin A deficiency

in at least 26 countries including areas of Asia, Africa, and Latin America In the Philippines, where rice is widely eaten and grown, vitamin A deficiency remains

a persistent public health problem affecting millions of children, and hundreds if not thousands of pregnant women and nursing mothers These people are at higher risks to diseases, blindness, and even death As a staple, rice presents a unique opportunity to be used as a vehicle to deliver a very important nutrient to vitamin A deficient population, especially those hard to reach with existing vitamin A interventions Given the scenario, Golden Rice offers a potential new way to help overcome vitamin A deficiency Farmers could grow it in the same manner they grow rice today while consumers could incorporate it into their regular diet (PhilRice, n.d.)

2.2 Ecological/Environmental Impacts of Intensive Farming

Intensive agricultural production allows a steady increase of global harvests and provides an increased security of supply On the other hand, the agricultural economy, compared with other economic sectors, has the greatest impact on the use of natural resources that may often lead to exploitation and degradation, but also to its preservation

Intensive agricultural production based on high input of chemicals and energy often leads to increasing uniformity, both regarding the products and the modes of production Negative externalities such as loss of natural habitats by the expansion of agricultural land and the associated impact on biodiversity, soil degradation such as erosion, depletion and pollution of natural water resources and climatic changes are only a few examples of this problem (Jeworski, 2012)

All around the world, researchers have discovered the problems by which intensive farms have been plaguing our environment Intensive agriculture has been a leading cause in the increase of carbon dioxide releases in the environment Intensive agriculture has a lot of detrimental effects on environment It is clear that intensive agriculture causes harmful levels of pathogens and chemicals in our water and increases levels of greenhouse gases in the air (Rodriguez et al., 2004)

In addition, intensive farming kills beneficial insects and plants, degrades and depletes the very soil it depends on, creates polluted runoff and clogged water systems, increases susceptibility to flooding, causes the genetic erosion of

crops and livestock species around the world, decreases biodiversity, destroys natural habitats and, according to WWF, "Farming practices, livestock, and clearing of land for agriculture are significant contributors to the build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.‖ (Everything Connects, 2013)

Reports and studies revealed that intensive farming affects and alters the environment in multiple ways Forests are destroyed to create large open fields, and this could lead to soil erosion It affects the natural habitat of wild animals Use of chemical fertilizers contaminates soil and water bodies, such as lakes and rivers (Farm Management, n.d)

A study conducted by David L Chandler (2018) concluded that intensive agriculture influenced U.S regional summer climate It showed that in the last half of the 20th century, the midwestern U.S went through an intensification of agricultural practices that led to dramatic increases in production These practices caused global warming, over the same period in that region; summers were significantly cooler and had greater rainfall than during the previous half-century

It is supported by the study conducted by Amy Mayer (2018) which indicates that as agriculture intensified in the 20th century, summers in the Midwest became wetter and cooler

There is a severe effect to the health of humans as a result of the practices

of intensive agriculture The primary concerns to human health include toxic gases and liquids, such as phosphorus and ammonium Also, accumulation of nitrates and salts in drinking water and waterborne pathogens, this calls for alarm

the increasing population, it also creates many problems including environmental and health problems (Kughur et al., 2015)

One major aspect is the contamination of local water sources; water is a substance that we humans need in order to survive, as well as species that inhabit the same environment as us It is not safe for water to be contaminated by such extreme and polluting systems, especially when we don’t know the effects of some of the chemicals on humans that are being released through intensive farming methods (Get My Essay, 2017)

2.2.1 Impacts of Intensive Cropping Practices

Monoculture

A key component of agricultural intensification is monoculture, the cultivation of a single crop species in a field Unlike traditional poly-culture cropping configurations, which mix crop varieties or intersperse crops with trees

or domesticated animals, monoculture allows farmers to specialize in crops that have similar growing and maintenance requirements Farmers around the globe have increasingly adopted monoculture to achieve higher yields through economies of scale (Gliessman, 2000) However, monoculture may negatively impact several scales of biodiversity

Impacts on Biodiversity: By reducing planned biodiversity to include only one

crop, monoculture affects the composition and abundance of associated biodiversity For example, the balance of plant pests and their natural enemies that may exist in poly-culture fields can be disrupted in monoculture systems,

which provide habitat for a narrower range of insects (Matson et al., 1997) Populations of bees, flies, moths, bats, and birds, which provide important pollinating and pest pressure services to crops, also tend to be lower in monocultures than in fields containing diverse forage and nesting sites (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) For example, full-sun mono-crop coffee fields in Colombia and Mexico have been found to support 90% fewer bird species than shade-grown coffee systems (Clay, 2004)

Continuous Cropping

In addition to modifying spatial arrangements to increase production, farmers have made adjustments to the timing of growing practices to obtain more crops per year (Wood et al., 2000) Historically, farmers have alternated cultivation with long fallow periods or rotations with other crops to manage soil fertility In response to rising demand for food and reduced space for agricultural expansion, farmers have shortened or abandoned fallow periods and crop rotations in favor of continuous production (Wood et al., 2000)

Impacts on Soil: As plants grow, they absorb nutrients from the soil such as

nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and calcium Harvesting crops removes these nutrients from the soil Unless nutrients are restored through fallow, leguminous crop rotation, or application of organic or inorganic fertilizers, soils eventually develop nutrient deficiencies (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) For example, intensive rice cultivation in Asia, in which farmers have moved from one crop per year followed by a dry season fallow to two or three consecutive

crops, has been shown to cause soil micro-nutrient deficiencies by altering soil organic matter and microbial activity (Pingali & Rosegrant, 1994)

Impacts on Biodiversity: Continuous cropping may lead to higher pesticide use

and disrupts the farmers’ ability to take advantage of natural pest balances In many traditional African agricultural systems, farmers manage pests using fallow periods or by timing planting or harvesting to avoid peaks of pest populations In slash-and-burn systems, for instance, fallow periods help relieve pest pressure by restoring the interplay between pests and their natural enemies (Kleinman et al., 1995) Likewise, in western Kenya, farmers delay sweet potato planting to avoid weevil damage (Abate et al., 2000) Transition to continuous cropping reduces the ability of farmers to take advantage of natural pest cycles, requiring instead use of chemical pesticides that may harm soil organisms, aquatic species, other nearby wildlife, and human health

Conventional Tillage

Conventional farming involves ploughing the soil regularly and deeply for the purposes of loosening the soil structure, promoting drainage and aeration, controlling weeds, and turning under crop residues (Gliessman, 2000)

Impacts on Soil: Tillage reduces soil organic matter, making soils less able to

absorb and retain water and more prone to erosion and run-off Intensive tillage tends to reduce soil organic matter (SOM) levels by causing oxidation of organic matter (Wood et al., 2000) As SOM declines, soils become more compacted, less able to absorb and retain water, and more prone to water loss from

evaporation and rapid run-off Susceptibility to wind and water erosion increases, thus negatively affecting air and water quality (FAO, 2003) The number and type of soil micro-organisms also declines, causing a reduction in the nutrient cycling and regulating services these communities provide (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)

As reviewed by Mrabet (2002), studies throughout Africa have found reduced SOM in fields under conventional tillage compared to those under reduced or no till In continuously cropped maize fields in western Nigeria, researchers noted a decline in soil quality over time under conventional tillage compared to no-tillage due to compacted soil and reduced water infiltration and holding capacity (Lal, 1997) Comparing conventionally ploughed fields to reduced tillage and residue retention fields in Zimbabwe, researchers found higher rates of water run-off and erosion on the conventionally tilled plots (Thierfelder & Wall, 2009)

Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Intensive tillage practices also emit

carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change Mechanical tillage tools release CO2 through the combustion of fossil fuels, and tillage itself stimulates CO2 emissions by enhancing decomposition of soil organic matter (Smith et al., 2008) The tendency for tillage to increase erosion also contributes to CO2 emissions A large percentage of soil carbon particles carried by erosion are emitted into the atmosphere as CO2 rather than buried and sequestered in deposit sites (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)

2.2.2 Impacts of Inputs Associated with Intensification

Inorganic Fertilizers

Impacts on Soil: Nitrate leaching and ammonium-based fertilizers contribute to

soil acidification High rates of nitrogen fertilization can lead to soil acidification,

a process that results in toxic levels of aluminum and manganese and reduced amounts of essential nutrients Acidification occurs when ammonium in certain nitrogen fertilizers undergoes nitrification to form nitrate, and then the nitrate leaches into the soil Ammonium based fertilizers can also contribute directly to acidification in the absence of nitrate leaching (Crew & Peoples, 2004) Soil acidification is a problem in developed and developing countries, particularly in East Asia (FAO, 2003) For example, a recent survey of China’s major crop-production areas found significant acidification of all top soils primarily due to high nitrogen fertilizer inputs (Guo et al., 2010)

Impacts on Water Quality: Nutrient contamination in water bodies reduces

oxygen levels and harms fish and plant populations Nitrogen is an extremely mobile nutrient that is easily lost from agricultural soils Average fertilizer uptake efficiency is only 30 to 50%, meaning that soils may accumulate large quantities of unabsorbed nitrogen and other nutrients These nutrients can leak into aquatic ecosystems in a number of ways (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) Leaching of nitrogen and other fertilizer nutrients into fresh and saltwater environments can lead to a state of eutrophication (overabundant nutrient concentrations), resulting in increased algae blooms and oxygen depletion ―Dead zones‖ may develop in these areas, whereby decreased oxygen

levels dramatically reduce fish populations and species diversity The Baltic Sea, Black Sea, west coast of India, and outlet of the Mississippi River in the Gulf of Mexico contain significant dead zones caused by eutrophication (McNeely & Scherr, 2003)

Impacts on Air Quality: Nitric gas contributes to smog, ozone, and acid rain

During the microbial processes of nitrification and denitrification that take place

in fertilized soils, nitric (NO) gas is released Nitric emissions impact local and regional air quality by contributing to the formation of smog, ozone, and acid rain (Crew & Peoples, 2004)

Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Unabsorbed nitrogen from fertilization

is susceptible to emission into the atmosphere as nitrous oxide (N2O), a greenhouse gas Inefficient fertilizer practices, such as applying fertilizer in excess of immediate plant requirements or over-fertilizing in wet conditions, contribute to nitrogen losses in the atmosphere Globally, N2O emissions from soils are responsible for 38% of total agricultural greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2007) In addition, use of natural gas and coal to manufacture inorganic fertilizer contributes to CO2 emissions (FAO, 2006)

Pesticides

Impacts on Biodiversity: Efficiency rates of pesticide application are even lower

than for fertilizer, with some estimating that less than 0.1% of pesticides applied

to crops actually reach the intended pest The remainder accumulates in soils, where it may filter into ground or surface water and prove toxic to micro-

organisms, aquatic animals, and humans Accumulated pesticides in soils may harm arthropods, earthworms, fungi, bacteria, protozoa, and other organisms that contribute to the function and structure of soils Exposure of birds to pesticides can cause reproductive failure, or even kill them directly in high enough doses Domesticated livestock may also be affected by exposure to pesticides (Wilson & Tisdell, 2001)

Farmers may face negative health impacts from exposure to or mishandling of pesticides In the Ethiopian study, farmers reported risky handling and storage techniques, such as applying pesticides to human hair or skin to treat lice or open wounds (Williamson et al., 2008) A survey of pesticide use among smallholder cotton farmers in Zimbabwe found that over half had experienced acute pesticide poisoning symptoms, including skin irritation, eye irritation, and stomach poisoning (Maumbe & Swinton, 2003)

Irrigation System

Impacts on Soil: The most common negative environmental impact associated

with irrigation occurs when excess water causes water tables to rise As water tables reach the surface and evaporate, salt is left behind The resulting increase

in salinity reduces soil productivity by making it more difficult for plants to absorb water from the soil (FAO, 1997)

Impacts on Water Quality and Quantity: Run-off from irrigation and high

extraction rates can damage downstream natural ecosystems Irrigation discharge contains numerous suspended particles that can degrade ground and surface

water quality if not disposed of properly In sufficient quantities, naturally occurring elements (salts, silt, selenium, arsenic, and boron) and residues from fertilizers and pesticides in irrigation drainage can harm aquifers and downstream watersheds and make the water unfit for human consumption (Wichelns & Oster, 2008)

2.3 Environmental Management Strategies/Practices

Intensive farming needs to be balanced with efficient farming techniques

to maintain a healthy natural balance that will not hurt the ecosystem Growth and modernization should not come at a price that cannot be reversed Growth that does not sustain will not enhance the quality of life in the longer run (Rajeev, 2010)

The dominant environmental management style is the larger-scale conservation farmer and is characterized by higher sales on average and adoption

of the following conservation practices: reduced tillage, legume rotation to enhance soil fertility, planting of cover crops, crop rotation to break pest life cycles, use of pest resistant crop varieties and scouting for pests The secondary environmental management style is the alternative/ecological farmer and it is characterized by support for organic agriculture and resistance to biotechnology and adoption of the following conservation practices: certified organic production, intercropping and cultivating to control weeds (Welsh & Rivers, 2010)

PART III METHODOLOGY

This section deals with the design and step-by-step procedures on how the researcher conducted the study It discusses all the materials utilized from the implementation up until the end of this research This section also provides the locale of the study and the respondents who participated in this research Also, it shows how the researcher gathered all the data needed for this study as well as their analysis and interpretation

On the other hand, for the quantitative part, the researcher developed survey questionnaire based on the result of the FGD (presented in Appendix 1.1)

to identify the respondents’ profile including both demographic and economic profile The survey questionnaire was also used to identify the respondents’ farm characteristics, the ecological/environmental impacts of intensive rice farming, and their environmental management practices and its effectiveness

socio-3.2 Materials

There are various important things used in accomplishing this research These are the following:

Interview protocol- This is for FGD, set of questions that were given to all the

selected rice farmers in Victoria, Laguna which covers in-depth interview in order for the researcher to craft a full blown questionnaire for the actual survey that would help enhance the quality and the reliability of the results of the study The topics covered by this instrument are about the steps involved in rice production, inputs applied, activities involved in every step of the production, actual environmental impacts, and environmental management practices for their mitigation strategy

Survey questionnaire- The survey questionnaire was divided into four categories:

respondents’ profile, farming system, ecological/environmental impacts and environmental management practices The survey questionnaire applied in this research with structured questions are based on the results of the focus group discussion (FGD) conducted by the researcher Also, all the questions were absolutely pre-tested to determine if those questions are understandable and can

be easily answered by the respondents

Mobile phone- Mobile phone was used for documentation purpose, especially in

taking some photos of the respondents as well as their rice farm

Laptop- This was used to input all the data gathered in Microsoft Excel to be

easily analyzed by the researcher

3.3 Locale of the Study

Figure 1 Location Map of Victoria, Laguna, Philippines

Source: Google earth (https://earth.google.com)

Victoria is a 4th class municipality in the province of Laguna, Philippines

The town of Victoria is known for the Itik (Anas Plathrhynchos Linn) Festival,

held every second week of November and celebrate it every last week of April,

which borders Laguna Lake It became a destination of balut traders and became

the Duck Raising Center of the Philippines (WOWLAGUNA, 2010)

According to the latest census, it has a population of 33,829 people in 6,128 households It is southeast of Laguna de Bay, 90 km south of Manila and bordered by the Municipality of Calauan to the southwest, Nagcarlan to the southeast and Pila to the northeast The municipality has a total land area of 22.83 square kilometres which is 1.30% of the total land area of the province of Laguna (WOWLAGUNA, 2010)

In fact, the capital of Pila was once in Barangay Pagalangan, now one of Victoria’s barangays What remains of Pila’s original parish church can still be found in Pagalangan, which in the past made that community a target of treasure hunters seeking antiques Pagalangan ceased to be Pila’s capital when the town center was moved due to frequent flooding (WOWLAGUNA, 2010)

Victoria Laguna is politically subdivided into 9 barangays: Banca-banca, Daniw, Masapang, Nanhaya, Pagalangan, San Benito, San Felix, San Francisco and San Roque Nanhaya and San Roque are classified as urban while the rest are rural (WOWLAGUNA, 2010)

3.4 Respondents of the Study

The respondents for this research were acquired from the list of rice

farmers (that was obtained from the Municipal Agriculture Office) in Victoria,

Laguna

The respondents for FGD were the rice farmers from barangay Banca and barangay Masapang On the other hand, the respondents for the actual survey were all rice farmers from three different barangays; Masapang, San Benito and San Roque

Banca-Only those who practice intensive farming are qualified to be the respondents of this research

3.5 Sampling Method and Sample Size

Three barangays in Victoria are selected to be the particular locale of this research, namely Masapang, San Benito, and San Roque The reason for selecting these three barangays is based on the list of rice farmers acquired from the Municipal Agriculture Office (presented in Table 1); since these are the top three barangays that has the largest number of rice farmers

As for the study’s sampling method, purposive sampling was employed, and since not all rice farmers from the selected three barangays perform intensive farming, the qualified respondents are those who only practice it to answer the objectives of this research and to have more realistic and reliable results

Since it is a purposive sampling, the total number of samples for the actual survey of this research is ninety; thirty respondents from each barangay as for the researcher, it is more convenient knowing that the time is limited, and also because the researcher needs to reach the targeted sample quickly

For the Focus Group Discussion (FGD), only three participants from the selected barangays were undergone in-depth interview with the researcher