TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HUE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES LE THANH NGUYET ANH EFL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES REGARDING LEARNER AUTONOMY:

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HUE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

LE THANH NGUYET ANH

EFL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES REGARDING LEARNER AUTONOMY:

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY AT A VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY IN THE MEKONG DELTA

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THESIS IN THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

HUE, 2019

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HUE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

LE THANH NGUYET ANH

EFL TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES REGARDING LEARNER AUTONOMY:

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY AT A VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY IN THE MEKONG DELTA

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THESIS IN THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO

ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ

LÊ THANH NGUYỆT ANH

NGHIÊN CỨU THĂM DÒ Ý KIẾN TỪ GIẢNG VIÊN VÀ SINH VIÊN TIẾNG ANH VỀ NHẬN THỨC VÀ THỰC HIỆN DẠY HỌC TỰ CHỦ ĐỐI VỚI SINH VIÊN CHUYÊN NGÀNH TIẾNG ANH TẠI MỘT TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Ở ĐỒNG BẰNG

SÔNG CỬU LONG

LUẬN ÁN TIẾN SĨ

LÝ LUẬN VÀ PHƯƠNG PHÁP DẠY HỌC BỘ MÔN TIẾNG ANH

HUẾ, NĂM 2019

BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO

ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ

LÊ THANH NGUYỆT ANH

NGHIÊN CỨU THĂM DÒ Ý KIẾN TỪ GIẢNG VIÊN VÀ SINH VIÊN TIẾNG ANH VỀ NHẬN THỨC VÀ THỰC HIỆN DẠY HỌC TỰ CHỦ ĐỐI VỚI SINH VIÊN CHUYÊN NGÀNH TIẾNG ANH TẠI MỘT TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Ở ĐỒNG BẰNG

SÔNG CỬU LONG

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I have learnt, and experienced to become an autonomous learner throughout

my PhD course I believe that this precious experience will help me with my teaching process Without my supervisors’, lecturers’, colleagues’, students’, friends’ and family’s help, encouragements, and suggestions, the present thesis would not have succeeded

First of all, I would like to express my deeply sincere gratitude to my two supervisors: Dr Trương Bạch Lê and Assoc Prof Dr Đỗ Minh Hùng for their early suggestion of the topic, invaluable guidance, support and sincere advice throughout

my PhD journey Both of them have supplied a large amount of their expert knowledge to me and have helped me to change track completely to finish my thesis

I am also heavily in debt to the staff of Hue University of Foreign Languages: Assoc Prof Dr Trần Văn Phước, Dr Bảo Khâm, Assoc Prof Dr Phạm Thị Hồng Nhung, Assoc Prof Dr Trương Viên, Assoc Prof Dr Lê Phạm Hoài Hương, Dr Tôn Nữ Như Hương who provided me with critical, useful feedback to help me conduct my thesis better I would also like to thank Assoc Prof Dr Lê Văn Canh for his early advice and early suggestion of the title

I also gratefully acknowledge my colleagues as well as my students in the Faculty of Foreign Language Education at Dong Thap University who assisted, understood, and supported me through my thesis

My special thanks to my Mum, my husband, my brothers’ family, and my friends for their love, encouragement, and being with me along my PhD course

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i

TABLE OF CONTENTS .ii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

ABSTRACT x

Chapter One INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the research 1

1.2 Aims of the research 7

1.3 Research questions 7

1.4 Research significance 7

1.5 Organization of the thesis 7

Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 Learner autonomy 9

2.1.1 Definition of learner autonomy 9

2.1.2 Roles of learner autonomy 9

2.1.2.1 Learner autonomy in Asian EFL higher education …10

2.1.2.2 Learner autonomy in Vietnamese EFL higher education 11

2.2 Learner autonomy in foreign language education …12

2.2.1 Learner autonomy as ability 12

2.2.2 Learner autonomy as responsibility 13

2.2.3 Learner autonomy as cognitive processes 15

2.2.4 Learner autonomy in lifelong learning 16

2.2.5 Learner autonomy as cultural challenge 17

2.2.6 Learner autonomy in this study .20

2.3 Aspects of learner autonomy 21

2.3.1 Technical aspect of learner autonomy 21

2.3.2 Psychological aspect of learner autonomy 22

2.3.3 Political aspect of learner autonomy 22

2.3.4 Sociocultural aspect of learner autonomy 23

2.4 Perceptions and practices .24

2.4.1 Perceptions 24

2.4.2 Practices 26

2.4.3 Relationship between perception and practice of learner autonomy 30

2.5 Assessment as learning in learner autonomy 31

2.5.1 Assessment as learning as an indispensable segment of LA 31

2.5.2 Teachers’ role 33

2.5.3 Learners’ role 35

2.6 Previous studies on EFL teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 36

2.7 Summary 42

Chapter Three RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOG Y 43

3.1 Research approach: Mixed methods research 43

3.2 Research participants .46

3.2.1 Teacher participants 46

3.2.2 Student participants 46

3.3 Data collection methods .47

3.3.1 Interviews .48

3.3.1.1 In-depth interview 49

3.3.1.2 Group interviews .50

3.3.1.3 Interview for teachers 51

3.3.1.4 Interview for students 52

3.3.2 Questionnaire 52

3.4 Research procedure 57

3.4.1 Pilot study 57

3.4.2 Main study 58

3.4.3 Coding questionnaire and interview data 59

3.5 Data analysis 59

3.5.1 Qualitative data analysis 59

3.5.1.1 Transcribing data 59

3.5.1.2 Translating data 59

3.5.1.3 Data analysis and reconcilement 60

3.5.2 Quantitative data analysis 61

3.6 Research reliability and validity 61

3.7 Ethical considerations 62

3.8 Summary 63

Chapter Four F INDINGS AND DISCUSSION 64

4.1 Teachers’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 64

4.1.1 Teachers’ perceptions of the concept of learner autonomy 64

4.1.2 Teachers’ perceptions of the role of learner autonomy .66

4.1.3 Teachers’ self-report of their practices of learner autonomy 68

4.1.3.1 Teachers’ stories of organizing learner autonomy activities 69

4.1.3.2 Teachers’ achievements of organization and instruction of students’ LA activities 73

4.1.3.3 Teachers’ difficulties of organization and instruction of students’ LA activities 73

4.1.3.4 Teachers’ assessment of their students’ LA ability 74

4.1.3.5 Teachers’ self-assessment about their organization and instruction of students’ LA activities 75

4.2 Students’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 76

4.2.1 Students’ perceptions of the concept of learner autonomy 77

4.2.2 Students’ perceptions of the role of learner autonomy .80

4.2.3 Students’ self-report of practices of learner autonomy 84

4.2.3.1 Students’ special LA stories .84

4.2.3.2 Students’ achievements of practicing LA activities 90

4.2.3.3 Students’ difficulties of practicing LA activities 91

4.2.3.4 Setting goals 92

4.2.3.5 Study plan 93

4.2.3.6 Learner autonomy activities 93

4.2.3.7 Time manageme nt 95

4.2.3.8 Learning resources 95

4.2.3.9 Metacognition in learning language .96

4.2.3.10 Students’ self-assessment of learner autonomy 98

4.3 Relationships between teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices 100

4.3.1 Relationship between teachers’ perceptions and practices 100

4.3.2 Relationship between students’ perceptions and pr actices 101

4.3.3 Relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions 103

4.3.4 Relationship between teachers’ and students’ practices 104

4.4 Discussion 105

4.4.1 Teachers’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 105

4.4.1.1 Teachers’ perceptions of learner autonomy 105

4.4.1.2 Teachers’ practices of learner autonomy 106

4.4.2 Students’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 109

4.4.2.1 Students’ perceptions of learner autonomy 109

4.4.2.2 Students’ practices of learner autonomy 110

4.4.3 Relationships between teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices 115

4.4.3.1 Relationship between teachers’ perceptions and practices 115

4.4.3.2 Relationship between students’ perceptions and practices 117

4.4.3.3 Relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions 118

4.4.3.4 Relationship between teachers’ and students’ practices 119

4.4.3.5 The influential factors in relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 119

4.5 Summary 124

Chapter Five CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS 126

5.1 Summary 126

5.2 Contributions of the study 127

5.2.1 Theoretical contributions 127

5.2.2 Methodological contributions 128

5.2.3 Pedagogical contributions and implications for the future of TESOL in Vietnam 130

5.2.4 Learner autonomy in local context 131

5.3 Limitations 131

5.4 Further research 131

5.5 Conclusion 132

PUBLICATIONS INTEGRATED IN THE THESIS 1

REFERENCES 1

APPENDICES 1

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

MOET : Ministry of Education and Training

SPSS : Statistical package for the social science

TESOL : Teaching English to students of other languages

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Research questions and instruments .47

Table 3.2: Summary of teacher interview clusters 51

Table 3.3: Summary of student interview clusters 52

Table 3.4: Summary of questionnaire clusters 57

Table 3.5: Summary of Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients 62

Table 4.1: Students’ perceptions of ability and cognition 78

Table 4.2: Students’ perceptions of responsibility 79

Table 4.3: Students’ perceptions of role of learner autonomy 83

Table 4.4: Students’ practices of setting goals 92

Table 4.5: Students’ practices of planning study 93

Table 4.6: Students’ practices of LA activities 93

Table 4.7: Students’ practices of time and life management 95

Table 4.8: Students’ practices of materials and resources 95

Table 4.9: Students’ practices of metacognition in language learning 96

Table 4.10: Students’ practices of self-assessment 99

ABSTRACT

Learner autonomy is currently one of the central themes in language education in the 21st century In life-long learning societies, autonomous learning plays an important role not only in university life but also extends beyond university Exploring English-as-foreign-language (EFL) teachers’ and EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA is necessary, especially in local contexts

It became more special when the study was conducted in a rural area in Mekong Delta because there was very little research on EFL autonomous learning there

In the present exploratory study, a mixed methods approach was conducted with 20 EFL teachers and 60 EFL students through in-depth interviews and group interviews respectively, and with 285 EFL students at a University in Mekong Delta

by means of a questionnaire survey Data of the study were collected through two stages, including qualitative data and quantitative data

The findings disclosed that most of the teachers and students had positive understandings in related aspects and levels of learner autonomy as well as its role

in English language study at higher education For teachers, in practice, they made significant attempts to cultivate students’ autonomy However, they faced certain problems shared by EFL teachers elsewhere For students, they gained achievements to different extents and related problems were found Besides, the relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy was investigated Thereby, it implies that since learner autonomy is a long process, students should patiently keep on cultivating it by virtue of both their own sufficient ongoing efforts and instructor supports when in need The findings of this study also indicated a relationship between perceptions and practices of learner autonomy among the teachers and the students as well If teachers perceived the importance of learner autonomy, they tended to apply it in their teaching practice Similarly, if students believed that learner autonomy was a crucial factor, they implemented it in their own learning The results of the study will provide more insights of this realm for EFL teachers, policy-makers, and administrators to make plans in order to foster EFL students’ LA ability to meet the socio-economic needs

Chapter One INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents background and focus on the study The aims of the study, research questions, research significance, and organization of the thesis are introduced

1.1 Background of the research

Recently, the importance of autonomy in second language learning has been intensively concerned Autonomy plays a vital role in language education because

in any educational contexts, learners are autonomous when they establish their own learning goals and have responsibility for planning, managing and evaluating particular learning activities and the learning process overall The practice of learner autonomy (henceforth LA) not only depends upon, but also develops and expands the learner’s ability for detachment, critical reflection, decision making, and independent action (Little, 1991) Yet, LA is originated from European education (Benson, 2006) and whether it is suitable for Asian learning style (Pennycook, 1997) is both Western educators’ and Asian educators’ concern Therefore, how Vietnamese university students, can be encouraged to increase their autonomous practices, which is a challenge to the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) as well as educators

In the context of the informative technological development these days and the changing situation of ELT in the 21st century, autonomy is considered as a crucial goal in teaching and learning process Therefore, the Vietnamese MOET has supported the Law of Higher Education to promote the quality of the higher educational system approaching international standards in the 21st century Recently, the Vietnamese MOET has tried to integrate and develop LA in the credit education system A number of new policies have been issued In Article 40, the Vietnamese

requirements on contents and methods of education in higher education, in which LA plays a crucial role: “Training methods in higher education must be brought into play

to foster the learners’ability to be active learners, to study and to research by themselves, and to foster their practical abilities, self-motivation, creative thinking, and ambition” Hence, teaching and learning method in higher education needs to be

fulfilled with three aims: (1) fostering students to learn autonomously, self -research, (2) helping students to increase their creative thinking, (3) training practical ability, attending scientific research and application Meanwhile, the government indicates that Vietnamese education system should be innovated totally to enrich students’ creativity, autonomous learning, and lifelong learning

Additionally, accompanying the Decision No.1400/QĐ-TTg, 30 September

2008 issued by the Prime Minister (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2008) in “The National Foreign Language Project 2020”, teaching and learning foreign languages

in National educational system in 2008 – 2020 period have been innovated to meet the requirements of industrialization – modernization and fast emerging economic conditions of the country in the market-oriented socialism so that up to 2020 the Vietnamese young, who graduate from colleges or universities, will have had enough foreign language ability to use it independently, communicate it confidently, learn, and work in the international integration based on multilingual and multicultural settings Furthermore, accompanying the official document number 2196/BGDĐT-GDĐH, 22 April 2010 issued by the Vice Minister (Vietnamese MOET, 2010) in instruction of constructing and announcing Outcome standards, one of the program outcome standards for learners after graduating from university is that they must own their updating knowledge ability, creation at work, lifelong learning, and professional development Meanwhile, Vietnamese teachers with the traditional role are to transmit knowledge to students; they would like to teach all things in classroom However, in the rapid technological information era these days students can find knowledge by a click on the Internet Hence, teachers’ roles should change to instruct students to shape their perceptions of a certain type

of autonomous learning of language acquisition, help them discover their autonomous learning ability, and offer them opportunities to make decisions about their learning

Besides, the National Strategy for Human Resource Development, 2011–2020 (Decision No.579/QĐ-TTg, 19 April by Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2011), emphasises skills for Vietnamese human resource such as foreign language

competence, especially English What is more, in the developmental education policy in 2011 – 2020 period, accompanying the Decision No 711/QĐ-TTg, 13 June 2012 issued by the Prime Minister (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2012), the Vietnamese government has identified to go on innovating teaching methods and assessment, training students with the aim of developing their activeness, creativity, and LA ability In addition, accompanying the Resolution No.29/NQ-TW, 4 November 2013 issued by General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam (Central Executive Committee, 2013), the duty of Vietnamese education to innovate education and training basically and comprehensively is to develop learners’ creative ability, learner autonomy, and lifelong learning Since 2015, Vietnam has been a member of the ASEAN and ASEAN Economic Community However, one

of the challenges of Vietnamese students and Vietnamese young human resource is their weak foreign language competence (Nguyễn Đức Thịnh, 2015) In short, teaching and learning foreign languages, especially English, and fostering Vietnamese students’ LA ability have become a primary concern for the Vietnamese government and the MOET

For Mekong Delta, the Decision No.1033/QĐ-TTg, 30 June 2011 issued by the Prime Minister on developing education, training, and vocational training in Mekong Delta in the period 2011 – 2015 brought hopes for a breakthrough in enhancing the labors’ education and quality (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2011) However, after five years this Decision was conducted, the quality of education and training in Mekong Delta was still lower than other regions in Vietnam (Đỗ Nam, Tân Thành, & Phùng Dũng, 2017) Mekong Delta consists of 13 provinces and the majority of local people live on growing rice, fruit, and aquaculture Notwithstanding gaining a number of remarkable achievements of agriculture, this area has been a “depression” in Vietnamese education, especially in teaching and learning English According to Lê Văn (2017), foreign language competence is Vietnamese students’ weakness, which is one of the conclusions of the report for analyzing Vietnamese education at the Educational Forum 2017 In this report, only 13.55% of Mekong Delta students at schools gained the standard level of

competence in English This report confirmed that students’ weak competence in English was the big barrier when they attended colleges or universities, or participated in labor market in the context of Vietnam For certain reasons, traditional teaching and learning English, or teacher-centered approach in Mekong Delta still somehow exists although educational reforms of English language education in Vietnam have been conducted for over ten years In the rapid technological information era these days students can easily use a wide variety of technological devices for English learning (Hoàng Nguyễn Thu Trang, 2017) As a consequence, teacher role should change so as to help students to foster their LA ability effectively Meanwhile, like many other countries in the world in general and other universities in Vietnam in particular, Mekong Delta’s higher education has applied a credit system in recent years Under this system, students are required to rely more on themselves in learning rather than on their instructors in the classes The problem that appears here is how students are able to study independently of teachers given that they did not experience this during previous education

Although there has been a lot of research about LA conducted around the world

in many ways and a variety of studies of EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices towards learner autonomy in Western nations, Asian countries, and Vietnam such as Borg (2006), Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012b), Keuk and Heng (2016), Haji-Othman and Wood (2016), Tapinta (2016), Alhaysony (2016), Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016), and Dogan and Mirici (2017) as well as EFL students’ perceptions and practices regarding LA in Asian contexts generally and in Vietnam particularly (i.e Balcikanli, 2010; Chan, Spratt, & Humphreys, 2002; Đặng Tấn Tín, 2012; Joshi, 2011; Lê Xuân Quỳnh, 2013; Talley, 2014), their results have yet to be comprehensively generali zed and final conclusions have yet to be made Up to now, there have been one thesis of

LA (Trịnh Quốc Lập, 2005) and an article about this field (Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016) conducted in Cần Thơ University, in Mekong Delta, Vietnam Trịnh Quốc Lập (2005) explored LA with a tasked-based approach in a Writing course for EFL students at Cần Thơ University while Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016) investigated EFL teachers’ beliefs and practices of LA in six universities – three in the central area and

three in the South of Vietnam It needs to notice that Cần Thơ city has been the most developed city in Mekong Delta in Vietnam and Cần Thơ University is the biggest university in the South of Vietnam Therefore, further LA research in other provinces

in the South of Vietnam, especially the poor and rural provinces, needs to be carried out because according to Smith and Ushida (2009) LA capacity should be localized and dealt with in particular social settings In this vein, teachers and students in different socio-cultural settings may conceptualize LA and implement it in their teaching and learning practices differently

The present study was carried out at the Faculty of Foreign Language Education at a public university – Dong Thap University (DTU) – in the Mekong Delta, South of Vietnam DTU was upgraded to multidisciplinary university status

in 2003 The strength of DTU is to educate teacher students DTU is considered a young, active university with a mission to train high-quality human resources of multi-careers, especially in educational science and pedagogies, to conduct scientific research and provide community services, to enhance the socio-economic development of the Mekong Delta DTU hopes to be a qualified and prestigious training center in the Mekong Delta and one of the universities educating high-quality teachers in Vietnam In addition, the Faculty of Foreign Language Education, where the researcher has worked, consists of twenty-two lecturers and has a duty to train English major teacher students and non-teacher students Like the students of the other faculties, EFL students are educated in a credit-based training system Under this system, for two periods of a subject in classroom, university students must prepare that lesson at home for four periods Additionally, accompanying the Decision No.805/QĐ-ĐHĐT, 28 October 2016 issued by DTU Rector (Dong Thap University, 2016) on issuing the Regulation for DTU students, students have to learn autonomously (at Article 4)

Since the Decision No.2080/QĐ-TTg, 22 December 2017 was issued by the Prime Minister on strengthening teaching and learning foreign languages in National educational system for the period 2017 – 2025 (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2017), foreign-language autonomous learning has been developed

However, most of English major students at Foreign Language Education Faculty at the University obtained their weaker background in English than others in the big cities like Cần Thơ City or Hồ Chí Minh City For EFL students in this faculty, especially the freshmen, they were not used to studying in a university environment because it was quite different from the learning styles during the previous stages However, the current curriculum of English major at the University does not include any course like “LA skills in learning English at higher education” and there has not been any handbook of learning English major autonomously Thus, they faced with difficulties to adapt themselves to the needs of the university learning environment because to comprehend knowledge at higher education totally, students had to make significant efforts in learning, save a lot of time for learning autonomously, and adopt their own effective learning methods In this case, Thomas and Ben (2008) indicates that there is a wide and growing opportunity gap between urban and rural and between a wealthy elite and the great majority who remain poor For this reason, a large number of students in rural or remote or island areas have not had enough conditions to study English

Importance of research on LA in teaching and learning English at DTU

The context of this study is that Mekong Delta tertiary education in general, and DTU in particularly have made an effort to be able to keep up with other big universities in other regions in Vietnam According to Dương Thị Hoàng Oanh (2011), autonomous skills are needed to give students necessary transferable skills for facing the real social situation after university Also, she claims that autonomy is very seldom and ineffectively practiced, and there is very little research in Viet nam into its concept and practice Actually, up to the time this study starting to be conducted in 2014, there had not yet been any research related to LA for both teachers and students carried out in this faculty, although it had run for nearly 15 years Hence, further research needs conducting in this field in such rural areas as in the Mekong Delta, South of Vietnam, especially in DTU to find out some solutions

to improve EFL learners’ LA ability in a local context This study, thus, explored how much teachers and students understood the learner-autonomy concept and how

they applied it in teaching and learning process in a university in Mekong Delta, South of Vietnam, where little research about LA among EFL teachers and students had been done The present study made an attempt to explore this as well as to provide more insights about LA in the views of Vietnamese-speaking EFL teachers and students, who were maybe the insiders of their own LA developing process

1.2 Aims of the research

The present study sets out with three main aims First, it aims to understand how Vietnamese EFL teachers perceive LA and express it in their teaching pr actice Second, it explores students’ understanding of LA and the ways they learn English autonomously Lastly, it investigates the relationship between the EFL teachers’ and the EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA

1.3 Research questions

With the aims stated above, the following research questions are addressed in relation to EFL teachers and students in a Vietnamese university in the Mekong Delta:

1 What are EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices of LA?

2 What are EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA?

3 What are the relationships between EFL teachers’ and EFL students’

perceptions and practices of LA?

1.4 Research significance

This study aimed to achieve some significance in LA field First of all, the present study provides necessary insights into models of LA from local EFL teachers and EFL students’ perspectives in learning environments in a rural area in Mekong Delta, South of Vietnam Second, understanding teachers’ and students’ practices of LA in EFL learning environment contributes to a LA profile for the local context in Vietnam Third, the current study contributes more knowledge to

LA field which is provided in Chapter Two

1.5 Organization of the thesis

The thesis is held into five main chapters In Chapter One, the author would like to describe the important part of autonomy in language learning in tertiary education and the reason why this study was carried out Chapter Two discusses

theories of autonomy with basic knowledge background so that the author uses them to discuss many solutions in later chapters The research design as well as methodology to fulfill this thesis presented clearly in Chapter Three After that, data were analyzed, and shown in findings, and then the results found were discussed effectively in Chapter Four Some suggestions and further research were given in Chapter Five

Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter addresses a synthesized short description of learner autonomy in foreign/second language learning It begins with presenting the definition of LA and the role of learner autonomy in higher education is discussed Next, a summary of five definitions, and four aspects linking to LA are introduced Teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices of learner autonomy are then addressed Finally, both teachers’ and students’ assessment of LA are presented These are a base of exploring process of EFL teachers’ and students’ perceptions of LA and how they implement it in their teaching and learning

2.1 Learner autonomy

This section defines LA and the role of LA in teaching and learning language

in higher education Then, detailed discussions about the role of LA in Asian EFL tertiary education as well as in Vietnamese one are presented

2.1.1 Definition of learner autonomy

Learner autonomy was primitively defined as the “ability to take charge of one’s own learning” by Holec (1981, p.3) and up to now this definition has been cited in LA literature often Holec (1981) also states that LA ability is not inborn, but learners can obtain it by practicing it in formal education Hence, later LA has been believed and defined in practice in such a variety of ways that Little (1991) calls it as a “buzz word”

2.1.2 Roles of learner autonomy

In the context of the rapid technological development today and the changing situation of teaching methods in the 21st century, LA is considered to be a crucial goal in teaching and learning process LA in language learning is not new, but in the last three decades it has still been an interesting topic and had an extremely powerful effect on language teaching and learning (Benson, 2006; Blidi, 2017) In language learning, LA has been a major objective, especially in higher education (Sinclair, 2000) In Norman’s view (1994), LA should become an aim of education These days, the important duty of education is to instruct students how to achieve knowledge by themselves, and how to continue to have their interest in learning

Moreover, LA can make learners to gain their creation and independence in high levels Improving learners’ autonomous learning ability should be considered as one

of the most vital factors that lecturers as well as educators try their best to conduct

It goes without doubt that to improve students’ ability to learn autonomously becomes every teacher’s duty Borg and Al-Busaidi’s findings (2012a) point out that in terms of learner-autonomy impacts on second/foreign language learning, 93.4% of teachers agree that LA contributes to language learners’ success remarkably According to Bajrami (2015, p.149), LA promises “the positive outcomes at the university level, such as flexibility, adaptation, self -initiative, and self-direction” One more major reason for continuing exploring and developing LA

at tertiary education is for the purpose of life-long learning for both teachers and students For example, in politics, lifelong learning is emphasized as “an investment

in human capital” (Blidi, 2017, p.7) In other words, students should be fostered “a set of targeted skills and competencies” to meet the requirements of the present economy, culture, and job market (ibid.) It is extremely vital for research educators, policy-makers, administrators, and teachers to enhance suitable and necessary skills for students in lifelong learning In brief, LA plays an important role of instructing

university students

2.1.2.1 Learner autonomy in Asian EFL higher education

Recently, a large number of studies about the benefits of LA and the importance of fostering LA in foreign/second language education in Asian context have been conducted This shows the positive role of LA in this field in Asian university settings, especially in the context of LA considered to have originated from Western countries and so far to have been used in Asia with a crucial role to help students become active and autonomous learners For example, Dafei (2007) proves that learners’ English competence has a close-knit relationship with their LA ability In other words, when learners have good LA capacity, they will learn language better and vice versa In Balcikanli’s study (2010), when students have chances to decide their learning process, they show their positive attitude and it makes their learning more and more focused and purposeful To agree with the vital

role of LA, Cakici’s findings (2017) show that LA is highly valued by participants, and they are willing to take more responsibilities for and make decisions about their own language learning Generally, the value of LA has extremely been appreciated

by the researchers as well as the informants

2.1.2.2 Learner autonomy in Vietnamese EFL higher education

These days, LA has appeared in Vietnamese MOET’s educative strategies, in Vietnamese Education Law, as mentioned in section 1.1 above, which shows the importance of LA in learning Mentioning the role of LA in higher education, Trịnh Quốc Lập (2005, p.17) indicates that one of the goals of English Language Teachers training programs in Vietnamese universities is LA development That means the programs aim to develop English major students’ personal and autonomous learning skills, which they will go on using after their graduation from university Therefore,

by exercising autonomy learnt within the educational context, a person will have ample opportunity to practise autonomy by exposing himself to learning tasks (Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Lệ, 2009, p.11)

In addition, Đặng Tấn Tín (2012, pp.26-27) indicates that LA “directly contributes to both processes and outcomes of learning activities”, helps “students

to face the challenge of technical difficulties”, and “is especially important for knowledge construction and sustainable learning in today’s globalized world” Besides, Lê Xuân Quỳnh (2013) considers the role of LA in three aspects such as ideology, psychology, and economy Dương Mỹ Thẩm and Seepho (2014) assert the increasing important role of LA in both academic study and teaching practices in the 21st century by pointing out that students are taught not only knowledge but also the practices of LA Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016) compares the Western concept of

“LA” with the Vietnamese one “tự học” (translated literally as study by oneself) After that he investigates the potential to increase LA in Vietnam and finds that the top-down education system has prevented the development of LA though it can be grown in Vietnamese local context In short, LA is also crucial in learning English

in Vietnam

2.2 Learner autonomy in foreign language education

Over the last three decades, the term “learner autonomy” has been one of the primary concerns in second/foreign language learning literature Clarifying LA attributes is vital to EFL teachers and learners in their teaching/learning processes Given a variety of adopted views of the concept of LA, researchers have not yet reached a consensus on the definitions of this term As a result, a large number of definitions have been introduced up to now Generally, researchers have defined it

as “learners’ capacity in learning” (Benson, 2001; Dam, 1995; Dickinson, 1994; Holec, 1981, 1985; Little, 1991; Littlewood, 1996), “responsibility in learning” (Benson & Voller, 1997; Borg & Al-Busaidi, 2012b; Dam, 1995; Holec, 1981; Little, 1991; Littlewood, 1999), and “cognitive attitude in learning” (Dickinson, 1995; Little, 2000, 2004; Wenden, 1991) Recently, Alhaysony (2 016, p.46) reviews different definitions of LA defined by many language researchers and concludes that most of them have focused on learners’ ability, capacity, responsibility, control, demonstration, attitude, willingness, mode of learning In the present study, three key terms of LA such as ability, responsibility, cognition are echoed, and then two more other definitions of LA – lifelong learning and cultural challenge – are explored

2.2.1 Learner autonomy as ability

Holec (1981, p.3), one of the pioneers in this field provides a definition of

LA as “ability to take charge of one’s own learning” – one that is popularly cited by language researchers around the world Thus, LA is the ability to proceed to learning independently and consciously Additionally, Holec (1985, p.180) defines

LA as “a matter of acquiring those capacities which are necessary to carry out a self-directed learning programme” Meanwhile, others use the concept “capacity” instead of “ability” for LA in their studies (Benson, 2006) For example, Little (1991, p.4) likens autonomy to “a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action” It is clear that Little (ibid.) emphasizes learners’ cognitive abilities to detach themselves, analyze and make decisions on their own, followed by being able to act or perform independently In more details,

Dickinson (1994) makes these LA cognitive abilities of language learners clearer through being able to recognize the objectives of what they learn in the c lassroom, plan their own learning goals, choose a suitable type of learning strategies, and manage and evaluate their implementation of learning strategies Moreover, Dam (1995, p.1) confirms the concept again when defining LA as “a capacity and willingness to act independently and in co-operation with others, as a socially responsible person” Littlewood (1996) agrees with others when he indicates two

main attributes to LA are ability and willingness He explains learners’ autonomous learning ability is based on their “knowledge about the alternatives from which choices have to be made and the necessary skills for carrying out whatever choices

seem most appropriate” (Littlewood, 1996, p.428), while learners’ willingness is based on their motivation and their confidence He strongly confirms that a learner who wants to be successful in practice autonomously must combine ability, willingness, knowledge, and skills together

Benson (2001) also supports Holec’s view (1981, p.2) when defining LA as

“the capacity to take control over one’s learning” Although the former replaces the term “ability” of Holec (ibid.) with “capacity” and “take charge of” with “take control over”, both the former and the latter (ibid.) appear to focus on learners’ voluntary responsibility for learning In other words, Benson (ibid.) defines that LA is learners’ ability to take control over their own learning which is the main factor of all conceptualizations about LA Subsequently, he (2009, p.18) continues to develop the concept of LA as a combination of “abilities, attitudes or dispositions” Therefore, it

is necessary for students to obtain their ability of learning autonomously and for teachers to adopt a crucial role in fostering this ability in learners

2.2.2 Learner autonomy as responsibility

All of the above definitions of LA imply that language learners should take

responsibility for their learning Holec (1981, p.3) also mentions that LA is - “to take charge of one’s learning is to have, and to hold, the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of this learning” He emphasizes that through taking responsibility for their own learning, autonomous learners could manage all

decisions about their learning such as determining objectives, clearly showing contents and progressions, choosing methods and techniques used, observing the process of acquisition, and evaluating their learning Dickinson (1987, p.11) points

to LA as a “situation in which the learner is totally responsible for all of the decisions concerned with his or her learning and the implementation of those decisions” (as cited in Hui, 2010) According to Little’s definition of LA (1991, p.4), autonomous learners are people who take responsibility for their own learning apparently and obviously

Ho and Crookall (1995) suggest a model with many certain activities for Chinese learners taking responsibility and for their learner autonomy ability studied and obtained They focus on learners’ taking responsibility for their own learning through certain actions such as making decisions about their learning, study plan, evaluation of their learning, monitoring, and assessment For instance, they show the ways to help students develop skills to make decisions, “take responsibility for the simulation tasks” namely “goal setting”, “weekly meetings to discuss the affairs

of state”, and “for the learning and use of necessary skills” such as “conflict resolution skills, language skills for professional communication, and time management and contingency planning” (Ho and Crookall, 1995, pp 6-7)

Taking LA as responsibility also means developing a set of behaviors and skills which Benson and Voller (1997, p.2) classify into five main components Specifically, learners can be considered autonomous learners if they are able to

“study entirely on their own”, form “a set of skills which can be learned and applied

in self-directed learning”, activate their “inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education”, implement their “responsibility for their own learning”, and

“determine the direction of their learning” In addition, Littlewood (1999) maintains that autonomy should consist of two characteristics: 1 Learners should have a duty

to their learning process; 2 Learners have to design their learning objective s, find their learning styles, and assess their learning process It can be clearly seen that learners should be directly responsible and active in their learning As a student pays attention to his learning, he will try his best to find out his suitable l earning

way for him, plan his short-term and long-term study, and then self-evaluate what

he gains

Through above researchers’ views of LA, it seems that autonomous learners have

to take responsibility for their own learning activities To gain that, they need to have conscious attitudes in learning which are discussed in the immediate next section

2.2.3 Learner autonomy as cognitive processes

One more definition of LA is supported as cognitive process by researchers Specifically, Wenden (1991, p.15) believes that autonomous learners are the ones who “have acquired the learning strategies, the knowledge about learning, and the attitudes that enable them to use these skills and knowledge confidently, flexibly, appropriately and independently of a teacher” She argues that to develop LA, knowledge about learning strategies (cognition, self-management), knowledge about language learning (metacognition), and knowledge about learner attitudes are essential Dickinson (1995, p.167) also considers LA as “an attitude towards learning” In other words, students should be prepared to make decisions about their own learning In White’s study (1995, p.209), LA is thought as “an attitude on the part of the learners towards taking control of the language learning proce ss” Dam (1995, p.1) also gives one definition of LA: “Learner autonomy is characterized by a readiness to take charge of one’s own learning in the service of one’s needs and purposes” Little (2000, p.16) highlights the notions of individuality and independence as being the nucleus of the concept of LA He argues that “individual cognition is embedded in processes of social interaction” In brief, learners’ cognition of LA and their attitude to LA are very important for their own learning

As mentioned above, metacognition is one of the important factors of learning attitude for autonomous students to take According to Hennessey (1999, p.3), metacognition is “awareness of one’s own thinking, awareness of the content of one’s conceptions, an active monitoring of one’s cognitive processes, an attempt to regulate one’s cognitive processes in relationship to further learning, and an application of a set of heuristics as an effective device for helping people organize their methods of

attack on problems in general” Also, Rolheiser, Bower, and Stevahn (2000, p.32) define metacognition as “thinking about thinking” In other words, it is considered as learners’ understanding of their thinking processes with the aim of obtaining a number of “cognitive skills” to finish a task or gain a goal or final product Rolheiser

et al (2000, p.34) indicate that “students who have acquired metacognition skills are better able to compensate for both low ability and insufficient information” The concept of metacognition is further supported by Harris (2003, p.4) who maintains that “metacognition is concerned with guiding the learning process itself and so includes strategies for planning, monitoring and evaluating both language use and language learning, key elements in developing autonomy”

In short, learners’ consciousness in autonomous learning plays an important role How to help students control this cognitive process is very vital to develop

their learning effects

2.2.4 Learner autonomy in lifelong learning

According to Thomson (1996, p.78), language learning is “a life-long endeavor” LA lays the foundation of lifelong learning Jacobs and Farrell (2001, p.5) show that LA emphasizes the process of learning and students have to “see learning as a lifelong process” Kose (2006, p.29) mentions LA as “lifelong learning project” Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012b, p.3) hold that LA “prepares individuals for lifelong learning” Azizi (2014, p.130) indicates that LA is “a matter of lifelong process rather than a need for a particular situation or course” In addition, LA is learners’ lifelong learning process after they graduate from university According to Blidi (2017), the development of lifelong learning is deemed to strongly impact on policies of education and trends in teaching and learning in Europe as well as in the globe because it is considered as the solution to connect education products and the important and essential things of social economy Blidi (ibid., p.6) uses the image of the bridge as a metaphor of lifelong learning to fill “the gap between education systems and the socio-economic needs” In short, lifelong learning is an important perspective of LA in language learning

2.2.5 Learner autonomy as cultural challenge

Recently, LA has been considered as a concept which affects language teaching and learning in different settings, and culture has become an important factor in relation to its suitability and effectiveness Additionally, LA has been considered as a cultural characteristic in Western countries versus Asia countries Hence, Blidi (2017) indicates that it is necessary for researchers to give attention to the impact of culture on different characteristics of LA, and suggests that culture is the motivation of LA and a challenge to promote LA In this light, some research of

LA as a cultural challenge to ASIAN students has been conducted up to now Ho and Crookall (1995) show that Asian learners, consisting of Vietnamese learners, have the same strong beliefs of social relations and relational hierarchy in the classrooms Students must respect their teacher’s explanation or opinion Moreover, Littlewood’s view (1999) about this term is that East Asian students own reactive autonomy; meanwhile, Western ones have proactive autonomy In addition, Asian leaners consider the formal and teacher-led learning method important Đặng Tấn Tín (2010) claims that influenced by the Asian culture, the common philosophy of Vietnamese education practice is more absorbing and memorizing, but less experimenting and creating knowledge Besides, students’ creativity is less encouraged at schools Therefore, they have an intention of not taking responsibility for their own studying in their learning process Furthermore, Phan Thị Thanh Thảo (2012) indicates that East Asian students are used to teacher-centered method

According to Nguyễn Thanh Nga (2014), there are three main differences between Western cultures and Asian cultures in academic environment First of all, the connection of teachers and students is mentioned In Western cultures, teachers and students are quite equal, and have informal relationship The students can comfortably question and challenge their teachers and their classmates Moreover, they are independent of learning Meanwhile, in Asian cultures, the teachers are always respected and stay in control of their students’ studies The students often have their passive way to learn and do not dare to put question to their teachers Next, the second dissimilarity is learning styles and approaches to learning In

Western education, student-centered methodology is widely applied, and students are expected to learn deeply and responsibly as well as develop their critical thinking Asian students, in contrast, always wait to receive knowledge or information from their teachers The teachers have dominated both teaching and learning process Students pay attention to surface learning and learn by heart what teachers transmit in class Finally, the last different characteristic between Western and Asian students is attitudes to knowledge and learning Western students think people can possess their own ideas and they admit others’ ones They do not accept dishonesty or plagiarism in learning environment However, Asian students do not have the same thought as Western ones They think knowledge cannot be possessed and do not often cite the source of ideas or information in their writing

In Vietnam, English has been a core subject from primary schools to universities, and educational reforms of English subject have been conducted for over ten years However, it has been facing lots of challenges and is considered one

of the most serious issues worth concerning for future development In Kennett and Knight’s words (1999), sitting in rows of immobile tables and chairs, Vietnamese students’ learning follows the hierarchy of first listening to the teacher, then repetition, and then copying models Most of the time, classroom interaction is one -way, between the teacher and the individual student Students will answer the teacher’s question when asked Interruptions, arguments and asking for clarification are hardly observed Additionally, the English learning environment in Vietnamese classrooms could be described as a “cultural island” (Lê Văn Canh, 2000) in which the teacher is supposed to be the provider of knowledge of the target language The focus of instruction is on the language structure more than on its use It means that a comprehensive mastery of grammatical structures of the English language is an expected pre-requisite for teachers in teaching their students Another role of the teacher supposed to assume is a feedback giver Whenever a student makes a mistake, the teacher is expected to interrupt the student at once and to correct it If the teacher does not correct the student’s mistake, it is seen as a shortcoming and the teacher is deemed incompetent Students’ learning outcomes are evaluated

within a product-oriented framework, so teachers assume another role of an evaluator who grades students’ performance on tests and exams, and makes the final decisions on a students’ grade Besides, they are the indicators of success or failure

in learning As mentioned earlier, teaching and learning English are driven, which leads to another role of the teacher as a high-pass-rate guarantor As not being expected, what and how the teacher teaches are dictated by the requirements of the examination, and are not linked to the learning needs of individual students In such a teaching context, students are expected to be the good listeners and good imitators of their teacher At the end of the semester, students are expected to “return” (Lê Văn Canh, 2000) what they have learned in their lessons in examinations This requires rote learning It has been observed that teachers hold a key role in the transmission of knowledge, and are as a learning quality guarantor With such roles of the teachers, students are not provided with the opportunities to take an active role for their learning (Trịnh Quốc Lập, 2005) Đặng Tấn Tín (2010, p.5) claims that “being strongly considered part of the Eastern culture, teaching and learning in Vietnam are more teacher-centered”

examination-For students in Mekong Delta, LA seems to be one of the big challenges because of the following reasons Hồ Sỹ Anh (2018) indicated that only 12% of Mekong Delta people graduated from high school to university in 2014 That was the lowest rate in comparison with other regions in Vietnam In addition, Mekong Delta people have not been concerning their children’s learning It is a cultural trait

in this region that becomes a challenge for teachers and students to practice LA

Due to the above reasons, according to Palfreyman and Smith (2003), to apply LA in Asian context, the factor of learners’ cultural background is usually a difficult thing When Curtis (2004) did a LA study at RMIT University in Vietnam,

he claimed that the first way to help them learn autonomously was to change their belief from learning by memory to the demonstration of comprehension According

to Blidi (2017, p.10), students have different perceptions or opinions of LA and learning because of their different cultural backgrounds Notwithstanding students’ cultural background considered as a difficult thing to promote LA, if culture and LA

are thought and redefined in the learning setting, culture can become a mainly advanced factor to develop students’ LA ability

Scholars give all above definitions of LA in Western and Asian context of language education Research has been carried out to establish the appropriacy of

LA for Asian educational settings as Little (1999) does claim that autonomy is a popular kind of language learning and can apply in any culture Therefore, considering and redefining the meanings of LA in foreign language education in Mekong Delta in Vietnamese setting are necessary

2.2.6 Learner autonomy in this study

Reviewing elements or characteristics of definitions of LA is an attempt However, it is difficult to determine what are the most important components of LA

in language learning (Benson, 2006) Hence, based on above analyzed definitions of

LA and sociocultural conditions in Mekong Delta in the South of Vietnam, in the

current study, LA is redefined as language learners’ cognition, ability to take

responsibility for their own learning by setting learning goals, planning, practising, monitoring and assessing their autonomous learning processes through teachers’ guide and orientation, as well as their lifelong learning For teachers, interpreting

students’ background cultures with regard to the autonomous learning context helps teachers understand their students more clearly, and then they can consult and orientate their students in autonomous learning Additionally, teachers can design a number of LA activities for their students It is important for teachers to encourage and motivate students in learning For students, the autonomous students must be active and motivated in their own learning (Nguyễn Thanh Nga, 2014) To be ready

in studies, they need to understand deeply what they should do in autonomous learning Helping and fostering LA from teachers can make them become the autonomous learners After that and even after graduating from the university, they can learn autonomously

Understanding the definitions of LA is important for both teachers and students; however, it is quite vital for teachers to know other aspects related to the concept of LA to develop LA better for their students It can be seen that current

definitions of LA are not unanimously shared by researchers around the world However, the unanimous focus seems to be on the learner’s perception, intentions

and actions of his/her own learning, which can be realized in various detailed

aspects as presented above

2.3 Aspects of learner autonomy

As mentioned in 2.2, LA is defined and clarified by a lot of researchers around the world Besides, it is analyzed in several aspects regularly endorsed in the literature Benson (1997) shows his opinions about autonomy into three standard aspects in teaching language that are technical, psychological, and political The author (ibid., p.19) considers these three aspects as “ideal constructs” to explore

“relationship between autonomy in language learning and theories of knowledge and learning” After that, Oxford (2003, p.76) adds one more aspect of social culture These four aspects have contributed to establishing the conceptual basis of

LA commonly addressed in the language learning literature

2.3.1 Technical aspect of learner autonomy

According to Benson (1997, p.19), technical aspect of LA is clearly shown as

“the act of learning a language outside the framework of an educational institution and without the intervention of a teacher” He emphasizes the physical situation for autonomous learners to take and develop their responsibility for their own learning

He uses positivism for this aspect because he believes that “knowledge is a more or less accurate reflection of objective reality” (Benson, 1997, p.20) The technical version of LA is linked to positivistic approaches to learning strategies and technical skills which are necessary for students to control their own learning Specifically, it emphasizes the time, the place, and the way of learning, planning and organizing the study, and assessment of learning In view of this, it needs to equip learners with essential learning skills and techniques so as to enable them to learn a language and deal with circumstances in learning without a teacher Some previous studies (Gardner & Miller, 1999, 2011; Morrison, 2008) were based on this aspect of LA to enhance learner autonomy in self-access learning centres Benson (2006) reviews a number of modes of LA beyond the classroom, namely

self-access centre, computer-assisted language learning, distance learning, class learning, etc However, the technical perspective on autonomy would be hard

out-of-to be moved without the psychology

2.3.2 Psychological aspect of learner autonomy

Psychological aspect relates to learners’ attitudes and aware ability when they take their responsibility for their own study Benson (1997, p.19) defines psychological aspect of LA as “a capacity – a construct of attitudes and abilities – which allows learners to take more responsibility for their own learning” The psychological version of autonomy is connected to constructivist outlook and implies LA as an ability with cognitive features (Benson, 2001), namely attitudes and capacities influencing learners’ learning Additionally, it involves learners’ motivation and learning style In the vein of constructivism, learners have to discover knowledge and then may change complicated information to become their possession (Slavin, 2003) This perspective emphasizes the learners’ role in building their own target language version in language learning progress According

to Oxford (2003), this psychological aspect relates to learners’ mental and emotional characteristics in developing their LA ability The psychological perspective starts to be clearer as Little (2003) connects Holec’s definition (1981) and his in order to concretize that autonomous students have full perceptions of and understand their courses’ goals, approve their responsibility, actively plan study and conduct their learning activities, and usually assess their learning effects Therefore, this aspect suggests enhancing more mental factors, namely positive perceptions, as well as abilities such as “reflection, and a readiness to be proactive in self-management and in interaction with others” (Little, 2003, p.1) for the students

2.3.3 Political aspect of learner autonomy

Political aspect of LA is based on critical theory, and focuses on learners’

“control over the processes and content of learning” (Benson, 1997, p.19) This version of LA is the approaches that permit learners to manage both their own learning and the institutional settings It seems to be learners’ rights in learning Also, critical theory emphasizes the social contexts and the form of LA as access,

control, power, and ideology (Pennycook, 1997) which are looked for in particular locations, circumstances, groups, institutions, and socioeconomic positions In the same line, Oxford (2003) has the same idea as Pennycook’s opinion (ibid., p.88) when she confirms that the political-critical view “centrally involves issues of power, access, and ideology” It means that autonomous students have the right to manage their own learning circumstances, to opt their learning activities, and to become free from obligation

2.3.4 Sociocultural aspect of learner autonomy

Basing on Benson’s three aspects of LA (1997), Oxford (2003) introduces one more aspect of LA into her framework that is sociocultural perspective This perspective emphasizes social interaction in shaping learners’ cognition and language development Oxford (2003) bases herself on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (1978) to form this aspect of LA According to Vygotsky (1978), through environmental stimulation and social interactions with learning environments, people’s cognition has developed Vygotsky (1978, p.86) describes the Zone of Proximal Development as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development

as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” In other words, learners can practise a task with teachers’ instruction or with peer cooperation instead of performing it alone Pennycook (1997, p.45) states that “promoting autonomy in language learning, therefore, needs

to take into account the cultural contexts of the language learners, to open up spaces for those learners to deal differently with the world, to become authors of their own words” Palfreyman (2003, p.13) indicates that “sociocultural approaches provide valuable concepts for understanding how the behavior, attitudes and motivation of individuals interact with cultural meanings and social interests in particular learning situations” Little (2004, p.19) draws on Leni Dam’s example (1995) and has a belief that “learner autonomy involved collaboration” In addition, Little (2004, pp 21-22) claims that “Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory of development and learning explained the relation between collaboration and autonomy” Thus, this aspect

relates to the interactions of the students and their environment, namely a variety of problems, community, and relationships

It can be seen that three above aspects of LA advocated by Benson (1997, 2006) are necessary conditions The “social” perspective that Oxford (2003) suggests is the sufficient condition – the environment for educators to implement

LA This four-aspect model of LA is accepted in research and many Asian authors have adopted it to explore EFL teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices of autonomy (Lê Xuân Quỳnh, 2013; Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Lệ, 2009; Nguyễn Thanh Nga, 2014; Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016; Wang & Wang, 2016)

2.4 Perceptions and practices of learner autonomy

2.4.1 Perceptions

A number of definitions of perception in scientific research literature in the world have been studied Perception is defined as a series of actions of awareness, organization, and analysis of input information More specifically, Angell (1906, p.122) defines perception as “the consciousness of particular material things presents to sense” Kanwisher (2001, p.90) indicates that the concept “perception”

is considered as “the extraction and/or representation of perceptual information from a stimulus, without any assumption that such information is necessarily experienced consciously” Additionally, in Chambers Dictionary, perception is defined as the process of recognizing “one’s environment through physical sensation, which denotes an individual’s ability to understand” Bodenhausen and Hugenberg (2009, p.2) base on social cognition to define perception as “essentially the interface between the outer and inner worlds” McShane and Von Glinow (2010, p.68) clearly show that “perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us” It can be seen that perception is understanding of the real world shaped from information through the five physical abilities People are likely to bring meaning and significance, judgments and analyses, values, objectives to their actions What they do in their life depends on how they understand their position in the world In other words, people’s perce ption

forms and determines their behavior Thus, in order to understand one’s behavior, it needs to understand their perceptions

In the LA field, the term “perception” is utilized to explore both EFL teachers’

and EFL students’ perceptions of LA in a number of studies (Al Asmari, 2013; Azizi, 2014; Đặng Tấn Tín, 2012; Dogan & Mirici, 2017; Dương Mỹ Thẩm & Seepho, 2014; Gardner, 2007; Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Harati, 2017; Joshi, 2011; Wang & Wang, 2016) Based on the analysis above, in this current research the term “perception” is, therefore, used to explore teachers’ and students’ understanding or cognition on the concept of LA

The concept of language teachers’ perception is defined by Borg (2006) as teachers’ cognition of what they consider, are familiar with, and believe Basing on Borg and Al-Busaidi’s questionnaire (2012b), Benson’s views (2011), and Little’s views (1991, 1999), Xhaferri, Waldispuhl, Xhaferri, and Eriksson-Hotz (2015) list ten concepts which are used as a framework to explore beliefs about LA They are technical views, psychological views, social views, political views on LA, the role

of the teacher in LA, the relevance of LA to diverse cultural contexts, age and LA, language proficiency and LA, the implication of LA for teaching methodology, and the relationship of LA to effective language learning (Xhaferri et al, 2015, p.13) Xhaferri et al (2015, p.14) also claim that these ten concepts deal with “different theoretical aspects of learner autonomy and cannot be seen on the same level” Many researchers (Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Keuk & Heng, 2016; Nguyễn Thanh Nga, 2014; Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016; Wang & Wang, 2016) applied these concepts in their set of questions to investigate EFL teachers’ perceptions or beliefs

of LA

Learners’ perceptions of LA are an important issue for both educators and learners themselves investigated by a number of language researchers Van Lier (1996) indicates that acting on learner’s perceptions regarding their own learning, they can develop their strengths and improve their weaknesses in learning (as cited

in Jacobs and Farrel, 2001, p.5) White (1995, p.209) states that only when learners have developed their “understanding of the nature of language learning, and of

his/her role in that process”, can they gain ability to practice LA However, if learners possess erroneous beliefs, they may have ineffective language learning strategies, and not succeed in their language learning process

Understanding LA is an important duty for teachers and students, especially EFL ones to approach new standards in the new century Besides, teachers’ perceptions of the valuable and meaningful LA from their academic knowledge will help them develop as professional foreign language teachers Also, students’ perceptions of LA and the importance of LA will help them succeed much in their own learning Therefore, finding how teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of LA affecting their practices of LA is necessary for educators to be able to support them

in their language teaching and learning

2.4.2 Practices

In this part, before both teachers’ and learners’ practices towards LA are discussed, the definition of practice is introduced Although a large number of the previous studies have explored teachers’ and students’ practices of LA recently, definition of practice has rarely been defined Normally, those studies just presented what teachers and students did to promote LA in practice In this research, the concept of practice is specified Dewey (1904) states that giving a definition of practice depends on one’s purpose Dewey (ibid., p.9) indicates that practice work is

“an instrument in making real and vital theoretical instruction; the knowledge of subject-matter and of principles of education” Additionally, practice is define d as

“the actual application or use of an idea, belief, or method, as opposed to theories relating to it” (Oxford living dictionaries online) It seems that practice gives students better opportunities to acquire knowledge

Teachers’ practices of LA relate to the ways they instruct their students doing

LA activities One of Vygotsky’s three main themes is the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978), which is the distance where learners can study autonomously and might need helping during learning process To do this, Brown (1994, p 124) claims that instructing students how to study is an important duty for teachers According to Dam (1995), teachers have a vital role to play in enhancing