2 Optimizing treatment processes3 Ensuring the integrity of distribution systems 4 Effecting correct cross-connection control procedures 5 Continuous monitoring and testing of the water
Trang 2(2) Optimizing treatment processes
(3) Ensuring the integrity of distribution systems
(4) Effecting correct cross-connection control
procedures
(5) Continuous monitoring and testing of the
water before it reaches the tap
1.4 Water/wastewater operations are usually
low-pro-file activities and much of water/wastewater
infra-structure is buried underground
1.5 Secondary
1.6 Privatization means allowing private enterprise to
compete with government in providing public
ser-vices, such as water and wastewater operations
Reengineering is the systematic transformation of
an existing system into a new form to realize
qual-ity improvements in operations, systems
capabil-ity, functionalcapabil-ity, and performance at lower cost,
improved schedule, and less risk to the customer
1.7 A process for rigorously measuring performance
vs “best-in-class” operations and using the
anal-ysis to meet and exceed the best in class
1.8 Planning, research, observation, analysis,
adapta-tion
CHAPTER 2 ANSWERS
2.1 Operators are exposed to the full range of hazards
and work under all weather conditions
2.2 Plants are upgrading to computerized operations
2.3 Computerized maintenance management system
2.4 HAZMAT emergency response technician 24-hour
5.5 (60 mg/L)(0.086 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 43 lb5.6 (2220 mg/L)(0.225)(8.34 lb/gal) = 4166 lb5.7
5.8 (450 mg/L)(1.84 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 6906 lb/day5.9 (25 mg/L)(2.90 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 605 lb/day5.10 (260 mg/L)(5.45 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 11,818 lb/day5.11 (144 mg/L)(3.66 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 4396 lb/day5.12 (290 mg/L)(3.31 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 8006 lb/day5.13 (152 mg/L)(5.7 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 7226 lb/day
(10 mg/L)(1.8 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
(8 mg/L)(0.83 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
0.65 =85 lb/daay
Trang 35.47
5.48
5.495.50
(0.785)(90 ft)(90 ft)= 712 gpdd/ft23,800,000 gpd
870,000 ft2 4.4 gpd/ft
2
=280,749 ft day696,960 ft 0.4 ft/day(0.4 ft
3
=//day)(12 in./ft)=4.8 in./day5,280,000 gpd
(0.785)(90 ft)(90 ft)=830 gpd/fft24.4 ac-ft/day
20 ac =0.22 ft/day=3 in./day2,050,000 gpd
(70 ft)(25 ft) 1171 gpd/ft
2
=2,440,000 gpd(0.785)(60 ft)(60 ft)=863 gpd/fft23,450,000 gpd
(110 ft)(50 ft) 627 gpd/ft
2
=1,660,000 gpd(25 ft)(70 ft) 949 gpd/ft
2
=2,660,000 gpd(0.785)(70 ft)(70 ft)=691 gpd/fft2
2230 gpm(40 ft)(20 ft) 2.8 gpm/ft
2
=
3100 gpm(40 ft)(25 ft) 3.1 gpm/ft
2
=
2500 gpm(26 ft)(60 ft) 1.6 gpm/ft
2
=
1528 gpm(40 ft)(20 ft) 1.9 gpm/ft
2
=
4900 gpm(20 ft)(20 ft) 12 gpm/ft
2
=
Trang 4(15 ft)(30 ft) 8378 gal/ft
2
=1,860,000 gal
(20 ft)(15 ft) 6200 gal/ft
2
=3,880,000 gal
(25 ft)(20 ft) 7760 gal/ft
2
=1,410,200 gal
(20 ft)(14 ft) 5036 gal/ft
2
=5,425,000 gal
(30 ft)(20 ft) 9042 gal/ft
2
=1,410,000 gpd
=
(170 mg/L)(0.120 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
3.5 ac49
1262 mg/L MLVSS
x=
(2650 mg/L)(3.60 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)(0
2
=
x 11 mg/L MLSS(2210 mg/L)(3.3 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)(0
2
=
( mg/L)(3.11 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)(0.78
(0.065)(0.70)(0.785)
3
Trang 5(1765 mg/L)(0.381 MGD)
(8.34 lb/gal)0
(0.785)(70 ft))(70 ft)(21 ft) =0.09
4.15 ac-ft/day
25 ac 0.17 ft/day (0.17 ft/d
=
= aay)(12 in./ft)=2.0 in./day(174 mg/L)(3.335 MGD)(8.3 lb/gal)( mg/L)(0x 287 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) 0.5
2
=1,785,000 gal(25 ft)(20 ft) 3570 gal/ft
2
=(150 mg/L)(2.69 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)(1920 mg/L))(0.31 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)=0.68
2
=(115 mg/L)(3.3 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
20.1 1000 ft3
3
157 lb BOD/day/1000 ft
=2,560,000 gpd(3.14)(80 ft) =10,191 gpd/ft
(140 mg/L)(2.44 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
750 1000 ft2
23.8 lb BOD/day/1000 ft
=
2882 gpm(40 ft)(30 ft) 2.4 gpm/ft
2
=(30 ft)(16 ft)(8 ft)(7.48 gal/ft )
1007 gpm
3
=229 min(80 ft)(20 ft)(12 ft)(7.48 gal/ft )
3
mmin/hr) =0.75 hr(0.785)(80 ft)(80 ft)(10 ft)(7.48 gal/ft )
2
3
116,667 gpd =1.7 hr(500 ft)(600 ft)(6 ft)(7.48 gal/ft )
222,500
3
gpd =60.5 days12,300 lb MLSS
2750 lb/day =4.5 days
Trang 65.146
5.147
5.148
5.1495.150
5.1515.152
4424 lb/day + 467 lb/day=8 days
( mg/L)(0.970 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
(6340 mg/L)(
x
00.032 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) + (20 mg/L)(2.6 MGDD)(8.34 lb/gal)
962 lb/day + 360 lb/day=5.8 days(3250 mg/L)(0.33 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)(100 mg/L)((2.35 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)=4.6 days(2408 mg/L)(1.9 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
(6320 mg/L)((0.0712 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) + (25 mg/L)(2.85 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)38,157 lb
day) + (594 lb/day)=9.8 days(2610 mg/L)(0.15 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)(140 mg/L)((0.92 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)=3 days(0.785)(6 ft)(6 ft)(4 ft)(7.48 gal/ft )
x=(400 ft)(440 ft)(6 ft)(7.48 gal/ft )
200,000
3
( mg/L MLSS)(0.64 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)(6310 mg
x
//L)(0.034 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) + (12 mg/L)(2.992 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
x=1512 lb/day solids
Trang 75.167 125 ft – 110 ft = 15 ft drawdown5.168 161 ft – 144 ft = 17 ft drawdown5.169
5.170
5.171 300 ÷ 20 = 15 gpm per ft of drawdown5.172 420 gal ÷ 5 min = 84 gpm
5.173 810 gal ÷ 5 min = 162 gpm5.174
5.175
5.176 750 gal ÷ 5 min = 150 gpm(150 gpm)(60 min/hr) = 9000 gph(9000 gph)(10 hr/day) = 90,000 gal/day5.177 200 gpm ÷ 28 ft = 7.1 gpm/ft
5.178 620 gpm ÷ 21 ft = 29.5 gpm/ft5.179 1100 gpm ÷ 41.3 ft = 26.6 gpm/ft5.180
2977 lb/day + 6242 lb/day74,43
×
=
100
99,011 lb/day×100=5.5%
(3.7 psi)(2.31 ft/psi) = 8.5 ft sounding lin ne water depth
112 ft – 8.5 ft = 103.5 ft
1033.5 ft – 86 ft = 17.5 ft(4.6 psi)(2.31 ft/psi) 10.6 ft = sounding lin ee water depth
150 ft – 10.6 ft 139.4 ft
171
=fft – 139.4 ft=31.4 ft drawdown
856 gal
5 min 171 gpm(171 gpm)(60 min/hr) 10
=
= ,,260 gph(0.785)(1 ft)(1 ft)(12 ft)(7.48 gal/ft )(13
=
(0.785)(0.5 ft)(0.5 ft)(140 ft)(7.48 gal/f
(40 mg/L)(0.000206 MG)(8
Trang 8= 118 ft + 8.3 ft = 126.3 ft5.191 (400 ft)(110 ft)(14 ft)(7.48 gal/ft3) = 4,607,680 gal5.192
5.193
5.194
5.195
5.196 131.9 ft – 93.5 ft = 38.4 ft5.197
0.48(0.000540)(8.34)
=ppochlorite(0.1 lb)(16 oz./1 lb) = 1.6 oz calcium hypochlorite
25/100
4.6 lb chlorideo
of lime(60 mg/L)(0.000240 MG)
×
× 77.48 gal/ft )3,949,440 gal
3
=(200 ft)(80 ft)(12 ft)43,560 ft /ac-ft3 =4.4 aac-ft(320 ft)(170 ft)(16 ft)(0.4)43,560 ft /ac-f3 tt =8.0 ac-ft(0.5 mg/L chlorine)(20 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
=
8
8460 gph(0.785)(1 ft)(1 ft)(12 ft)(7.48 gal/ft )(83
(55 mg/L)(0.000220 MG)(8
rr)(8 hr/day) 74,880 gal/day
(0.000610)(8.34) 92.3 mg/L
Trang 96.22 Normally open contacts
6.23 Local note reference
6.24 Fillet weld6.25 Square butt weld6.26 Single hem6.27 Single flange6.28 Location of weld6.29 Steel section6.30 Bevel weld6.31 V weld6.32 J-groove weld6.33 4 times true size6.34 Drawing number6.35 180
6.36 Break line6.37 Object line6.38 3-D pictorial6.39 Shape; complexity6.40 Limits
6.41 Center line; finished surface6.42 Volute
6.43 Hem6.44 Seam6.45 Relief valve6.46 Gas; liquid6.47 Butt6.48 Architectural6.49 Plot plan6.50 Line
CHAPTER 7 ANSWERS
7.1 26 ft7.2 77 ft7.3 Eccentric, segmental7.4 Flow nozzle
7.5 Ultrasonic flowmeter7.6 4937 gal
7.7 4.577.8 213,904 ft37.9 103 ft7.10 8064 lb7.11 Always constant7.12 Pressure due to the depth of water7.13 The line that connects the piezometric surfacealong a pipeline
7.14 0.28 ft7.15 254.1 ft7.16 6.2 × 10–87.17 0.86 ft7.18 Pressure energy due to the velocity of the water7.19 A pumping condition where the size of the impel-ler of the pump and above the surface of the waterfrom which the pump is running
7.20 The slope of the specific energy line
Trang 10CHAPTER 8 ANSWERS
8.1 Alternator
8.2 The effect that causes current flow in a conductor
moving across magnetic lines of force
8.3 Mechanical, electrical
8.4 Increases, decreases, decreases, increases
8.5 To protect an electrical circuit and load
8.6 0.2 ohms
8.7 Orbits or shells
8.8 Protons and neutrons
8.9 The value of the resistor, the length of the
conduc-tors, and the diameter of the conductors
8.10 Direct current flow does not change direction,
whereas alternating current periodically changes
direction
8.11 The magnetic poles
8.12 The flux lines, or magnetic flux along which a
magnetic force acts
8.13 Natural magnet, permanent magnets, and
electro-magnets
8.14 Chemistry
8.15 Battery, two
8.16 A series circuit has only one path for current
flow, whereas a parallel circuit has more than
8.31 It will withstand high voltages
8.32 The two are directly proportional As flux density
increases, field strength also increases
8.33 The type of material and the flux density
8.34 North pole
8.35 Increases
8.36 141.4 volts
8.37 A voltage is induced in the conductor
8.38 AC, cut, counter
9.5 High9.6 Eye9.7 Static, dynamic9.8 Shut off9.9 V2/2g9.10 Total head9.11 Head capacity, efficiency, horsepower demand9.12 Water
9.13 Suction lift9.14 Elevation head9.15 Water hp and pump efficiency9.16 Centrifugal force
9.17 Stuffing box9.18 Impeller9.19 Rings, impeller9.20 Casing
CHAPTER 10 ANSWERS
10.1 A flexible piping component that absorbs thermaland/or terminal movement
10.2 Fluid10.3 Fluid10.4 Connected10.5 Flow10.6 Pressure loss10.7 Increases10.8 Automatically10.9 Insulation10.10 Leakage10.11 Four times10.12 Routine preventive maintenance10.13 12
10.14 Schedule, thickness10.15 Increases
10.16 Ferrous10.17 Increases10.18 Iron oxide10.19 Cast iron10.20 Iron10.21 Corrosion10.22 Decreases10.23 Clay, concrete, plastic, glass, or wood10.24 Corrosion-proof
10.25 Cement10.26 Pressed10.27 Turbulent, lower10.28 Steel
Trang 1111.11 An atom or group of atoms that carries a positive
or negative electrical charge as a result of having
lost or gained one or more electrons
11.18 Ability of water to neutralize an acid
11.19 Calcium and magnesium
11.20 Base
CHAPTER 12 ANSWERS
12.1 Bacteria, viruses, protozoa
12.2 During rain storms
12.3 No
12.4 Binary fission
12.5 Spheres, rods, spirals12.6 Typhoid, cholera, gastroenteritis12.7 Amoebic dysentery, giardiasis12.8 Cyst
12.9 Host12.10 Plug screens, machinery; cause taste and odorproblems
12.11 No; bacteria is Machiavellian—it is a survivor
CHAPTER 13 ANSWERS
13.1 Ecosystem13.2 Benthos13.3 Periphyton13.4 Plankton13.5 Pelagic13.6 Neuston13.7 Immigration13.8 Autotrophs13.9 Lentic13.10 Dissolved oxygen solubility
CHAPTER 14 ANSWERS
14.1 Secondary maximum contaminant levels14.2 Transpiration
14.3 Surface water14.4 Agriculture, municipal wastewater plants, habitatand hydrologic modifications, resource extraction,and urban runoff and storm sewers
14.5 Solids content14.6 Turbidity14.7 Universal solvent14.8 Alkalinity14.9 Neutral state14.10 Lead
CHAPTER 15 ANSWERS
15.1 Muffle furnace, ceramic dishes, furnace tongs, andinsulated gloves
15.2 15 minutes15.3 A sample collected all at one time; representative
of the conditions only at the time taken15.4 For pH, dissolved oxygen, total residual chlorine,fecal coliform, and any test by NPDES permit forgrab sample
15.5 A series of samples collected over a specifiedperiod of time in proportion to flow
15.6 Collect from well-mixed location; clearly marksampling points; easy location to read; no large orunusual particles; no deposits, growths, or floatingmaterials; corrosion-resistant containers; followsafety procedures; test samples as soon as possible
Trang 1216.4 Surface water, groundwater, GUDISW
16.5 Groundwater under the direct influence of surface
water
16.6 Easily located; softer than groundwater
16.7 The study of the properties of water and its
distri-bution and behavior
16.8 Zone of influence
16.9 GUDISW
16.10 Prevent large material from entering the intake
CHAPTER 17 ANSWERS
17.1 A potential reserve area, usually distinct from the
treatment plant, where natural or artificial lakes are
used for water storage, natural sedimentation, and
seasonal pretreatment with or without disinfection
17.2 Collection area into which water drains
17.3 Either of two choices in water utility
manage-ment—keep it out of the watershed or take it out
18.10 Dug well18.11 Disinfection residual, turbidity, coliform analysis18.12 National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)
18.13 Fit for human consumption18.14 First, determine the required chlorine feed rate:Feed rate (lb/day) = Dose (mg/L) × flow (MGD)
× 8.34 = 0.6 mg/L × 1 MGD × 8.34 = 5.0 lb/day
If we require 5 lb/day of chlorine, we will requiremore pounds of hypochlorite because it is not100% chlorine; 68% of the hypochlorite is avail-able chlorine, and 68% = 68/100 = 0.68 Next: (Cl2 fraction)(hypochlorite) = Available chlorine
(0.68)(x lb/day hypochlorite) = 5.00 lb/day Cl2
x lb/day hypochlorite = 5.00/0.68
x = 7.36 lb/day hypochlorite
18.15 Public18.16 The transport of water from one location to another18.17 Acute
18.18 Reduction of pathogens to safe levels18.19 Hypochlorites
18.20 Reduce the number of pathogens to safe levels inwater before the contact time is completed.18.21 Feed rate (lb/day) = Dose (mg/L) × flow (MGD)
× 8.34
= 0.4 mg/L × 5/3 MGD × 8.34 = 17.68 lb/day Cl218.22 Residual = Dose – demand
= 10 (mg/L) – 2.6 (mg/L) = 7.5 mg/L18.23 Turbidity can entrap or shield microorganismsfrom the chlorine
18.24 Feed rate (lb/day) = Dose (mg/L) × flow (MGD)
× 8.34
= 0.8 × 2.6 × 8.34 = 17.35 lb/day soda ash
18.25 Given:
Flow 0.75 MGDShape CircularSize Radius = 20 ftDepth 10 ft
Find the detention time
a Find tank volume:
Trang 1318.27 Yes
18.28 Chlorine residual
18.29 A link that connects two systems and a force that
causes liquids in a system to move
18.30 Moderate
18.31 Negative; low
18.32 Peristaltic metering pump
18.33 Purchase of buffer zone around a reservoir;
inspec-tion of construcinspec-tion sites; public educainspec-tion
18.34 Given:
No of filters 3
Size (each) 10 ft × 7 ft
Operating 1 out of service
Filtration rate 280 gal/min (total capacity for both
filters)Find the filtration rate square foot of filter:
Area of each filter = 10 ft × 7 ft = 70 ft2
Total area of filters = 70 ft2 = 140 ft2 total
18.35 Given:
Filter area 300 ft2
Backwash rate 15 gal/ft2/min
Backwash time 8 min
Find the amount of water for backwash
We have been given information on per foot of
filter but we want to find the total water required
to backwash the entire filter
a Find total filtration rate:
b Gallons per 8-minute backwash time
18.36 Velocity = Distance traveled ÷ time
Velocity = 600 ft ÷ 5 min = 120 ft/min
18.37 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
18.38 Chlorination and filtration
18.39 Pump more than rated capacity
18.40 Hypochlorous acid
18.41 Protozoa
18.42 Removal/inactivation of most resistant pathogens
18.43 Corrosivity
18.44 Turbidity, paddles speed, pH
18.45 We want to find the velocity; therefore, we must
rearrange the general formula to solve for velocity:
V = Q/A Given:
a Find the volume in cubic feet:
Volume = 0.785 × (diameter)2× height
18.51 5%
18.52 Given:
Distance 1500 ftTime 4 min
a Find the velocity in ft/min:
Velocity = 1500 ft ÷ 4 min = 375 ft/min
b Convert minutes to seconds:
375 ft/min × 1 min/60 sec = 6.25 ft/sec18.53 Gate
18.54 Achieve optimum corrosion control18.55 50%
18.56 Sodium fluoride (NaF)18.57 Mottled teeth enamel18.58 0.75 mg/L
18.59 Amount of chlorine to add for breakpoint nation; correct amount of coagulant to use forproper coagulation; length of flash mix; properamount of mixing and settling time
chlori-18.60 Corrosion control technology
18.61 Given:
Flow 350 GPMPipe size 6 in
Find the velocity (ft/sec) = Distance ÷ time
a Convert gallons to ft3:
350 gal/min ÷ 7.48 gal/ft3 = 46.8 ft3/min
b Find cross-sectional area of pipe:
Area of circle = πr2
= 3.14 × (3 in × 3 in.) = 28.26 in.2
c Convert square inches to square feet:
4500 gal
min ×8 min=36,000 gal used
Trang 14d Find ft/min:
46.8 ft3/min ÷ 0.20 ft2 = 234 ft/min
e Convert minutes to seconds:
234 ft/min × 1 min/60 sec = 3.9 ft/sec
18.62 Air, chlorine, or potassium permanganate
18.63 pH, alkalinity, hardness
18.64 Adsorption
18.65 Prior to the rapid mix basin
18.66 Before the backwash, water reaches the lip of the
wash water trough
18.67 Chlorine
18.68 True
18.69 True
18.70 79,269 gal
18.71 Powdered activated carbon
18.72 Iron and manganese
18.73 Copper
18.74 Soluble polyvalent cations
18.75 Gains an electron in going from the +2 oxidation
state to the +3 form
18.81 Maximize the conversion of organic carbon from
the dissolved phase to the particulate phase; the
removal of natural organic material; optimize the
removal of DHP precursor material
18.82 30 hours
18.83 Phenyl arsine oxide
18.84 Given:
Surface area of pond = 20 ac
Height of water collected = 2 in
Find the number of gallons collected in the
reser-voir after the storm
18.88 Aeration, boiling, adsorption
18.89 Addition of powdered activated carbon
18.90 Permeability
18.91 Water table
18.92 Waterborne
18.93 Coagulant18.94 Greater18.95 Copper sulfate18.96 Lime
18.97 Disinfected18.98 Oxygen18.99 Binary fission
CHAPTER 19 ANSWERS
19.1 The licensed operator and the responsible official19.2 The amount of organic material in a sample thatcan be oxidized by a strong oxidizing agent19.3 Prevent disease, protect aquatic organisms, protectwater quality
19.4 Dissolved and suspended19.5 Organic indicates matter that is made up mainly
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and will pose into mainly carbon dioxide and water at550°C; inorganic materials, such as salt, ferricchloride, iron, sand, gravel, etc
decom-19.6 Algae, bacteria, protozoa, rotifers, virus19.7 Carbon dioxide, water, more organics, stable solids19.8 Toxic matter, inorganic dissolved solids, patho-genic organisms
19.9 Raw effluent19.10 From body wastes of humans who have disease19.11 Disease-causing
19.12 Domestic waste19.13 Industrial waste19.14 4.4%
19.15 2.3 ft19.16 5250 gal × 8.34 lb/gal = 43,785 lb19.17 14,362 gal
19.18 850.7 lb/day19.19 686 kg/day19.20 0.121 MGD19.21 8477 people19.22 9.41 lb/gal19.23 Cutter may be sharpened or replaced when needed.Cutter alignment must be adjusted as needed19.24 Grit is heavy inorganic matter; sand, gravel, metalfilings, egg shells, coffee grounds, etc
19.25 0.7 fps19.26 A large amount of organic matter is present in thegut The aeration rate must be increased to preventsettling of the organic solids
19.27 To remove settleable and flotable solids19.28 To remove the settleable solids formed by the bio-logical activity
19.29 7962 gpd/ft19.30 Stabilization pond, oxidation pond, polishing pond19.31 Settling, anaerobic digestion of settled solids, aer-obic/anaerobic decomposition of dissolved and
Trang 15colloidal organic solids by bacteria producing
sta-ble solids and carbon dioxide, photosynthesis
19.32 Products of oxygen by algae; summer effluent is
high in solids (algae) and low in BOD; winter
effluent is low in solids and high in BOD
19.33 Eliminates wide diurnal and seasonal variation in
pond dissolved oxygen
19.34 Standard, high rate, roughing
19.35 Increase waste rate
19.36 Decrease, decrease, decrease, increase, increase
19.44 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
19.45 By increasing the primary sludge pumping rate or
by adding dilution water
19.46 7.0 pH
19.47 Because the microorganisms have been killed or
they are absent
19.48 The time to do the test, 3 hours vs 5 days
19.49 Dark, greasy
19.50 Increases
19.51 Temperature, pH, toxicity, waste rate, aeration tank
configuration
19.52 Can function with or without dissolved oxygen;
prefer dissolved oxygen but can use chemically
combined oxygen such as sulfate or nitrate
19.66 Declining19.67 1.5 and 2.5 mg/L19.68 Increased MLVSS concentration19.69 Decreased waste rate
19.70 Decreased MCRT19.71 Concentration of aeration influent solids19.72 Complete mix is more resistant to shock loads19.73 Decrease the grit channel aeration rate19.74 Increase
19.75 Floor level19.76 $22.7719.77 Anoxic19.78 C:N:P19.79 Secondary19.80 Are not19.81 2 ft/sec19.82 Lower19.83 Chlorine residual19.84 2 hr
19.85 0.119.86 800 gpd/ft219.87 Monochloramine19.88 0.2 to 0.519.89 Nitrogen19.90 Decrease explosive hazard, decrease odor release,maintain temperature, collect gas
19.91 Algae19.92 Dissolved solids19.93 0.0005 ppm
Trang 16Gal/day (gpd) = gal/min (gpm) × 1440 min/day
Gal/day (gpd) = gal/hr (gph) × 24 hr/day
Trang 17Water and Wastewater
Treatment Plant
Operations
Handbook of
Trang 18CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Boca Raton London New York
Water and Wastewater
Trang 196000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Spellman, Frank R.
Handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant operations / Frank R Spellman 2nd ed.
p cm.
“A CRC title.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-7530-4 (alk paper)
1 Water treatment plants Handbooks, manuals, etc 2 Sewage disposal plants Handbooks, manuals, etc 3
Water Purification Handbooks, manuals, etc 4 Sewage Purification Handbooks, manuals, etc I Title
Trang 20Contents
Preface xxxv
To the Reader xxxvii
Author xxxix
Part I Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview 1
Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 The Paradigm Shift 3
1.2.1 A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done 4
1.3 Multiple-Barrier Concept 5
1.3.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach: Wastewater Operations 6
1.4 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations 8
1.4.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations 8
1.4.2 Maintaining Infrastructure 9
1.4.3 Privatization and/or Reengineering 11
1.4.4 Benchmarking 13
1.4.4.1 Benchmarking: The Process 14
1.5 Water: The New Oil? 16
1.5.1 Characteristics of Water 16
1.5.2 Water Use 17
1.6 Technical Management vs Professional Management 19
Chapter Review Questions 23
Thought-Provoking Question 23
References and Suggested Reading 23
Chapter 2 Water/Wastewater Operators 25
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Setting the Record Straight 26
2.3 The Computer-Literate Jack or Jill 26
2.4 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders 27
2.5 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions 28
2.6 Operator Certification and Licensure 29
Chapter Review Questions 30
References and Suggested Reading 30
Chapter 3 Upgrading Security 31
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Consequences of 9/11 31
3.3 Security Hardware/Devices 34
3.3.1 Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices 34
3.3.1.1 Aboveground Outdoor Equipment Enclosures 34
3.3.1.2 Alarms 34
3.3.1.3 Backflow-Prevention Devices 36
3.3.1.4 Barriers 36
3.3.1.5 Biometric Security Systems 39
Trang 213.3.1.6 Card Identification and Access and Tracking Systems 40
3.3.1.7 Fences 40
3.3.1.8 Films for Glass Shatter Protection 41
3.3.1.9 Fire Hydrant Locks 42
3.3.1.10 Hatch Security 42
3.3.1.11 Intrusion Sensors 43
3.3.1.12 Ladder Access Control 43
3.3.1.13 Locks 43
3.3.1.14 Manhole Intrusion Sensors 44
3.3.1.15 Manhole Locks 44
3.3.1.16 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages 44
3.3.1.17 Reservoir Covers 45
3.3.1.18 Side-Hinged Door Security 46
3.3.1.19 Valve Lockout Devices 47
3.3.1.20 Vent Security 47
3.3.1.21 Visual Surveillance Monitoring 48
3.3.2 Water Monitoring Devices 48
3.3.2.1 Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination 49
3.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors: Arsenic Measurement System 49
3.3.2.3 Chemical Sensors: Adapted BOD Analyzer 50
3.3.2.4 Chemical Sensors: Total Organic Carbon Analyzer 50
3.3.2.5 Chemical Sensors: Chlorine Measurement System 50
3.3.2.6 Chemical Sensors: Portable Cyanide Analyzer 51
3.3.2.7 Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs 52
3.3.2.8 Radiation Detection Equipment 52
3.3.2.9 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets 53
3.3.2.10 Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters 54
3.3.3 Communication and Integration 54
3.3.3.1 Electronic Controllers 54
3.3.3.2 Two-Way Radios 55
3.3.3.3 Wireless Data Communications 55
3.3.4 Cyber Protection Devices 55
3.3.4.1 Antivirus and Pest-Eradication Software 56
3.3.4.2 Firewalls 56
3.3.4.3 Network Intrusion Hardware and Software 56
3.4 SCADA 57
3.4.1 What Is SCADA? 58
3.4.2 SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater Systems 59
3.4.3 SCADA Vulnerabilities 59
3.4.4 The Increasing Risk 60
3.4.5 Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities 60
3.4.6 Cyber Threats to Control Systems 62
3.4.7 Securing Control Systems 62
3.4.8 Steps to Improve SCADA Security 62
The Bottom Line on Security 66
Chapter Review Question 66
References and Suggested Reading 67
Chapter 4 Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology 69
4.1 Setting the Stage 69
4.2 Treatment Process Models 69
4.3 Key Terms Used in Water and Wastewater Operations 69
Chapter Review Question 77
References and Suggested Reading 78
Trang 22Part II Water/Wastewater Operations: Math and Technical Aspects 79 Chapter 5 Water/Wastewater Math Operations 81
5.1 Introduction 815.2 Calculation Steps 815.3 Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols 815.4 Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations 815.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median 815.4.2 Units and Conversions 845.4.2.1 Temperature Conversions 845.4.2.2 Milligrams Per Liter (Parts Per Million) 855.4.3 Area and Volume 865.4.4 Force, Pressure, and Head 865.4.5 Flow 885.4.6 Flow Calculations 895.4.6.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates 895.4.6.2 Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank 895.4.6.3 Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank 905.4.6.4 Flow through a Full Pipeline 905.4.6.5 Velocity Calculations 905.4.6.6 Average Flow Rate Calculations 915.4.6.7 Flow Conversion Calculations 915.4.7 Detention Time 915.4.8 Hydraulic Detention Time 925.4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days 925.4.8.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours 925.4.8.3 Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes 935.4.9 Chemical Dosage Calculations 935.4.9.1 Dosage Formula Pie Chart 935.4.9.2 Chlorine Dosage 945.4.9.3 Hypochlorite Dosage 945.4.10 Percent Removal 955.4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor 965.4.12 Specific Gravity 965.4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge 965.4.14 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation 965.4.14.1 Calculating Feed Rate 965.4.14.2 Calculating Solution Strength 975.4.15 Filtration 975.4.15.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration 975.4.15.2 Filter Backwash 975.4.16 Water Distribution System Calculations 985.4.16.1 Water Flow Velocity 985.4.16.2 Storage Tank Calculations 995.4.16.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations 995.4.17 Complex Conversions 1005.4.17.1 Concentration to Quantity 1015.4.17.2 Quantity to Concentration 1015.4.17.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate 1025.5 Applied Math Operations 1025.5.1 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance 1025.5.2 Mass Balance for Settling Tanks 1025.5.3 Mass Balance Using BOD Removal 1025.5.4 Measuring Plant Performance 103
Trang 235.5.4.1 Plant Performance/Efficiency 1045.5.4.2 Unit Process Performance/Efficiency 1045.5.4.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge 1045.6 Water Math Concepts 1045.6.1 Water Sources and Storage Calculations 1045.6.2 Water Source Calculations 1055.6.2.1 Well Drawdown 1055.6.2.2 Well Yield 1055.6.2.3 Specific Yield 1055.6.2.4 Well Casing Disinfection 1065.6.2.5 Deep-Well Turbine Pumps 1065.6.2.6 Vertical Turbine Pump Calculations 1065.6.3 Water Storage Calculations 1075.6.4 Copper Sulfate Dosing 1075.6.5 Coagulation and Flocculation 1085.6.5.1 Coagulation 1085.6.5.2 Flocculation 1085.6.5.3 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations 1085.6.6 Determining Chemical Usage 1135.6.7 Sedimentation Calculations 1145.6.7.1 Calculating Tank Volume 1145.6.7.2 Detention Time 1145.6.7.3 Surface Overflow Rate 1155.6.7.4 Mean Flow Velocity 1155.6.7.5 Weir Loading Rate (Weir Overflow Rate) 1165.6.7.6 Percent Settled Biosolids 1165.6.7.7 Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L) 1175.6.7.8 Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day) 1185.6.7.9 Determining Lime Dosage (g/min) 1185.6.8 Filtration Calculations 1195.6.8.1 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm) 1195.6.8.2 Filtration Rate 1205.6.8.3 Unit Filter Run Volume 1215.6.8.4 Backwash Rate 1225.6.8.5 Backwash Rise Rate 1225.6.8.6 Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal) 1235.6.8.7 Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft) 1235.6.8.8 Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm) 1235.6.8.9 Percent Product Water Used for Backwash 1245.6.8.10 Percent Mud Ball Volume 1245.6.8.11 Filter Bed Expansion 1255.6.9 Water Chlorination Calculations 1255.6.9.1 Chlorine Disinfection 1255.6.9.2 Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) 1255.6.9.3 Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual 1265.6.9.4 Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate 1285.6.9.5 Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate 1295.6.9.6 Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions 1305.6.9.7 Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite 1305.6.10 Chemical Use Calculations 1305.6.11 Fluoridation 1315.6.11.1 Water Fluoridation 1315.6.11.2 Fluoride Compounds 131
Trang 245.6.11.3 Optimal Fluoride Levels 1325.6.11.4 Fluoridation Process Calculations 1335.6.12 Water Softening 1375.6.12.1 Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 1375.6.12.2 Calculating Magnesium Hardness as CaCO3 1375.6.12.3 Calculating Total Hardness 1385.6.12.4 Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness 1385.6.12.5 Alkalinity Determination 1395.6.12.6 Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness 1405.6.12.7 Recarbonation Calculation 1405.6.12.8 Calculating Feed Rates 1415.6.12.9 Ion Exchange Capacity 1415.6.12.10 Water Treatment Capacity 1425.6.12.11 Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required) 1435.6.12.12 Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration 1435.7 Wastewater Math Concepts 1445.7.1 Preliminary Treatment Calculations 1445.7.1.1 Screening 1445.7.1.2 Grit Removal 1455.7.2 Primary Treatment Calculations 1475.7.2.1 Process Control Calculations 1475.7.2.2 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overflow Rate) 1475.7.2.3 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate) 1485.7.2.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lb/day) 1485.7.3 Trickling Filters 1485.7.3.1 Trickling Filter Process Calculations 1495.7.3.2 Hydraulic Loading 1495.7.3.3 Organic Loading Rate 1495.7.3.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed 1505.7.3.5 Recirculation Flow 1505.7.4 Rotating Biological Contactors 1505.7.4.1 RBC Process Control Calculations 1515.7.4.2 Hydraulic Loading Rate 1515.7.4.3 Soluble BOD 1515.7.4.4 Organic Loading Rate 1525.7.4.5 Total Media Area 1525.7.5 Activated Biosolids 1525.7.5.1 Activated Biosolids Process Control Calculations 1535.7.5.2 Moving Averages 1535.7.5.3 BOD or COD Loading 1535.7.5.4 Solids Inventory 1535.7.5.5 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio 1545.7.5.6 Gould Biosolids Age 1555.7.5.7 Mean Cell Residence Time 1555.7.5.8 Estimating Return Rates from SSV60 1565.7.5.9 Sludge Volume Index 1575.7.5.10 Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids 1575.7.5.11 Biosolids Waste Based on Mass Balance 1585.7.5.12 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time 1585.7.6 Treatment Ponds 1595.7.6.1 Treatment Pond Parameters 1595.7.6.2 Treatment Pond Process Control Calculations 1595.7.6.3 Hydraulic Detention Time (Days) 159
Trang 255.7.6.4 BOD Loading 1605.7.6.5 Organic Loading Rate 1605.7.6.6 BOD Removal Efficiency 1605.7.6.7 Population Loading 1605.7.6.8 Hydraulic Loading Rate (In./Day) (Hydraulic Overflow Rate) 1605.7.7 Chemical Dosing 1605.7.7.1 Chemical Feed Rate 1615.7.7.2 Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual 1625.7.7.3 Hypochlorite Dosage 1625.7.8 Chemical Solutions 1635.7.8.1 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (gpd) 1645.7.8.2 Chemical Feed Pump: Percent Stroke Setting 1645.7.8.3 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (mL/min) 1655.7.8.4 Chemical Feed Calibration 1655.7.8.5 Average Use Calculations 1665.7.8.6 Process Residuals: Biosolids Production and Pumping Calculations 1675.7.8.7 Primary and Secondary Solids Production Calculations 1675.7.8.8 Primary Clarifier Solids Production Calculations 1675.7.8.9 Secondary Clarifier Solids Production Calculations 1675.7.8.10 Percent Solids 1685.7.8.11 Biosolids Pumping 1685.7.8.12 Estimating Daily Biosolids Production 1685.7.8.13 Biosolids Production in Pounds per Million Gallons 1685.7.8.14 Biosolids Production in Wet Tons/Year 1695.7.8.15 Biosolids Pumping Time 1695.7.8.16 Biosolids Pumped per Day in Gallons 1695.7.8.17 Biosolids Pumped per Day in Pounds 1695.7.8.18 Solids Pumped per Day in Pounds 1695.7.8.19 Volatile Matter Pumped per Day in Pounds 1695.7.8.20 Biosolids Thickening 1705.7.8.21 Gravity/Dissolved Air Flotation Thickener Calculations 1705.7.8.22 Centrifuge Thickening Calculations 1715.7.8.23 Biosolids Digestion or Stabilization 1725.7.8.24 Aerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations 1725.7.8.25 Volatile Solids Loading (lb/ft3/day) 1725.7.8.26 Digestion Time, Days 1725.7.8.27 pH Adjustment 1725.7.8.28 Anaerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations 1735.7.8.29 Required Seed Volume in Gallons 1735.7.8.30 Volatile Acids/Alkalinity Ratio 1735.7.8.31 Biosolids Retention Time 1735.7.8.32 Estimated Gas Production in Cubic Feet/Day 1735.7.8.33 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction 1745.7.8.34 Percent Moisture Reduction in Digested Biosolids 1745.7.9 Biosolids Dewatering 1745.7.9.1 Pressure Filtration 1745.7.9.2 Plate and Frame Press Calculations 1745.7.9.3 Belt Filter Press Calculations 1755.7.9.4 Rotary Vacuum Filter Dewatering Calculations 1775.7.9.5 Sand Drying Beds 1785.7.10 Biosolids Disposal 1795.7.10.1 Land Application Calculations 1795.7.10.2 Biosolids to Compost 1815.7.10.3 Composting Calculations 181
Trang 265.8 Water/Wastewater Laboratory Calculations 1825.8.1 Faucet Flow Estimation 1825.8.2 Service Line Flushing Time 1825.8.3 Composite Sampling 1835.8.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Calculations 1845.8.4.1 BOD5 Unseeded 1845.8.4.2 BOD5 Seeded 1845.8.4.3 BOD 7-Day Moving Average 1845.8.5 Moles and Molarity 1845.8.5.1 Moles 1855.8.5.2 Normality 1855.8.6 Settleability (Activated Biosolids) 1865.8.7 Settleable Solids 1865.8.8 Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Solids, and Volatile Solids 1875.8.9 Wastewater Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids 1875.8.10 Biosolids Volume Index and Biosolids Density Index 188Chapter Review Questions 189General Wastewater Treatment Problems 189General Water Treatment Problems 196References and Suggested Reading 197
Chapter 6 Blueprint Reading 199
6.1 Blueprints: The Universal Language 1996.1.1 Blueprint Standards 2006.1.1.1 Standards-Setting Organizations 2016.1.1.2 ANSI Standards for Blueprint Sheets 2016.1.2 Finding Information 2016.1.2.1 Detail Drawings 2016.1.2.2 Assembly Drawings 2016.1.2.3 Title Block 2016.1.2.4 Drawing Notes 2046.2 Units of Measurement 2076.2.1 Fractions and Decimal Fractions 2076.3 Alphabet of Lines 2086.3.1 Just a Bunch of Drawn Lines? 2086.3.2 Visible Lines 2086.3.3 Hidden Lines 2096.3.4 Section Lines 2096.3.5 Center Lines 2106.3.6 Dimension and Extension Lines 2106.3.7 Leaders 2106.3.8 Cutting Plane or Viewing Plane Lines 2106.3.9 Break Lines 2106.3.10 Phantom Lines 2116.3.11 Line Gauge 2116.3.12 Views 2116.3.12.1 Orthographic Projections 2126.3.12.2 One-View Drawings 2146.3.12.3 Two-View Drawings 2146.3.12.4 Three-View Drawings 2146.3.12.5 Auxiliary Views 2166.4 Dimensions and Shop Notes 2176.4.1 Dimensioning 2176.4.2 Decimal and Size Dimensions 218
Trang 276.4.3 Definition of Dimensioning Terms 2186.4.3.1 Nominal Size 2186.4.3.2 Basic Size 2186.4.3.3 Allowance 2186.4.3.4 Design Size 2196.4.3.5 Limits 2196.4.3.6 Tolerance 2196.4.3.7 Datum 2206.4.4 Types of Dimensions 2206.4.4.1 Linear Dimensions 2206.4.4.2 Angular Dimensions 2206.4.4.3 Reference Dimensions 2216.4.4.4 Tabular Dimensions 2216.4.4.5 Arrowless Dimensions 2216.4.5 Shop Notes 2216.5 Machine Drawings 2216.5.1 The Centrifugal Pump Drawing (Simplified) 2226.5.1.1 The Centrifugal Pump 2226.5.1.2 Centrifugal Pump: Description 2226.5.1.3 Centrifugal Pump: Components 2236.5.2 Packing Gland Drawing 2236.5.3 Submersible Pump Drawing (Simplified) 2236.5.4 Turbine Pump Drawing (Simplified) 2236.6 Sheet Metal Drawings 2246.6.1 Sheet Metal 2246.6.2 Dimension Calculations 2246.6.2.1 Calculations for Allowances in Bend 2246.6.2.2 Set-Back Table 2256.6.2.3 Formulae Used to Determine Developed Length 2256.6.3 Hems and Joints 2266.7 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings 2266.7.1 Standard Hydraulic System 2266.7.2 Standard Pneumatic System 2276.7.3 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems: Similarities and Differences 2276.7.4 Types of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings 2276.7.5 Graphic Symbols for Fluid Power Systems 2276.7.5.1 Symbols for Methods of Operation (Controls) 2286.7.5.2 Symbols for Rotary Devices 2286.7.5.3 Symbols for Lines 2296.7.5.4 Symbols for Valves 2296.7.5.5 Symbols for Miscellaneous Units 2296.7.6 Supplementary Information Accompanying Graphic Drawings 2296.7.6.1 Sequence of Operations 2296.7.6.2 Solenoid Chart 2296.7.6.3 Bill of Materials 2306.8 Welding Blueprints and Symbols 2316.8.1 Welding Processes 2316.8.2 Types of Welded Joints 2316.8.2.1 Butt Joints 2326.8.2.2 Lap Joints 2326.8.2.3 Tee Joints 2326.8.2.4 Edge Joints 2326.8.2.5 Corner Joints 2326.8.3 Basic Weld Symbols 232
Trang 286.8.3.1 Symbols for Arc and Gas Welds 2326.8.3.2 Symbols for Resistance Welds 2326.8.3.3 Symbols for Supplementary Welds 2336.8.4 The Welding Symbol 2336.8.4.1 Reference Line 2336.8.4.2 Arrowhead 2346.8.4.3 Weld Symbol 2346.8.4.4 Dimensions 2346.8.4.5 Special Symbols 2346.8.4.6 Contour Symbol 2346.8.4.7 Groove Angle 2346.8.4.8 Spot Welds 2356.8.4.9 Weld-All-Around 2356.8.4.10 Field Weld 2356.8.4.11 Melt-Thru Welds 2356.8.4.12 Finish Symbols 2356.8.4.13 Tail 2356.9 Electrical Drawings 2366.9.1 Troubleshooting and Electrical Drawings 2366.9.2 Electrical Symbols 2366.9.2.1 Electrical Voltage and Power 2366.9.2.2 What Is Voltage? 2366.9.2.3 How Is Voltage Produced? 2366.9.2.4 How Is Electricity Delivered to the Plant? 2366.9.2.5 Electric Power 2366.9.2.6 Electrical Drawings 2376.9.2.7 Types of Architectural Drawings 2376.9.2.8 Circuit Drawings 2386.9.2.9 Ladder Drawing 2396.10 AC&R Drawings 2406.10.1 Refrigeration 2406.10.1.1 Basic Principles of Refrigeration 2406.10.1.2 Refrigeration System Components 2406.10.1.3 Refrigeration System Operation 2416.10.1.4 Using Refrigeration Drawings in Troubleshooting 2416.10.1.5 Refrigeration Component Drawings 2426.10.2 Air Conditioning 2436.10.2.1 Operation of a Simple Air Conditioning System 2436.10.2.2 Design of Air Conditioning Systems 2436.10.2.3 Air Conditioning Drawings 2436.11 Schematics and Symbols 2446.11.1 How to Use Schematic Diagrams 2446.11.2 Schematic Circuit Layout 2456.11.3 Schematic Symbols 2456.11.3.1 Lines on a Schematic 2456.11.3.2 Lines Connect Symbols 2466.11.4 Schematic Diagram: An Example 2466.11.4.1 A Schematic by Any Other Name Is a Line Diagram 2476.11.5 Schematics and Troubleshooting 2486.12 Electrical Schematics 2486.12.1 Electrical Symbols 2486.12.1.1 Schematic Lines 2496.12.1.2 Power Supplies: Electrical Systems 2496.12.1.3 Power Supplies: Electronics 250
Trang 296.12.1.4 Electrical Loads 2516.12.1.5 Switches 2516.12.1.6 Inductors (Coils) 2516.12.1.7 Transformers 2526.12.1.8 Fuses 2526.12.1.9 Circuit Breakers 2526.12.1.10 Electrical Contacts 2536.12.1.11 Resistors 2536.12.2 Reading Plant Schematics 2536.13 General Piping Systems and System Schematics 2556.13.1 Piping Systems 2556.13.2 Piping Symbols: General 2566.13.3 Piping Joints 2566.13.3.1 Screwed Joints 2566.13.3.2 Welded Joints 2566.13.3.3 Flanged Joints 2566.13.3.4 Bell-and-Spigot Joints 2566.13.3.5 Soldered Joints 2566.13.3.6 Symbols for Joints and Fittings 2576.13.4 Valves 2576.13.4.1 Valves: Definition and Function 2576.13.4.2 Valve Construction 2586.13.4.3 Types of Valves 2586.14 Hydraulic and Pneumatic System Schematic Symbols 2606.14.1 Fluid Power Systems 2616.14.2 Symbols Used for Hydraulic and Pneumatic Components 2616.14.3 AC&R System Schematic Symbols 2626.14.4 Schematic Symbols Used in Refrigeration Systems 2626.14.4.1 Refrigeration Piping Symbols 2626.14.4.2 Refrigeration Fittings Symbols 2626.14.4.3 Refrigeration Valve Symbols 2636.14.4.4 Refrigeration Accessory Symbols 2636.14.4.5 Refrigeration Component Symbols 2636.14.4.6 Schematic Symbols Used in AC&R Air Distribution System 264Chapter Review Questions 264References and Suggested Reading 265
Chapter 7 Water Hydraulics 267
7.1 What Is Water Hydraulics? 2677.2 Basic Concepts 2677.2.1 Stevin’s Law 2687.3 Density and Specific Gravity 2687.4 Force and Pressure 2707.4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure 2707.4.2 Effects of Water under Pressure 2717.5 Head 2727.5.1 Static Head 2727.5.2 Friction Head 2727.5.3 Velocity Head 2727.5.4 Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) 2727.5.5 Pressure and Head 2727.5.6 Head and Pressure 2727.6 Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion 2727.6.1 Area and Velocity 2737.6.2 Pressure and Velocity 274
Trang 307.7 Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem 2747.7.1 Conservation of Energy 2747.7.2 Energy Head 2747.7.3 Piezometric Surface 2747.7.4 Head Loss 2757.7.5 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) 2767.7.6 Bernoulli’s Theorem 2767.7.7 Bernoulli’s Equation 2767.8 Well and Wet-Well Hydraulics 2777.8.1 Well Hydraulics 2777.8.2 Wet-Well Hydraulics 2787.9 Friction Head Loss 2797.9.1 Flow in Pipelines 2797.9.2 Major Head Loss 2807.9.3 Calculating Major Head Loss 2807.9.4 C Factor 2817.9.5 Slope 2817.9.6 Minor Head Loss 2817.10 Basic Piping Hydraulics 2827.10.1 Piping Networks 2827.11 Open-Channel Flow 2837.11.1 Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 2837.11.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 2837.11.1.2 Uniform and Varied Flow 2837.11.1.3 Critical Flow 2847.11.2 Parameters Used in Open Channel Flow 2847.11.2.1 Hydraulic Radius 2847.11.2.2 Hydraulic Depth 2847.11.2.3 Slope (S) 2847.11.3 Open-Channel Flow Calculations 2857.12 Flow Measurement 2867.12.1 Flow Measurement: The Old-Fashioned Way 2877.12.2 Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement 2877.12.3 Flow Measuring Devices 2877.12.3.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters 2887.12.3.2 Types of Differential Pressure Flowmeters 2887.12.3.3 Magnetic Flowmeters 2907.12.3.4 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 2917.12.3.5 Velocity Flowmeters 2927.12.3.6 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters 2927.12.4 Open-Channel Flow Measurement 2937.12.4.1 Weirs 2937.12.4.2 Flumes 294Chapter Review Questions 295References and Suggested Reading 295
Chapter 8 Fundamentals of Electricity 297
8.1 Nature of Electricity 2988.2 The Structure of Matter 2988.3 Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators 3008.4 Static Electricity 3018.4.1 Charged Bodies 3018.4.2 Coulomb’s Law 3018.4.3 Electrostatic Fields 302
Trang 318.5 Magnetism 3028.5.1 Magnetic Materials 3038.5.2 Magnetic Earth 3038.6 Difference in Potential 3048.6.1 The Water Analogy 3048.6.2 Principal Methods for Producing a Voltage 3048.7 Current 3058.8 Resistance 3058.9 Battery-Supplied Electricity 3068.9.1 The Voltaic Cell 3068.9.2 Primary and Secondary Cells 3078.9.3 Battery 3078.9.4 Battery Operation 3078.9.5 Combining Cells 3078.9.6 Types of Batteries 3088.9.6.1 Dry Cell 3088.9.6.2 Lead–Acid Battery 3088.9.6.3 Alkaline Cell 3098.9.6.4 Nickel–Cadmium Cell 3098.9.6.5 Mercury Cell 3098.9.7 Battery Characteristics 3098.10 Simple Electrical Circuit 3108.10.1 Schematic Representations 3118.11 Ohm’s Law 3118.12 Electrical Power 3138.12.1 Electrical Power Calculations 3138.13 Electrical Energy (Kilowatt-Hours) 3148.14 Series DC Circuit Characteristics 3148.14.1 Series Circuit Resistance 3148.14.2 Series Circuit Current 3158.14.3 Series Circuit Voltage 3158.14.4 Series Circuit Power 3178.14.5 Summary of the Rules for Series DC Circuits 3178.14.6 General Series Circuit Analysis 3188.14.7 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 3188.14.8 Polarity of Voltage Drops 3198.14.9 Series Aiding and Opposing Sources 3198.14.10 Kirchhoff’s Law and Multiple-Source Solutions 3208.15 Ground 3208.16 Open and Short Circuits 3218.17 Parallel DC Circuits 3218.17.1 Parallel Circuit Characteristics 3218.17.2 Voltage in Parallel Circuits 3218.17.3 Current in Parallel Circuits 3228.17.4 Parallel Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Current Law 3238.17.5 Parallel Circuit Resistance 3248.17.6 Reciprocal Method 3258.17.7 Product over the Sum Method 3268.17.8 Reduction to an Equivalent Circuit 3268.17.9 Power in Parallel Circuits 3268.17.10 Rules for Solving Parallel DC Circuits 3268.18 Series–Parallel Circuits 3278.18.1 Solving a Series–Parallel Circuit 3278.19 Conductors 3278.19.1 Unit Size of Conductors 327
Trang 328.19.2 Square Mil 3278.19.3 Circular Mil 3288.19.4 Circular-Mil-Foot 3298.19.5 Resistivity 3298.19.6 Wire Measurement 3308.19.7 Factors Governing the Selection of Wire Size 3308.19.8 Copper vs Other Metal Conductors 3318.19.9 Temperature Coefficient 3318.19.10 Conductor Insulation 3328.19.11 Conductors, Splices, and Terminal Connections 3328.19.12 Soldering Operations 3328.19.13 Solderless Connections 3328.19.14 Insulation Tape 3328.20 Electromagnetism 3338.20.1 Magnetic Field around a Single Conductor 3338.20.2 Polarity of a Single Conductor 3338.20.3 Field around Two Parallel Conductors 3348.20.4 Magnetic Field of a Coil 3348.20.5 Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil 3348.20.6 Strength of an Electromagnetic Field 3358.20.7 Magnetic Units 3358.20.8 Properties of Magnetic Materials 3358.20.8.1 Permeability 3358.20.8.2 Hysteresis 3358.20.9 Electromagnets 3368.21 AC Theory 3368.21.1 Basic AC Generator 3378.21.2 Cycle 3378.21.3 Frequency, Period, and Wavelength 3388.21.4 Characteristic Values of AC Voltage and Current 3388.21.5 Peak Amplitude 3388.21.6 Peak-to-Peak Amplitude 3398.21.7 Instantaneous Amplitude 3398.21.8 Effective or RMS Value 3398.21.9 Average Value 3408.21.10 Resistance in AC Circuits 3408.21.11 Phase Relationships 3418.22 Inductance 3428.22.1 Self-Inductance 3438.22.2 Mutual Inductance 3448.22.3 Calculation of Total Inductance 3458.23 Practical Electrical Applications 3458.23.1 Electrical Power Generation 3458.23.1.1 DC Generators 3468.23.1.2 AC Generators 3478.23.1.3 Motors 3478.23.1.4 DC Motors 3488.23.1.5 AC Motors 3498.23.2 Transformers 3518.23.3 Power Distribution System Protection 3528.23.3.1 Fuses 3528.23.3.2 Circuit Breakers 3538.23.3.3 Control Devices 353Chapter Review Questions 354References and Suggested Reading 355
Trang 33Chapter 9 Hydraulic Machines: Pumps 357
9.1 Introduction 3579.2 Basic Pumping Calculations 3589.2.1 Velocity of a Fluid through a Pipeline 3589.2.2 Pressure–Velocity Relationship 3589.2.3 Static Head 3599.2.3.1 Static Suction Head 3599.2.3.2 Static Suction Lift 3599.2.3.3 Static Discharge Head 3599.2.4 Friction Head 3609.2.5 Velocity Head 3609.2.6 Total Head 3619.2.7 Conversion of Pressure Head 3619.2.8 Horsepower 3619.2.8.1 Hydraulic (Water) Horsepower (WHP) 3619.2.8.2 Brake Horsepower (BHP) 3619.2.9 Specific Speed 3619.2.9.1 Suction Specific Speed 3629.2.10 Affinity Laws—Centrifugal Pumps 3629.2.11 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 3629.2.11.1 Calculating NPSHA 3639.2.12 Pumps in Series and Parallel 3649.3 Centrifugal Pumps 3649.3.1 Description 3649.3.2 Terminology 3659.3.3 Pump Theory 3669.3.4 Pump Characteristics 3679.3.4.1 Head (Capacity) 3679.3.4.2 Efficiency 3679.3.4.3 Brake Horsepower Requirements 3679.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Centrifugal Pump 3679.3.6 Centrifugal Pump Applications 3699.3.7 Pump Control Systems 3699.3.7.1 Float Control 3699.3.7.2 Pneumatic Controls 3709.3.7.3 Electrode Control Systems 3719.3.7.4 Other Control Systems 3719.3.8 Electronic Control Systems 3719.3.8.1 Flow Equalization System 3719.3.8.2 Sonar or Other Transmission Types of Controllers 3719.3.8.3 Motor Controllers 3729.3.8.4 Protective Instrumentation 3729.3.8.5 Temperature Detectors 3729.3.8.6 Vibration Monitors 3729.3.8.7 Supervisory Instrumentation 3729.3.9 Centrifugal Pump Modifications 3739.3.9.1 Submersible Pumps 3739.3.9.2 Recessed Impeller or Vortex Pumps 3749.3.9.3 Turbine Pumps 3749.4 Positive-Displacement Pumps 3759.4.1 Piston Pump or Reciprocating Pump 3759.4.2 Diaphragm Pump 3759.4.3 Peristaltic Pumps 375Chapter Review Questions 376References and Suggested Reading 376
Trang 34Chapter 10 Water/Wastewater Conveyance 377
10.1 Delivering the Lifeblood of Civilization 37710.2 Conveyance Systems 37710.3 Definitions 37910.4 Fluids vs Liquids 38010.5 Maintaining Fluid Flow in Piping Systems 38010.5.1 Scaling 38010.5.2 Piping System Maintenance 38110.6 Piping System Accessories 38210.7 Piping Systems: Temperature Effects and Insulation 38210.8 Metallic Piping 38310.8.1 Piping Materials 38310.8.2 Piping: The Basics 38310.8.3 Pipe Sizes 383
10.8.3.1 Pipe Wall Thickness 38410.8.3.2 Piping Classification 38410.8.4 Types of Piping Systems 385
10.8.4.1 Code for Identification of Pipelines 38510.8.5 Metallic Piping Materials 38510.8.6 Characteristics of Metallic Materials 385
10.8.6.1 Cast-Iron Pipe 38610.8.6.2 Ductile-Iron Pipe 38610.8.6.3 Steel Pipe 38710.8.7 Maintenance Characteristics of Metallic Piping 387
10.8.7.1 Expansion and Flexibility 38710.8.7.2 Pipe Support Systems 38710.8.7.3 Valve Selection 38710.8.7.4 Isolation 38710.8.7.5 Preventing Backflow 38710.8.7.6 Water Hammer 38710.8.7.7 Air Binding 38810.8.7.8 Corrosion Effects 38810.8.8 Joining Metallic Pipe 388
10.8.8.1 Bell-and-Spigot Joints 38910.8.8.2 Screwed or Threaded Joints 38910.8.8.3 Flanged Joints 38910.8.8.4 Welded Joints 39010.8.8.5 Soldered and Brazed Joints 39010.9 Nonmetallic Piping 39010.9.1 Nonmetallic Piping Materials 390
10.9.1.1 Clay Pipe 39110.9.1.2 Concrete Pipe 39110.9.1.3 Plastic Pipe 39310.10 Tubing 39410.10.1 Tubing vs Piping: The Difference 39410.10.2 Advantages of Tubing 396
10.10.2.1 Mechanical Advantages of Tubing 39610.10.2.2 Chemical Advantages of Tubing 39610.10.3 Connecting Tubing 397
10.10.3.1 Cutting Tubing 39710.10.3.2 Soldering Tubing 39710.10.3.3 Connecting Flared/Nonflared Joints 39810.10.4 Bending Tubing 39810.10.5 Types of Tubing 39810.10.6 Typical Tubing Applications 399
Trang 3510.11 Industrial Hoses 39910.11.1 Hose Nomenclature 40010.11.2 Factors Governing Hose Selection 40110.11.3 Standards, Codes, and Sizes 401
10.11.3.1 Hose Size 40110.11.3.2 Hose Classifications 40210.11.3.3 Nonmetallic Hose 40210.11.3.4 Metallic Hose 40310.11.4 Hose Couplings 40310.11.5 Hose Maintenance 40410.12 Pipe and Tube Fittings 40410.12.1 Fittings 40410.12.2 Functions of Fittings 405
10.12.2.1 Changing the Direction of Flow 40510.12.2.2 Providing Branch Connections 40510.12.2.3 Changing the Sizes of Lines 40510.12.2.4 Sealing Lines 40610.12.2.5 Connecting Lines 40610.12.3 Types of Connections 406
10.12.3.1 Screwed Fittings 40610.12.3.2 Flanged Connections 40610.12.3.3 Welded Connections 40710.12.4 Tubing Fittings and Connections 40710.13 Valves 40710.13.1 Valve Construction 40810.13.2 Types of Valves 408
10.13.2.1 Ball Valves 40910.13.2.2 Gate Valves 40910.13.2.3 Globe Valves 41010.13.2.4 Needle Valves 41010.13.2.5 Butterfly Valves 41010.13.2.6 Plug Valves 41110.13.2.7 Check Valves 41110.13.2.8 Quick-Opening Valves 41110.13.2.9 Diaphragm Valves 41110.13.2.10 Regulating Valves 41110.13.2.11 Relief Valves 41210.13.2.12 Reducing Valves 41210.13.3 Valve Operators 412
10.13.3.1 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Valve Operators 41310.13.3.2 Magnetic Valve Operators 41310.13.4 Valve Maintenance 41310.14 Piping Systems: Protective Devices 41310.14.1 Applications 41310.14.2 Strainers 41310.14.3 Filters 41410.14.4 Traps 414
10.14.4.1 Trap Maintenance and Testing 41510.15 Piping Ancillaries 41510.15.1 Gauges 41610.15.2 Pressure Gauges 416
10.15.2.1 Spring-Operated Pressure Gauges 41610.15.2.2 Bourdon-Tube Gauges 41710.15.2.3 Bellows Gauge 41710.15.2.4 Plunger Gauge 417
Trang 3610.15.3 Temperature Gauges 41810.15.4 Vacuum Breakers 41910.15.5 Accumulators 41910.15.6 Air Receivers 41910.15.7 Heat Exchangers 420Chapter Review Questions 420References and Suggested Reading 421
Part III Characteristics of Water 423 Chapter 11 Basic Water Chemistry 425
11.1 Chemistry Concepts and Definitions 42511.1.1 Concepts 42511.1.1.1 Miscible and Solubility 42511.1.1.2 Suspension, Sediment, Particles, and Solids 42511.1.1.3 Emulsion 42611.1.1.4 Ion 42611.1.1.5 Mass Concentration 42611.1.2 Definitions 42611.2 Chemistry Fundamentals 42711.2.1 Matter 42711.2.2 The Content of Matter: The Elements 42811.2.3 Compound Substances 42911.3 Water Solutions 43011.4 Water Constituents 43111.4.1 Solids 43111.4.2 Turbidity 43111.4.3 Color 43211.4.4 Dissolved Oxygen 43211.4.5 Metals 43211.4.6 Organic Matter 43211.4.7 Inorganic Matter 43311.4.8 Acids 43311.4.9 Bases 43311.4.10 Salts 43311.4.11 pH 43311.5 Common Water Measurements 43411.5.1 Alkalinity 43411.5.2 Water Temperature 43511.5.3 Specific Conductance 43511.5.4 Hardness 43511.5.5 Odor Control (Wastewater Treatment) 43511.6 Water Treatment Chemicals 43611.6.1 Disinfection 43611.6.2 Coagulation 43611.6.3 Taste and Odor Removal 43611.6.4 Water Softening 43711.6.4.1 Chemical Precipitation 43711.6.4.2 Ion Exchange Softening 43711.6.5 Recarbonation 43711.6.6 Scale and Corrosion Control 43711.7 Drinking Water Parameters: Chemical 43811.7.1 Organics 43811.7.2 Synthetic Organic Compounds 43911.7.3 Volatile Organic Compounds 439
Trang 3711.7.4 Total Dissolved Solids 43911.7.5 Fluorides 43911.7.6 Heavy Metals 44011.7.7 Nutrients 440Chapter Review Questions 441References and Suggested Reading 441
Chapter 12 Water Microbiology 443
12.1 Introduction 44312.2 Microbiology: What Is It? 44312.3 Water/Wastewater Microorganisms 44412.4 Key Terms 44412.5 Microorganism Classification and Differentiation 44512.5.1 Classification 44512.5.2 Differentiation 44612.6 The Cell 44612.6.1 Structure of the Bacterial Cell 446
12.6.1.1 Capsules 44612.6.1.2 Flagella 44712.6.1.3 Cell Wall 44712.6.1.4 Plasma Membrane (Cytoplasmic Membrane) 44712.6.1.5 Cytoplasm 44712.6.1.6 Mesosome 44712.6.1.7 Nucleoid (Nuclear Body or Region) 44712.6.1.8 Ribosomes 44812.6.1.9 Inclusions 44812.7 Bacteria 44812.7.1 Bacterial Growth Factors 44812.7.2 Destruction of Bacteria 44912.7.3 Waterborne Bacteria 44912.8 Protozoa 44912.9 Microscopic Crustaceans 45112.10 Viruses 45112.11 Algae 45212.12 Fungi 45212.13 Nematodes and Flatworms 45212.14 Water Treatment and Microbiological Processes 45312.14.1 Pathogenic Protozoa 45412.14.2 Giardia 454
12.14.2.1 Giardiasis 45412.14.3 Cryptosporidium 458
12.14.3.1 The Basics of Cryptosporidium 46012.14.3.2 Cryptosporidiosis 46112.14.4 Cyclospora 46112.14.5 Helminths 46212.15 Wastewater Treatment and Biological Processes 46212.15.1 Aerobic Process 46212.15.2 Anaerobic Process 46212.15.3 Anoxic Process 46312.15.4 Photosynthesis 46312.15.5 Growth Cycles 46312.15.6 Biogeochemical Cycles 46312.15.7 Carbon Cycle 46412.15.8 Nitrogen Cycle 464
Trang 3812.15.9 Sulfur Cycle 46512.15.10 Phosphorus Cycle 465Chapter Review Questions 467References and Suggested Reading 467
Chapter 13 Water Ecology 469
13.1 Introduction 46913.2 What Is Ecology? 46913.3 Why Is Ecology Important? 47013.4 Why Study Ecology? 47113.4.1 Leaf Processing in Streams 47213.5 History of Ecology 47313.5.1 Example Ecosystem: Agroecosystem Model 474
13.5.1.2 Agroecosystem Characteristics 47513.5.1.3 Ecosystem Pattern and Process 47513.6 Levels of Organization 47513.7 Ecosystems 47613.8 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem 47613.9 Food Chain Efficiency 47813.10 Ecological Pyramids 47813.11 Productivity 47913.12 Population Ecology 48013.13 Stream Genesis and Structure 48213.13.1 Water Flow in a Stream 48413.13.2 Stream-Water Discharge 48413.13.3 Transport of Material 48513.13.4 Characteristics of Stream Channels 48513.13.5 Stream Profiles 48513.13.6 Sinuosity 48613.13.7 Bars, Riffles, and Pools 48613.13.8 The Floodplain 48613.13.9 Adaptations to Stream Current 48913.13.10 Types of Adaptive Changes 48913.13.11 Specific Adaptations 49013.14 Benthic Life 49013.15 Benthic Plants and Animals 49013.16 Benthic Macroinvertebrates 49113.16.1 Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates 49213.16.2 Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web 49313.16.3 Units of Organization 49313.17 Typical Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Running Waters 49313.17.1 Insect Macroinvertebrates 493
13.17.1.1 Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera) 49313.17.1.2 Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera) 49413.17.1.3 Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera) 49413.17.1.4 True Flies (Order: Diptera) 49513.17.1.5 Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) 49613.17.1.6 Water Strider (“Jesus Bugs”) (Order: Hemiptera) 49713.17.1.7 Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera) 49713.17.1.8 Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata) 49813.17.2 Non-Insect Macroinvertebrates 499
13.17.2.1 Oligochaeta (Family: Tuificidae, Genus: Tubifex) 49913.17.2.2 Hirudinea (Leeches) 49913.17.2.3 Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail) 499
Trang 39Summary of Key Terms 500Chapter Review Questions 500References and Suggested Reading 500
Chapter 14 Water Quality 503
14.1 Introduction 50314.2 The Water Cycle 50414.3 Water Quality Standards 50514.3.1 Clean Water Act 50614.3.2 Safe Drinking Water Act 50614.4 Water Quality Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 50614.4.1 Physical Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 50714.4.1.1 Solids 50714.4.1.2 Turbidity 50814.4.1.3 Color 50914.4.1.4 Taste and Odor 50914.4.1.5 Temperature 51014.4.2 Chemical Characteristics of Water 51114.4.2.1 Total Dissolved Solids 51114.4.2.2 Alkalinity 51114.4.2.3 Hardness 51214.4.2.4 Fluoride 51214.4.2.5 Metals 51214.4.2.6 Organics 51314.4.2.7 Nutrients 51414.4.3 Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater 51414.4.3.1 Organic Substances 51414.4.3.2 Inorganic Substances 51514.4.4 Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 51614.4.4.1 Bacteria 51714.4.4.2 Viruses 51714.4.4.3 Protozoa 51714.4.4.4 Worms (Helminths) 517Chapter Review Questions 517References and Suggested Reading 517
Chapter 15 Biomonitoring, Monitoring, Sampling, and Testing 519
15.1 What Is Biomonitoring? 51915.1.1 Advantages of Using Periphytons 51915.1.2 Advantages of Using Fish 51915.1.3 Advantages of Using Macroinvertebrates 52015.2 Periphyton Protocols 52015.3 Fish Protocols 52115.4 Macroinvertebrate Protocols 52115.4.1 The Biotic Index 52215.4.2 Metrics within the Benthic Macroinvertebrates 52315.5 Biological Sampling in Streams 52315.5.1 Biological Sampling Planning 52315.5.2 Sampling Stations 52415.5.3 Sampling Frequency and Notes 52515.5.4 Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment 52615.5.5 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams 52715.5.5.1 Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment 52815.5.6 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams 53115.5.6.1 Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment 533
Trang 4015.5.7 Post-Sampling Routine 53415.5.8 Sampling Devices 535
15.5.8.1 Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor 53515.5.8.2 Sampling Nets 53515.5.8.3 Sediment Samplers (Dredges) 53515.5.8.4 Plankton Sampler 53615.5.8.5 Secchi Disk 53615.5.8.6 Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment 53715.5.9 The Bottom Line on Biological Sampling 53715.6 Drinking Water Quality Monitoring 53715.6.1 Is the Water Good or Bad? 53815.6.2 State Water Quality Standards Programs 53915.6.3 Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program 53915.7 General Preparation and Sampling Considerations 54015.7.1 Cleaning Procedures 540
15.7.1.1 Method A: General Preparation of Sampling Containers 54015.7.1.2 Method B: Acid Wash Procedures 54015.7.2 Sample Types 54015.7.3 Collecting Samples from a Stream 541
15.7.3.1 Whirl-Pak® Bags 54115.7.3.2 Screw-Cap Bottles 54115.7.4 Sample Preservation and Storage 54215.7.5 Standardization of Methods 54215.8 Test Methods for Drinking Water and Wastewater 54215.8.1 Titrimetric Methods 54215.8.2 Colorimetric Methods 54215.8.3 Visual Methods 54215.8.4 Electronic Methods 54315.8.5 Dissolved Oxygen Testing 543
15.8.5.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 54415.8.5.2 Winkler Method (Azide Modification) 54515.8.5.3 Meter and Probe 54615.8.6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing 547
15.8.6.1 Sampling Considerations 54815.8.6.2 BOD Sampling, Analysis, and Testing 54815.8.6.3 BOD5 Calculation 54915.8.7 Temperature Measurement 549
15.8.7.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 55015.8.8 Hardness Measurement 55015.8.9 pH Measurement 550
15.8.9.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations 55015.8.9.2 pH Meters 55115.8.9.3 pH “Pocket Pals” and Color Comparators 55115.8.10 Turbidity Measurement 551
15.8.10.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 55115.8.10.2 Using a Secchi Disk 55215.8.10.3 Transparency Tube 55215.8.11 Orthophosphate Measurement 552
15.8.11.1 Forms of Phosphorus 55315.8.11.2 The Phosphorus Cycle 55315.8.11.3 Testing Phosphorus 55315.8.11.4 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 55415.8.11.5 Ascorbic Acid Method for Determining Orthophosphate 55415.8.12 Nitrates Measurement 554
15.8.12.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 554