Harpers illustrated biochemistry 30th ed v rodwell, d bender, k botham (mcgraw hill, 2015) 1

Shown are hydrogen bonds formed between alcohol and water, between two molecules of ethanol, and between the peptide carbonyl oxygen and the peptide nitrogen hydrogen of an adjacent ami

vip.persianss.ir

Professor (Emeritus) of Nutritional Biochemsitry

University College London

London, United Kingdom

Kathleen M Botham, PhD, DSc

Emeritus Professor of Biochemistry

Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences

Royal Veterinary College

Blacksburg, Virginia

P Anthony Weil, PhD

Professor Department of Molecular Physiology & Biophysics Vanderbilt University

Nashville, Tennessee

Harper’s

Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced

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Christian Medical College

Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

Emeritus Professor of Veterinary Biochemistry

Royal Veterinary College

Joe Varghese, MBBS, MD, DNB

Associate ProfessorDepartment of BiochemistryChristian Medical CollegeVellore, Tamil Nadu

iii

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UnitedVRG

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1 Biochemistry & Medicine 1

Victor W Rodwell, PhD & Robert K Murray, MD, PhD

2 Water & ph 6

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

3 Amino Acids & Peptides 15

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

4 Proteins: determination of Primary

Structure 25

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

5 Proteins: higher orders of Structure 36

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

Enzymes: Kinetics, Mechanism, Regulation,

& Bioinformatics 51

S e C T i o n

II

6 Proteins: Myoglobin & hemoglobin 51

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

7 enzymes: Mechanism of Action 60

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

8 enzymes: Kinetics 73

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

9 enzymes: regulation of Activities 87

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

10 Bioinformatics & Computational Biology 97

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

Bioenergetics 113

S e C T i o n

III

11 Bioenergetics: The role of ATP 113

Kathleen M Botham, PhD, DSc & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

12 Biologic oxidation 119

Kathleen M Botham, PhD, DSc & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

13 The respiratory Chain & oxidative Phosphorylation 126

Kathleen M Botham, PhD, DSc & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

Metabolism of Carbohydrates 139

David A Bender, PhD & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

16 The Citric Acid Cycle: The Central Pathway

of Carbohydrate, Lipid & Amino Acid Metabolism 161

David A Bender, PhD & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

17 Glycolysis & the Oxidation of Pyruvate 168

David A Bender, PhD & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

18 Metabolism of Glycogen 176

David A Bender, PhD & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

19 Gluconeogenesis & the Control of Blood

Glucose 185

David A Bender, PhD & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

20 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway & Other

Pathways of Hexose Metabolism 196

David A Bender, PhD & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

Metabolism of Lipids 211

S E C T I O N

V

21 Lipids of Physiologic Significance 211

Kathleen M Botham, PhD, DSc & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

22 Oxidation of Fatty Acids: Ketogenesis 223

Kathleen M Botham, PhD, DSc & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

23 Biosynthesis of Fatty

Acids & Eicosanoids 232

Kathleen M Botham, PhD, DSc & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

24 Metabolism of Acylglycerols

& Sphingolipids 245

Kathleen M Botham, PhD, DSc & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

25 Lipid Transport & Storage 253

Kathleen M Botham, PhD, DSc & Peter A Mayes, PhD, DSc

26 Cholesterol Synthesis, Transport,

27 Biosynthesis of the Nutritionally

Nonessential Amino Acids 281

31 Porphyrins & Bile Pigments 323

Victor W Rodwell, PhD & Robert K Murray, MD, PhD

Structure, Function, &

Replication of Informational Macromolecules 339

39 Molecular Genetics, Recombinant DNA,

& Genomic Technology 451

P Anthony Weil, PhD

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Biochemistry of Extracellular & Intracellular Communication 477

S E C T I O N

VIII

40 Membranes: Structure

& Function 477

Robert K Murray, MD, PhD & P Anthony Weil, PhD

41 The Diversity of the Endocrine

49 Intracellular Traffic & Sorting of Proteins 607

Kathleen M Botham , PhD, DSc & Robert K Murray, MD, PhD

50 The Extracellular Matrix 627

Kathleen M Botham, PhD, DSc & Robert K Murray, MD, PhD

51 Muscle & the Cytoskeleton 647

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Robert K Murray, MD, PhD

52 Plasma Proteins & Immunoglobulins 668

Peter J Kennelly, PhD, Robert K Murray, MD, PhD, Molly Jacob, MBBS, MD, PhD & Joe Varghese, MBBS, MD

53 Red Blood Cells 689

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Robert K Murray, MD, PhD

54 White Blood Cells 700

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Robert K Murray, MD, PhD

Special Topics (C) 711

S E C T I O N

XI

55 Hemostasis & Thrombosis 711

Peter L Gross, MD, MSc, FRCP(C), Robert K Murray, MD, PhD,

P Anthony Weil, PhD, & Margaret L Rand, PhD

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The authors and publishers are pleased to present the thirtieth

edition of Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry The first edition,

entitled Harper’s Biochemistry, was published in 1939 under

the sole authorship of Dr Harold Harper at the University

of California School of Medicine, San Francisco, California

Presently entitled Harpers Illustrated Biochemistry, the book

continues, as originally intended, to provide a concise survey

of aspects of biochemistry most relevant to the study of

medi-cine Various authors have contributed to subsequent editions

of this medically oriented biochemistry text, which is now

observing its 75th year

Cover Illustration for

the Thirtieth Edition

The illustration on the cover depicts the proteasome and the

initial proteolytic degradation of an ubiquitinated

intracel-lular protein The proteosome consists of a macromolecular

complex of 14 α and 14 b subunits (shown green and yellow,

respectively) arranged as four stacked α7b7b7α7 rings These

form a hollow, tube-like chamber that contains immobilized

proteases A polypeptide tagged for degradation (shown

red) enters the proteasome (top left) and is hydrolyzed into

peptide fragments by internal proteases of the proteosome

Following their exit from the proteosome (bottom, right),

extracellular proteases degrade these peptide fragments to

amino acids

The timely and controlled degradation of intracellular proteins is critical to such fundamental biological processes

as cell differentiation and division The ability to recognize

and dispose of denatured or damaged proteins is essential

to health, since the accumulation of protein aggregates

con-tributes significantly to the etiology of a variety of human

diseases, including numerous neurological disorders For the

discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation, Aaron

Ciechanover and Avram Hershko of Israel and Irwin Rose

of the United States were awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in

Chemistry

Changes in the Thirtieth Edition

The 30th Anniversary edition of Harper’s Illustrated

Biochem-istry continues its timely, integrated updating of

biochemi-cal knowledge, with repeated emphasis on its relationship

to genetic diseases, clinical information, and the practice of

medicine This edition includes new full-color illustrations

and tables, and numerous medically-relevant examples that

present a clear and succinct review of those fundamentals of

biochemistry that a student needs to understand for success

in medical school In addition to timely updating of content, the order of presentation of concepts has undergone major revision The present 58 chapters are organized under an ex-panded list of eleven Sections Chapters and topics in these sections emphasize integrated coverage of biochemical disease and clinical information A major change has been that fol-lowing the retirement of Dr Murray, authorship and revision

of his thirteen chapters have been assumed by Drs Bender, Botham, Kennelly and Rodwell For example, Section X con-tains a new chapter on white blood cells, and Section XI fea-tures nine entirely new, open-ended clinical case problems that emphasize clinical relevance and test both knowledge and understanding To facilitate a student’s grasp of each group of concepts, Question Sets now appear after each of the eleven new Sections Many new questions have been added, and an Answer Bank follows the last chapter New to this edition is the Answer Bank’s inclusion of comprehensive explanations of many answers

Organization of the Book

All 58 chapters of the thirtieth edition place major emphasis

on the medical relevance of biochemistry Topics are nized under eleven major headings To facilitate retention of the contained information, Questions follow each Section and

orga-an Answer Borga-ank follows the Appendix

Section I includes a brief history of biochemistry

and emphasizes the interrelationships between biochemistry and medicine Water and pH are reviewed, and the various orders of proteins structure are addressed

Section II begins with a chapter on hemoglobin, three

chapters address the kinetics, mechanism of action, and metabolic regulation of enzymes A chapter on Bioinformatics and Computational Biology reflects the ever-increasing importance of these topics in modern biochemistry, biology, and medicine

Section III addresses bioenergetics and the role

of high energy phosphates in energy capture and transfer, the oxidation–reduction reactions involved

in biologic oxidation, and metabolic details of energy capture via the respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation

Section IV considers the metabolism of carbohydrates

via glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, the pentose phosphate pathway, glycogen metabolism, gluconeogenesis, and the control of blood glucose

Preface

xi

xii preface

Section V outlines the nature of simple and complex

lipids, lipid transport and storage, the biosynthesis and

degradation of fatty acids and more complex lipids, and

the reactions and metabolic regulation of cholesterol

biosynthesis and transport in human subjects

Section VI discusses protein catabolism, urea biosynthesis,

and the catabolism of amino acids and stresses the

medically significant metabolic disorders associated with

their incomplete catabolism The final chapter considers

the biochemistry of the porphyrins and bile pigments

Section VII first outlines the structure and function

of nucleotides and nucleic acids, then details DNA

replication and repair, RNA synthesis and modification,

protein synthesis, the principles of recombinant DNA

technology, and the regulation of gene expression

Section VIII considers aspects of extracellular and

intracellular communication Specific topics include

membrane structure and function, the molecular bases

of the actions of hormones, and signal transduction

Sections IX, X, & XI address fourteen topics of

significant medical importance

Section IX discusses nutrition, digestion, and absorption,

micronutrients including, vitamins, free radicals

and antioxidants, glycoproteins, the metabolism of

xenobiotics, and clinical biochemistry

Section X addresses intracellular traffic and

the sorting of proteins, the extracellular matrix, muscle and the cytoskeleton, plasma proteins and immunoglobulins, and the biochemistry of red cells and of white cells

Section XI includes hemostasis and thrombosis, an

overview of cancer, and the biochemistry of aging

acknowledgments

The authors thank Michael Weitz for his role in the planning

of this edition and Regina Y Brown for her key role in ing it for publication We also thank Shruti Awasthi of Cenveo Publisher Services for her efforts in editing, typesetting, and artwork Suggestions from students and colleagues around the world have been most helpful in the formulation of this edi-tion We look forward to receiving similar input in the future

prepar-Finally, we acknowledge Robert Murray for his leadership and contributions to prior editions of this book

Victor W RodwellDavid A BenderKathleen M BothamPeter J Kennelly

P Anthony Weil

vip.persianss.ir

Structures & Functions

of Proteins & Enzymes

C h a p t e r

BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE

Biochemistry and medicine enjoy a mutually cooperative

relationship Biochemical studies have illuminated many

aspects of health and disease, and the study of various aspects

of health and disease has opened up new areas of

biochem-istry The medical relevance of biochemistry both in normal

and abnormal situations is emphasized throughout this book

Biochemistry makes significant contributions to the fields of

cell biology, physiology, immunology, microbiology,

pharma-cology, and toxipharma-cology, as well as the fields of inflammation,

cell injury, and cancer These close relationships emphasize

that life, as we know it, depends on biochemical reactions and

processes

BIOCHEMISTRY BEGAN WITH THE DISCOVERY THAT A CELL-FREE EXTRACT OF YEAST CAN

FERMENT SUGAR

The knowledge that yeast can convert the sugars to ethyl alcohol predates recorded history It was not, however, until the earliest years of the 20th century that this process led directly to the science of biochemistry Despite his insightful investigations of brewing and wine making, the great French microbiologist Louis Pasteur maintained that the process of fermentation could only occur in intact cells His error was shown in 1899 by the brothers Büchner, who discovered that

1

O B J E C T I V E S

After studying this chapter,

you should be able to:

■ Understand the importance of the ability of cell-free extracts of yeast to ferment sugars, an observation that enabled discovery of the intermediates

of fermentation, glycolysis, and other metabolic pathways

■ appreciate the scope of biochemistry and its central role in the life sciences, and that biochemistry and medicine are intimately related disciplines

■ appreciate that biochemistry integrates knowledge of the chemical processes

in living cells with strategies to maintain health, understand disease, identify potential therapies, and enhance our understanding of the origins of life

on earth

■ Describe how genetic approaches have been critical for elucidating many areas of biochemistry, and how the human Genome project has furthered advances in numerous aspects of biology and medicine

Biochemistry & Medicine

Victor W Rodwell, PhD & Robert K Murray, MD, PhD

I

2 SECTIOn I Structures & Functions of proteins & enzymes

fermentation can indeed occur in cell-free extracts This

reve-lation resulted from storage of a yeast extract in a crock of

con-centrated sugar solution added as a preservative Overnight,

the contents of the crock fermented, spilled over the

labora-tory bench and floor, and dramatically demonstrated that

fermentation can proceed in the absence of an intact cell

This discovery made possible a rapid and highly productive

series of investigations in the early years of the 20th century

that initiated the science of biochemistry These investigations

revealed the vital role of inorganic phosphate, ADP, ATP, and

NAD(H), and ultimately identified the phosphorylated sugars

and the chemical reactions and enzymes (Gk “in yeast”) that

convert glucose to pyruvate (glycolysis) or to ethanol and CO2

(fermentation) Subsequent research in the 1930s and 1940s

identified the intermediates of the citric acid cycle and of urea

biosynthesis, and provided insight into the essential roles of

certain vitamin-derived cofactors or “coenzymes” such as

thiamin pyrophosphate, riboflavin, and ultimately coenzyme A,

coenzyme Q, and cobamide coenzymes The 1950s revealed

how complex carbohydrates are synthesized from, and broken

down to simple sugars, and delineated the pathways for

biosyn-thesis of pentoses and the breakdown of amino acids and lipids

Animal models, perfused intact organs, tissue slices, cell

homogenates and their subfractions, and purified enzymes

all were used to isolate and identify metabolites and enzymes

These advances were made possible by the development in

the late 1930s and early 1940s of techniques such as analytical

ultracentrifugation, paper and other forms of

chromatogra-phy, and the post-World War II availability of radioisotopes,

principally 14C, 3H and 32P, as “tracers” to identify the

interme-diates in complex pathways such as that leading to the

biosyn-thesis of cholesterol and other isoprenoids and the pathways of

amino acid biosynthesis and catabolism X-ray crystallography

was then used to solve the three-dimensional structure, first of

myoglobin, and subsequently of numerous proteins,

polynu-cleotides, enzymes, and viruses including that of the common

cold Genetic advances that followed the realization that DNA

was a double helix include the polymerase chain reaction, and

transgenic animals or those with gene knockouts The methods

used to prepare, analyze, purify, and identify metabolites and the activities of natural and recombinant enzymes and their three-dimensional structures are discussed in the following chapters

BIOCHEMISTRY & MEDICINE HAVE STIMULATED MUTUAL ADVANCES

The two major concerns for workers in the health sciences—

and particularly physicians—are the understanding and maintenance of health and the understanding and effective treatment of disease Biochemistry impacts both of these fun-damental concerns, and the interrelationship of biochemistry and medicine is a wide, two-way street Biochemical studies have illuminated many aspects of health and disease, and conversely, the study of various aspects of health and dis-

ease has opened up new areas of biochemistry (Figure 1–1)

Knowledge of protein structure and function was necessary

to identify and understand the single difference in amino acid sequence between normal hemoglobin and sickle cell hemo-globin, and analysis of numerous variant sickle cell and other hemoglobins has contributed significantly to our understand-ing of the structure and function both of normal hemoglobin and of other proteins During the early 1900s the English phy-sician Archibald Garrod studied patients with the relatively rare disorders of alkaptonuria, albinism, cystinuria, and pen-tosuria and established that these conditions were genetically

determined Garrod designated these conditions as inborn

errors of metabolism His insights provided a foundation for

the development of the field of human biochemical genetics

A more recent example was investigation of the genetic and molecular basis of familial hypercholesterolemia, a disease that results in early onset atherosclerosis In addition to clari-fying different genetic mutations responsible for this disease, this provided a deeper understanding of cell receptors and mechanisms of uptake, not only of cholesterol, but of how

other molecules’ cross cell membranes Studies of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in cancer cells have directed Biochemistry

Medicine

Lipids

sclerosis

Athero-Proteins

Sickle cell anemia

Nucleic acids

Genetic diseases

Carbohydrates

Diabetes mellitus

FIGURE 1–1 A two-way street connects biochemistry and medicine

Knowledge of the biochemical topics listed above the green line of the diagram has clarified our understanding of the diseases shown below the green line Conversely, analyses of the diseases have casted light on many areas of biochemistry note that sickle cell anemia is a genetic disease, and that both atherosclerosis and diabetes mellitus have genetic components.

vip.persianss.ir

attention to the molecular mechanisms involved in the control

of normal cell growth These examples illustrate how the study

of disease can open up areas of basic biochemical research

Science provides physicians and other workers in health care

and biology with a foundation that impacts practice, stimulates

curiosity, and promotes the adoption of scientific approaches

for continued learning So long as medical treatment is firmly

grounded in the knowledge of biochemistry and other basic

sciences, the practice of medicine will have a rational basis

capable of accommodating and adapting to new knowledge

NORMAL BIOCHEMICAL

PROCESSES ARE THE BASIS

OF HEALTH

Biochemical research Impacts nutrition

& preventive Medicine

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a

state of “complete physical, mental, and social well-being and

not merely the absence of disease and infirmity.” From a

bio-chemical viewpoint, health may be considered that situation

in which all of the many thousands of intra- and extracellular

reactions that occur in the body are proceeding at rates

com-mensurate with the organism’s survival under pressure from

both internal and external challenges The maintenance of

health requires optimal dietary intake of a number of

chemi-cals, chief among which are vitamins, certain amino acids

and fatty acids, various minerals, and water Understanding

nutrition depends to a great extent on knowledge of

biochem-istry, and the sciences of biochemistry and nutrition share a

focus on these chemicals Recent increasing emphasis on

sys-tematic attempts to maintain health and forestall disease, or

preventive medicine, includes nutritional approaches to the

prevention of diseases such as atherosclerosis and cancer

Most Diseases have a Biochemical Basis

Apart from infectious organisms and environmental

pollut-ants, many diseases are manifestations of abnormalities in

genes, proteins, chemical reactions, or biochemical processes,

each of which can adversely affect one or more critical

bio-chemical functions Examples of disturbances in human

biochemistry responsible for diseases or other debilitating

conditions include electrolyte imbalance, defective nutrient

ingestion or absorption, hormonal imbalances, toxic

chemi-cals or biologic agents, and DNA-based genetic disorders

To address these challenges, biochemical research continues

to be interwoven with studies in disciplines such as genetics,

cell biology, immunology, nutrition, pathology, and

pharma-cology In addition, many biochemists are vitally interested

in contributing to solutions to key issues such as the ultimate

survival of mankind, and educating the public to support use

of the scientific method in solving environmental and other

major problems that confront us

Impact of the human Genome project

on Biochemistry, Biology, & Medicine

Initially unanticipated rapid progress in the late 1990s in sequencing the human genome led in mid-2000 to the announcement that over 90% of the genome had been sequenced This effort was headed by the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium and by Celera Genomics, a private company Except for a few gaps, the sequence of the entire human genome was completed in 2003, just 50 years after the description of the double-helical nature of DNA by Watson and Crick The implications for biochemistry, medi-cine, and indeed for all of biology, are virtually unlimited For example, the ability to isolate and sequence a gene and to investigate its structure and function by sequencing and “gene knockout” experiments have revealed previously unknown genes and their products, and new insights have been gained concerning human evolution and procedures for identifying disease-related genes

Major advances in biochemistry and understanding human health and disease continue to be made by mutation of the genomes of model organisms such as yeast and of eukary-

otes such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and the round worm Caenorhabditis elegans Each organism has a short gen-

eration time and can be genetically manipulated to provide insight into the functions of individual genes These advances can potentially be translated into approaches that help humans

by providing clues to curing human diseases such as cancer

and Alzheimer disease Figure 1–2 highlights areas that have

developed or accelerated as a direct result of progress made in

the Human Genome Project (HGP) New “-omics” fields have

blossomed, each of which focuses on comprehensive study of the structures and functions of the molecules with which each

is concerned Definitions of these -omics fields mentioned below appear in the Glossary of this chapter The products of genes (RNA molecules and proteins) are being studied using

the techniques of transcriptomics and proteomics A

spec-tacular example of the speed of progress in transcriptomics

is the explosion of knowledge about small RNA molecules as

regulators of gene activity Other -omics fields include

glycom-ics, lipidomglycom-ics, metabolomglycom-ics, nutrigenomglycom-ics, and cogenomics To keep pace with the information generated, bioinformatics has received much attention Other related

pharma-fields to which the impetus from the HGP has carried over are

biotechnology, bioengineering, biophysics, and bioethics

Nanotechnology is an active area, which, for example, may

provide novel methods of diagnosis and treatment for cancer

and other disorders Stem cell biology is at the center of much current research Gene therapy has yet to deliver the promise

that it appears to offer, but it seems probable that ultimately

will occur Many new molecular diagnostic tests have

devel-oped in areas such as genetic, microbiologic, and immunologic

testing and diagnosis Systems biology is also burgeoning

The outcomes of research in the various areas mentioned above will impact tremendously the future of biology, medicine, and

the health sciences Synthetic biology offers the potential for

4 SECTIOn I Structures & Functions of proteins & enzymes

creating living organisms, initially small bacteria, from genetic

material in vitro that might carry out specific tasks such as

cleansing petroleum spills All of the above make the 21st

cen-tury an exhilarating time to be directly involved in biology and

medicine

SUMMARY

■ Biochemistry is the science concerned with studying the

various molecules that occur in living cells and organisms,

the individual chemical reactions and their enzyme catalysts,

and the expression and regulation of each metabolic process

Because life depends on biochemical reactions, biochemistry

has become the basic language of all biologic sciences.

■ Despite the focus on human biochemistry in this text,

biochemistry concerns the entire spectrum of life forms, from

relatively simple viruses and bacteria and plants to complex

eukaryotes such as human beings.

■ Biochemistry, medicine and other health care disciplines

are intimately related Health in all species depends on a

harmonious balance of the biochemical reactions occurring in

the body, while disease reflects abnormalities in biomolecules,

biochemical reactions, or biochemical processes.

■ Advances in biochemical knowledge have illuminated many

areas of medicine, and the study of diseases has often revealed

previously unsuspected aspects of biochemistry.

■ Biochemical approaches are often fundamental in illuminating

the causes of diseases and in designing appropriate therapies,

and various biochemical laboratory tests represent an integral

component of diagnosis and monitoring of treatment.

■ A sound knowledge of biochemistry and of other related basic

disciplines is essential for the rational practice of medicine and

related health sciences.

■ Results of the HGP and of research in related areas will have

a profound influence on the future of biology, medicine, and

other health sciences.

■ Genomic research on model organisms such as yeast, the fruit

fly D melanogaster, and the round worm C elegans provides

insight into understanding human diseases

REFERENCES

Alberts B: Model organisms and human health Science 2010;330:1724.

Alberts B: Lessons from genomics Science 2011;331:511.

Cammack R, Attwood T, Campbell P, et al (editors): Oxford

Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 2nd ed

Oxford University Press, 2006.

Cooke M: Science for physicians Science 2010;329:1573.

Feero WG, Guttmacher AE, Collins FS: Genomic medicine—an updated primer N Engl J Med 2010;362:2001.

Gibson DG, Glass JI, Lartigue C, et al: Creation of a bacterial cell controlled by a chemically synthesized genome Science 2010;329:52.

Kornberg A: Centenary of the birth of modern biochemistry FASEB

J 1997;11:1209.

Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM): Center for Medical Genetics, Johns Hopkins University & National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/.

Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Valle D, et al (editors): The Metabolic and

Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease, 8th ed McGraw-Hill,

2001  Available online and updated as The Online Metabolic &

Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease at www.ommbid.com.

Weatherall DJ: Systems biology and red cells N Engl J Med 2011;364:376.

GLOSSARYBioengineering: The application of engineering to biology and

medicine.

Bioethics: The area of ethics that is concerned with the application

of moral and ethical principles to biology and medicine.

HGP (Genomics)

Transcriptomics Proteomics Glycomics Lipidomics

Molecular diagnostics

Stem cell biology Biophysics Bioengineering Pharmacogenomics Metabolomics

vip.persianss.ir

Bioinformatics: The discipline concerned with the collection,

storage, and analysis of biologic data, mainly DNA and protein

sequences (see Chapter 10).

Biophysics: The application of physics and its techniques to biology

and medicine.

Biotechnology: The field in which biochemical, engineering, and

other approaches are combined to develop biological products of

use in medicine and industry.

Gene Therapy: Applies to the use of genetically engineered genes to

treat various diseases.

Genomics: The genome is the complete set of genes of an organism,

and genomics is the in-depth study of the structures and

functions of genomes.

Glycomics: The glycome is the total complement of simple and

complex carbohydrates in an organism Glycomics is the

systematic study of the structures and functions of glycomes such

as the human glycome.

Lipidomics: The lipidome is the complete complement of lipids

found in an organism Lipidomics is the in-depth study of the

structures and functions of all members of the lipidome and of

their interactions, in both health and disease.

Metabolomics: The metabolome is the complete complement of

metabolites (small molecules involved in metabolism) present

in an organism Metabolomics is the in-depth study of their

structures, functions, and changes in various metabolic states.

Molecular Diagnostics: Refers to the use of molecular approaches

such as DNA probes to assist in the diagnosis of various

biochemical, genetic, immunologic, microbiologic, and other

medical conditions.

Nanotechnology: The development and application to medicine and

to other areas of devices such as nanoshells which are only a few nanometers in size (10 −9 m = 1 nm).

Nutrigenomics: The systematic study of the effects of nutrients on

genetic expression and of the effects of genetic variations on the metabolism of nutrients.

Pharmacogenomics: The use of genomic information and

technologies to optimize the discovery and development of new drugs and drug targets.

Proteomics: The proteome is the complete complement of proteins

of an organism Proteomics is the systematic study of the structures and functions of proteomes and their variations in health and disease.

Stem Cell Biology: Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have

the potential to self-renew and to differentiate into any of the adult cells of an organism Stem cell biology concerns the biology of stem cells and their potential for treating various diseases.

Synthetic Biology: The field that combines biomolecular techniques

with engineering approaches to build new biological functions and systems.

Systems Biology: The field concerns complex biologic systems

studied as integrated entities.

Transcriptomics: The comprehensive study of the transcriptome,

the complete set of RNA transcripts produced by the genome during a fixed period of time.

C h a p t e r

BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE

Water is the predominant chemical component of living

organisms Its unique physical properties, which include the

ability to solvate a wide range of organic and inorganic

mol-ecules, derive from water’s dipolar structure and exceptional

capacity for forming hydrogen bonds The manner in which

water interacts with a solvated biomolecule influences the

structure both of the biomolecule and of water itself An

excel-lent nucleophile, water is a reactant or product in many

met-abolic reactions Regulation of water balance depends upon

hypothalamic mechanisms that control thirst, on antidiuretic

hormone (ADH), on retention or excretion of water by the

kidneys, and on evaporative loss Nephrogenic diabetes

insipi-dus, which involves the inability to concentrate urine or adjust

to subtle changes in extracellular fluid osmolarity, results from

the unresponsiveness of renal tubular osmoreceptors to ADH

Water has a slight propensity to dissociate into hydroxide

ions and protons The concentration of protons, or acidity, of

aqueous solutions is generally reported using the logarithmic

pH scale Bicarbonate and other buffers normally maintain

the pH of extracellular fluid between 7.35 and 7.45 Suspected disturbances of acid-base balance are verified by measuring the pH of arterial blood and the CO2 content of venous blood

Causes of acidosis (blood pH <7.35) include diabetic ketosis and lactic acidosis Alkalosis (pH >7.45) may follow vomiting

of acidic gastric contents

WATER IS AN IDEAL BIOLOGIC SOLVENT

Water Molecules Form Dipoles

A water molecule is an irregular, slightly skewed tetrahedron

with oxygen at its center (Figure 2–1) The two hydrogens and

the unshared electrons of the remaining two sp3-hybridized orbitals occupy the corners of the tetrahedron The 105° angle between the two hydrogen atoms differs slightly from the ideal tetrahedral angle, 109.5° Ammonia is also tetrahedral, with a 107° angle between its three hydrogens The strongly electro-negative oxygen atom in a water molecule attracts electrons

2

O B J E C T I V E S

After studying this chapter,

you should be able to:

■ Describe the properties of water that account for its surface tension, viscosity, liquid state at ambient temperature, and solvent power

■ Use structural formulas to represent several organic compounds that can serve

as hydrogen bond donors or acceptors

■ explain the role played by entropy in the orientation, in an aqueous environment,

of the polar and nonpolar regions of macromolecules

■ Indicate the quantitative contributions of salt bridges, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals forces to the stability of macromolecules

■ explain the relationship of ph to acidity, alkalinity, and the quantitative determinants that characterize weak and strong acids

■ Calculate the shift in ph that accompanies the addition of a given quantity of acid or base to the ph of a buffered solution

■ Describe what buffers do, how they do it, and the conditions under which a buffer is most effective under physiologic or other conditions

■ Illustrate how the henderson-hasselbalch equation can be used to calculate the net charge on a polyelectrolyte at a given ph

Water & ph

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

vip.persianss.ir

away from the hydrogen nuclei, leaving them with a partial

positive charge, while its two unshared electron pairs

consti-tute a region of local negative charge

A molecule with electrical charge distributed

asymmet-rically about its structure is referred to as a dipole Water’s

strong dipole is responsible for its high dielectric constant

As described quantitatively by Coulomb’s law, the strength of

interaction F between oppositely charged particles is inversely

proportionate to the dielectric constant ε of the surrounding

medium The dielectric constant for a vacuum is essentially

unity; for hexane it is 1.9; for ethanol, 24.3; and for water

at 25°C, 78.5 Water therefore greatly decreases the force of

attraction between charged and polar species relative to

water-free environments with lower dielectric constants Its strong

dipole and high dielectric constant enable water to dissolve

large quantities of charged compounds such as salts

Water Molecules Form hydrogen Bonds

A partially unshielded hydrogen nucleus covalently bound

to an electron-withdrawing oxygen or nitrogen atom can

interact with an unshared electron pair on another oxygen or

nitrogen atom to form a hydrogen bond Since water

mole-cules contain both of these features, hydrogen bonding favors

the self-association of water molecules into ordered arrays

(Figure 2–2) Hydrogen bonding profoundly influences the

physical properties of water and accounts for its relatively high

viscosity, surface tension, and boiling point On average, each

molecule in liquid water associates through hydrogen bonds

with 3.5 others These bonds are both relatively weak and

transient, with a half-life of a few picoseconds Rupture of a

hydrogen bond in liquid water requires only about 4.5 kcal/

mol, less than 5% of the energy required to rupture a covalent

O—H bond

Hydrogen bonding enables water to dissolve many organic biomolecules that contain functional groups which can par-ticipate in hydrogen bonding The oxygen atoms of aldehydes, ketones, and amides, for example, provide lone pairs of elec-trons that can serve as hydrogen acceptors Alcohols, carbox-ylic acids, and amines can serve both as hydrogen acceptors and as donors of unshielded hydrogen atoms for formation of

hydrogen bonds (Figure 2–3).

INTERACTION WITH WATER INFLUENCES THE STRUCTURE

OF BIOMOLECULES

Covalent and Noncovalent Bonds Stabilize Biologic Molecules

The covalent bond is the strongest force that holds molecules

together (Table 2–1) Noncovalent forces, while of lesser

mag-nitude, make significant contributions to the structure, ity, and functional competence of macromolecules in living

stabil-2e

H

H 105°

2e

FIGURE 2–1 The water molecule has tetrahedral geometry.

O

H H H

H

O O H

O

H H

H H O HO

H

O

H H H

FIGURE 2–2 Water molecules self-associate via hydrogen

bonds Shown are the association of two water molecules (left) and

a hydrogen-bonded cluster of four water molecules (right) Notice

that water can serve simultaneously both as a hydrogen donor and

as a hydrogen acceptor.

H

H O O

CH2

CH3 H

O O CH

CH3 H

H

CH2 CH3

H O

R

R N

II

III

C R

R I 2

FIGURE 2–3 additional polar groups participate in hydrogen bonding Shown are hydrogen bonds formed between alcohol and

water, between two molecules of ethanol, and between the peptide carbonyl oxygen and the peptide nitrogen hydrogen of an adjacent amino acid.

TABLE 2–1 Bond Energies for atoms of Biologic Significance

Bond Type

Energy (kcal/mol) Bond Type

Energy (kcal/mol)

8 SECTION I Structures & Functions of proteins & enzymes

cells These forces, which can be either attractive or repulsive,

involve interactions both within the biomolecule and between

it and the water that forms the principal component of the

sur-rounding environment

Biomolecules Fold to position polar &

Charged Groups on Their Surfaces

Most biomolecules are amphipathic; that is, they possess

regions rich in charged or polar functional groups as well

as regions with hydrophobic character Proteins tend to fold

with the R-groups of amino acids with hydrophobic side

chains in the interior Amino acids with charged or polar

amino acid side chains (eg, arginine, glutamate, serine, see

Table 3–1) generally are present on the surface in contact with

water A similar pattern prevails in a phospholipid bilayer

where the charged “head groups” of phosphatidylserine or

phosphatidylethanolamine contact water while their

hydro-phobic fatty acyl side chains cluster together, excluding water

(see Figure 40–5) This pattern maximizes the opportunities

for the formation of energetically favorable charge-dipole,

dipole-dipole, and hydrogen bonding interactions between

polar groups on the biomolecule and water It also minimizes

energetically unfavorable contacts between water and

hydro-phobic groups

hydrophobic Interactions

Hydrophobic interaction refers to the tendency of nonpolar

compounds to self-associate in an aqueous environment This

self-association is driven neither by mutual attraction nor by

what are sometimes incorrectly referred to as “hydrophobic

bonds.” Self-association minimizes the disruption of

energeti-cally favorable interactions between the surrounding water

molecules

While the hydrogens of nonpolar groups such as the

methylene groups of hydrocarbons do not form hydrogen

bonds, they do affect the structure of the water that surrounds

them Water molecules adjacent to a hydrophobic group are

restricted in the number of orientations (degrees of freedom)

that permit them to participate in the maximum number of

energetically favorable hydrogen bonds Maximal formation

of multiple hydrogen bonds, which maximizes enthalpy, can

be maintained only by increasing the order of the adjacent

water molecules, with an accompanying decrease in entropy

It follows from the second law of thermodynamics that

the optimal free energy of a hydrocarbon-water mixture is a

function of both maximal enthalpy (from hydrogen bonding)

and highest entropy (maximum degrees of freedom) Thus,

nonpolar molecules tend to form droplets that minimize

exposed surface area and reduce the number of water

mol-ecules whose motional freedom becomes restricted Similarly,

in the aqueous environment of the living cell the hydrophobic

portions of biopolymers tend to be buried inside the structure

of the molecule, or within a lipid bilayer, minimizing contact

with water

Electrostatic Interactions

Interactions between charged groups help shape lar structure Electrostatic interactions between oppositely charged groups within or between biomolecules are termed

biomolecu-salt bridges Salt bridges are comparable in strength to

hydro-gen bonds but act over larger distances They therefore often facilitate the binding of charged molecules and ions to pro-teins and nucleic acids

van der Waals Forces

van der Waals forces arise from attractions between sient dipoles generated by the rapid movement of electrons

tran-of all neutral atoms Significantly weaker than hydrogen bonds but potentially extremely numerous, van der Waals forces decrease as the sixth power of the distance separat-

ing atoms (Figure 2–4) Thus, they act over very short

dis-tances, typically 2 to 4 Å

Multiple Forces Stabilize Biomolecules

The DNA double helix illustrates the contribution of tiple forces to the structure of biomolecules While each individual DNA strand is held together by covalent bonds, the two strands of the helix are held together exclusively by noncovalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds between nucleotide bases (Watson-Crick base pairing) and van der Waals interactions between the stacked purine and pyrimi-dine bases The double helix presents the charged phosphate groups and polar hydroxyl groups from the ribose sugars

mul-of the DNA backbone to water while burying the relatively hydrophobic nucleotide bases inside The extended backbone maximizes the distance between negatively charged phos-phates, minimizing unfavorable electrostatic interactions (see Figure 34–2)

FIGURE 2–4 The strength of van der Waals interactions

var-ies with the distance, R, between interacting specvar-ies the force of

interaction between interacting species increases with decreasing distance between them until they are separated by the van der Waals contact distance (see arrow marked a) repulsion due to interaction between the electron clouds of each atom or molecule then super- venes While individual van der Waals interactions are extremely weak, their cumulative effect is nevertheless substantial for macro- molecules such as DNa and proteins which have many atoms in close contact.

–0.50 –0.25 0 25 50

WATER IS AN EXCELLENT

NUCLEOPHILE

Metabolic reactions often involve the attack by lone pairs of

elec-trons residing on electron-rich molecules termed nucleophiles

upon electron-poor atoms called electrophiles Nucleophiles

and electrophiles do not necessarily possess a formal negative

or positive charge Water, whose two lone pairs of sp3 electrons

bear a partial negative charge (see Figure 2–1), is an excellent

nucleophile Other nucleophiles of biologic importance include

the oxygen atoms of phosphates, alcohols, and carboxylic acids;

the sulfur of thiols; and the nitrogen atom of amines and of the

imidazole ring of histidine Common electrophiles include the

carbonyl carbons in amides, esters, aldehydes, and ketones and

the phosphorus atoms of phosphoesters

Nucleophilic attack by water typically results in the age of the amide, glycoside, or ester bonds that hold biopoly-

cleav-mers together This process is termed hydrolysis Conversely,

when monomer units are joined together to form

biopoly-mers, such as proteins or glycogen, water is a product, for

example, during the formation of a peptide bond between two

amino acids

While hydrolysis is a thermodynamically favored tion, the amide and phosphoester bonds of polypeptides and

reac-oligonucleotides are stable in the aqueous environment of

the cell This seemingly paradoxical behavior reflects the fact

that the thermodynamics that govern the equilibrium point

of a reaction do not determine the rate at which it will

pro-ceed toward its equilibrium point In the cell, protein

cata-lysts called enzymes accelerate the rate of hydrolytic reactions

when needed Proteases catalyze the hydrolysis of proteins

into their component amino acids, while nucleases catalyze

the hydrolysis of the phosphoester bonds in DNA and RNA

Careful control of the activities of these enzymes is required to

ensure that they act only at appropriate times

Many Metabolic reactions

Involve Group Transfer

Many of the enzymic reactions responsible for synthesis and

breakdown of biomolecules involve the transfer of a chemical

group G from a donor D to an acceptor A to form an acceptor

group complex, A—G:



The hydrolysis and phosphorolysis of glycogen, for example,

involve the transfer of glucosyl groups to water or to

ortho-phosphate The equilibrium constant for the hydrolysis of

covalent bonds strongly favors the formation of split products

Conversely, many group transfer reactions responsible for the

biosynthesis of macromolecules involve the

thermodynami-cally unfavored formation of covalent bonds Enzyme catalysts

play a critical role in surmounting these barriers by virtue of

their capacity to directly link two normally separate reactions

together By linking an energetically unfavorable group transfer

reaction with a thermodynamically favorable reaction, such as

the hydrolysis of ATP, a new coupled reaction can be

gener-ated whose net overall change in free energy favors biopolymer

synthesis

Given the nucleophilic character of water and its high concentration in cells, why are biopolymers such as proteins and DNA relatively stable? And how can synthesis of biopoly-mers occur in an aqueous environment that favors hydrolysis?

Central to both questions are the properties of enzymes In the absence of enzymic catalysis, even reactions that are highly favored thermodynamically do not necessarily take place rap-idly Precise and differential control of enzyme activity and the sequestration of enzymes in specific organelles determine the physiologic circumstances under which a given biopolymer will be synthesized or degraded The ability of enzyme active sites to sequester substrates in an environment from which water can be excluded facilitates biopolymer synthesis

Water Molecules Exhibit a Slight but Important Tendency to Dissociate

The ability of water to ionize, while slight, is of central tance for life Since water can act both as an acid and as a base, its ionization may be represented as an intermolecular proton transfer that forms a hydronium ion (H3O+) and a hydroxide ion (OH−):

impor-

H O H O2 2 H O OH3The transferred proton is actually associated with a cluster of water molecules Protons exist in solution not only as H3O+, but also as multimers such as H5O2+ and H7O3+ The proton is nevertheless routinely represented as H+, even though it is in fact highly hydrated

Since hydronium and hydroxide ions continuously

recom-bine to form water molecules, an individual hydrogen or oxygen

cannot be stated to be present as an ion or as part of a water molecule At one instant it is an ion; an instant later it is part

of a water molecule Individual ions or molecules are therefore

not considered We refer instead to the probability that at any

instant in time a given hydrogen will be present as an ion or as part of a water molecule Since 1 g of water contains 3.46 × 1022

molecules, the ionization of water can be described cally To state that the probability that a hydrogen exists as an ion is 0.01 means that at any given moment in time, a hydro-gen atom has 1 chance in 100 of being an ion and 99 chances out of 100 of being part of a water molecule The actual prob-ability of a hydrogen atom in pure water existing as a hydrogen ion is approximately 1.8 × 10−9 The probability of its being part of a water molecule thus is almost unity Stated another way, for every hydrogen ion or hydroxide ion in pure water, there are 0.56 billion or 0.56 × 109 water molecules Hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions nevertheless contribute significantly

statisti-to the properties of water

For dissociation of water,

=[H ][OH ]+ −[H O]2

K

10 section i Structures & Functions of Proteins & Enzymes

where the brackets represent molar concentrations (strictly

speaking, molar activities) and K is the dissociation constant

Since 1 mole (mol) of water weighs 18 g, 1 liter (L) (1000 g)

of water contains 1000 ÷ 18 = 55.56 mol Pure water thus

is 55.56 molar Since the probability that a hydrogen in pure

water will exist as a hydrogen ion is 1.8 × 10−9, the molar

con-centration of H+ ions (or of OH− ions) in pure water is the

product of the probability, 1.8 × 10−9, times the molar

concen-tration of water, 55.56 mol/L The result is 1.0 × 10−7 mol/L

We can now calculate the dissociation constant K for pure

[10 ][10 ][55.56]

The molar concentration of water, 55.56 mol/L, is too great to

be significantly affected by dissociation It is therefore

consid-ered to be essentially constant This constant may therefore

be incorporated into the dissociation constant K to provide a

useful new constant Kw termed the ion product for water The

relationship between Kw and K is shown below:

Note that the dimensions of K are moles per liter and those of

Kw are moles2 per liter2 As its name suggests, the ion product

Kw is numerically equal to the product of the molar

concentra-tions of H+ and OH−:

=[H ][OH ]+ − w

K

At 25°C, Kw = (10−7)2, or 10−14 (mol/L)2 At temperatures

below 25°C, Kw is somewhat less than 10−14, and at

tempera-tures above 25°C it is somewhat greater than 10−14 Within the

stated limitations of temperature, Kw equals 10−14 (mol/L)2 for

all aqueous solutions, even solutions of acids or bases We use

Kw to calculate the pH of acidic and basic solutions

pH IS THE NEGATIVE LOG

OF THE HYDROGEN ION

CONCENTRATION

The term pH was introduced in 1909 by Sörensen, who defined

it as the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration:

This definition, while not rigorous, suffices for many

bio-chemical purposes To calculate the pH of a solution:

1 Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration [H+]

2 Calculate the base 10 logarithm of [H+]

3 pH is the negative of the value found in step 2.

For example, for pure water at 25°C,

Low pH values correspond to high concentrations of H+

and high pH values correspond to low concentrations of H+

Acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors

Strong acids (eg, HCl, H2SO4) completely dissociate into anions

and protons even in strongly acidic solutions (low pH) Weak

acids dissociate only partially in acidic solutions Similarly, strong bases (eg, KOH, NaOH), but not weak bases like

Ca(OH)2, are completely dissociated even at high pH Many biochemicals are weak acids Exceptions include phosphory-lated intermediates, whose phosphoryl group contains two dissociable protons, the first of which is strongly acidic

The following examples illustrate how to calculate the pH

of acidic and basic solutions

Example 1: What is the pH of a solution whose hydrogen

ion concentration is 3.2 × 10−4 mol/L?

3.5

4 4

Example 2: What is the pH of a solution whose hydroxide

ion concentration is 4.0 × 10−4 mol/L? We first define a quantity

pOH that is equal to −log[OH−] and that may be derived from

3.4

4

4 4

vip.persianss.ir

=

pH 14 pOH 14 3.410.6

The examples above illustrate how the logarithmic pH scale

facilitates recording and comparing hydrogen ion

concentra-tions that differ by orders of magnitude from one another,

0.00032 M (pH 3.5) and 0.000000000025 M (pH 10.6)

Example 3: What are the pH values of (a) 2.0 × 10−2 mol/L KOH and of (b) 2.0 × 10−6 mol/L KOH? The OH− arises from

two sources, KOH and water Since pH is determined by the

total [H+] (and pOH by the total [OH−]), both sources must be

considered In the first case (a), the contribution of water to

the total [OH−] is negligible The same cannot be said for the

second case (b):

Concentration (mol/L)

Molarity of KOh 2.0 × 10 −2 2.0 × 10 −6

[Oh − ] from KOh 2.0 × 10 −2 2.0 × 10 −6

[Oh − ] from water 1.0 × 10 −7 1.0 × 10 −7

total [Oh − ] 2.00001 × 10 −2 2.1 × 10 −6

Once a decision has been reached about the significance of the

contribution by water, pH may be calculated as above

The above examples assume that the strong base KOH

is completely dissociated in solution and that the

concentra-tion of OH− ions was thus equal to that due to the KOH plus

that present initially in the water This assumption is valid

for dilute solutions of strong bases or acids, but not for weak

bases or acids Since weak electrolytes dissociate only slightly

in solution, we must use the dissociation constant to

calcu-late the concentration of [H+] (or [OH−]) produced by a given

molarity of a weak acid (or base) before calculating total [H+]

(or total [OH−]) and subsequently pH

Functional Groups That are Weak acids

have Great physiologic Significance

Many biochemicals possess functional groups that are weak

acids or bases Carboxyl groups, amino groups, and phosphate

esters, whose second dissociation falls within the physiologic

range, are present in proteins and nucleic acids, most

coen-zymes, and most intermediary metabolites Knowledge of the

dissociation of weak acids and bases thus is basic to

under-standing the influence of intracellular pH on structure and

bio-logic activity Charge-based separations such as electrophoresis

and ion exchange chromatography are also best understood in

terms of the dissociation behavior of functional groups

We term the protonated species (HA or R—NH3+) the acid

and the unprotonated species (A− or R—NH2) its conjugate

base Similarly, we may refer to a base (A− or R—NH2) and its

conjugate acid (HA or R—NH3+)

We express the relative strengths of weak acids and bases

in terms of their dissociation constants Shown below are the

expressions for the dissociation constant (Ka) for two sentative weak acids, R—COOH and R—NH3+

Since the numeric values of Ka for weak acids are negative

exponential numbers, we express Ka as pKa, where

= −

pKa logKa

Note that pKa is related to Ka as pH is to [H+] The stronger the

acid, the lower is its pKa value

Representative weak acids (left), their conjugate bases

(center), and pKa values (right) include the following:

a a a a

pKa is used to express the relative strengths of both acids and bases For any weak acid, its conjugate is a strong base Similarly,

the conjugate of a strong base is a weak acid The relative

strengths of bases are expressed in terms of the pKa of their conjugate acids For polyprotic compounds containing more

than one dissociable proton, a numerical subscript is assigned

to each dissociation, numbered starting from unity in ing order of relative acidity For a dissociation of the type

R NH3+→R NH H2+ +

the pKa is the pH at which the concentration of the acid R—

NH3+ equals that of the base R—NH2

From the above equations that relate Ka to [H+] and to the concentrations of undissociated acid and its conjugate base, when

=

−[R COO ] [R COOH]´ ´

or when

[R NH ] [R NH ]´ 2 = ´ 3+

then

=[H ]+ a

K

Thus, when the associated (protonated) and dissociated (conjugate base) species are present at equal concentrations,

12 SECTION I Structures & Functions of proteins & enzymes

the prevailing hydrogen ion concentration [H+] is numerically

equal to the dissociation constant, Ka If the logarithms of both

sides of the above equation are taken and both sides are

multi-plied by −1, the expressions would be as follows:

=

+ +

[H ]

a a

K K

Since −log Ka is defined as pKa, and −log [H+] defines pH, the

equation may be rewritten as

=

pKa pH

that is, the pKa of an acid group is the pH at which the

pro-tonated and unpropro-tonated species are present at equal

con-centrations The pKa for an acid may be determined by adding

0.5 equivalent of alkali per equivalent of acid The resulting

pH will equal the pKa of the acid

The henderson-hasselbalch

Equation Describes the Behavior

of Weak acids & Buffers

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is derived below

A weak acid, HA, ionizes as follows:

The equilibrium constant for this dissociation is

=[H ][A ]+ −[HA]

−

[A ]a

K

Inversion of the last term removes the minus sign and gives

the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

1 When an acid is exactly half-neutralized, [A−] = [HA]

Under these conditions,

(Figure 2–5).

Solutions of Weak acids & Their Salts Buffer Changes in ph

Solutions of weak acids or bases and their conjugates exhibit

buffering, the ability to resist a change in pH following

addi-tion of strong acid or base Many metabolic reacaddi-tions are accompanied by the release or uptake of protons Oxidative metabolism produces CO2, the anhydride of carbonic acid, which if not buffered would produce severe acidosis Biologic maintenance of a constant pH involves buffering by phosphate, bicarbonate, and proteins, which accept or release protons to

FIGURE 2–5 Titration curve for an acid of the type ha

the heavy dot in the center of the curve indicates the pKa, 5.0.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

2 3 4 5 6 7

pH

8 0 –0.2 –0.4 –0.6 –0.8 –1.0

resist a change in pH For laboratory experiments using tissue

extracts or enzymes, constant pH is maintained by the

addi-tion of buffers such as MES ([2-N-morpholino]-ethanesulfonic

acid, pKa 6.1), inorganic orthophosphate (pKa2 7.2), HEPES

(N-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N′-2-ethanesulfonic acid, pKa 6.8),

or Tris (tris[hydroxymethyl]aminomethane, pKa 8.3) The value

of pKa relative to the desired pH is the major determinant of

which buffer is selected

Buffering can be observed by using a pH meter while titrating a weak acid or base (Figure 2–5) We can also cal-

culate the pH shift that accompanies addition of acid or base

to a buffered solution In the example below, the buffered

solution (a weak acid, pKa = 5.0, and its conjugate base) is

initially at one of four pH values We will calculate the pH

shift that results when 0.1 meq of KOH is added to 1 meq of

each solution:

Initial pH 5.00 5.37 5.60 5.86

[A − ]initial 0.50 0.70 0.80 0.88

[HA]initial 0.50 0.30 0.20 0.12

([A − ]/[HA])initial 1.00 2.33 4.00 7.33

addition of 0.1 meq of KOh produces

[A − ]final 0.60 0.80 0.90 0.98

[HA]final 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.02

([A − ]/[HA])final 1.50 4.00 9.00 49.0

log ([A − ]/[HA])final 0.18 0.60 0.95 1.69

Final pH 5.18 5.60 5.95 6.69

Notice that ΔpH, the change in pH per milliequivalent of

OH− added, depends on the initial pH The solution resists

changes in pH most effectively at pH values close to the pKa

A solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base buffers

most effectively in the pH range pKa ± 1.0 pH unit.

Figure 2–5 also illustrates how the net charge on one cule of the acid varies with pH A fractional charge of −0.5 does

mole-not mean that an individual molecule bears a fractional charge

but that the probability is 0.5 that a given molecule has a unit

negative charge at any given moment in time Consideration

of the net charge on macromolecules as a function of pH

pro-vides the basis for separatory techniques such as ion exchange

chromatography and electrophoresis (see Chapter 4)

acid Strength Depends

on Molecular Structure

Many acids of biologic interest possess more than one

dissoci-ating group The presence of local negative charge hinders

pro-ton release from nearby acidic groups, raising their pKa This

is illustrated by the pKa values of the three dissociating groups

of phosphoric acid and citric acid (Table 2–2) The effect of

adjacent charge decreases with distance The second pKa for

succinic acid, which has two methylene groups between its

carboxyl groups, is 5.6, whereas the second pKa for glutaric acid, which has one additional methylene group, is 5.4

properties of the Medium

The pKa of a functional group is also profoundly influenced

by the surrounding medium The medium may either raise

or lower the pKa relative to its value in water, depending on whether the undissociated acid or its conjugate base is the

charged species The effect of dielectric constant on pKa may

be observed by adding ethanol to water The pKa of a

carbox-ylic acid increases, whereas that of an amine decreases because

ethanol decreases the ability of water to solvate a charged

spe-cies The pKa values of dissociating groups in the interiors of proteins thus are profoundly affected by their local environ-ment, including the presence or absence of water

SUMMARY

■ Water forms hydrogen-bonded clusters with itself and with other proton donors or acceptors Hydrogen bonds account for the surface tension, viscosity, liquid state at room temperature, and solvent power of water.

TABLE 2–2 relative Strengths of Selected acids of Biologic Significance

14 SECTION I Structures & Functions of proteins & enzymes

■ Compounds that contain O or N can serve as hydrogen bond

donors and/or acceptors.

■ Entropic forces dictate that macromolecules expose polar

regions to an aqueous interface and bury nonpolar regions.

■ Salt bridges, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals

forces participate in maintaining molecular structure.

■ pH is the negative log of [H + ] A low pH characterizes an acidic

solution, and a high pH denotes a basic solution.

■ The strength of weak acids is expressed by pKa, the negative

log of the acid dissociation constant Strong acids have low pKa

values and weak acids have high pKa values.

■ Buffers resist a change in pH when protons are produced or

consumed Maximum buffering capacity occurs ±1 pH unit

on either side of pKa Physiologic buffers include bicarbonate,

orthophosphate, and proteins.

REFERENCES

Reese KM: Whence came the symbol pH Chem & Eng News 2004;82:64.

Segel IM: Biochemical Calculations Wiley, 1968.

Skinner JL: Following the motions of water molecules in aqueous solutions Science 2010;328:985.

Stillinger FH: Water revisited Science 1980;209:451.

Suresh SJ, Naik VM: Hydrogen bond thermodynamic properties of water from dielectric constant data J Chem Phys 2000;113:9727.

Wiggins PM: Role of water in some biological processes Microbiol Rev 1990;54:432.

vip.persianss.ir

Amino Acids & Peptides

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

O B J E C T I V E S

After studying this chapter,

you should be able to:

■ Diagram the structures and write the three- and one-letter designations for each of the amino acids present in proteins

■ Describe the contribution of each type of R group of the protein amino acids to their chemical properties

■ List additional key functions of amino acids and explain how certain amino acids in plant seeds can severely impact human health

■ Name the ionizable groups of the protein amino acids and list their

approximate pKa values as free amino acids in aqueous solution

■ Calculate the pH of an unbuffered aqueous solution of a polyfunctional amino acid and the change in pH that occurs following the addition of a given quantity of strong acid or alkali

■ Define pI and explain its relationship to the net charge on a polyfunctional electrolyte

■ Explain how pH, pKa and pI can be used to predict the mobility of a polyelectrolyte, such as an amino acid, in a direct-current electrical field

■ Describe the directionality, nomenclature, and primary structure of peptides

■ Describe the conformational consequences of the partial double-bond character of the peptide bond and identify the bonds in the peptide backbone that are free to rotate

BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE

In addition to providing the monomer units from which the

long polypeptide chains of proteins are synthesized, the

l-α-amino acids and their derivatives participate in cellular

func-tions as diverse as nerve transmission and the biosynthesis of

porphyrins, purines, pyrimidines, and urea The

neuroendo-crine system employs short polymers of amino acids called

peptides as hormones, hormone-releasing factors,

neuro-modulators, and neurotransmitters Humans and other higher

animals cannot synthesize 10 of the l-α-amino acids present

in proteins in amounts adequate to support infant growth or

to maintain adult health Consequently, the human diet must

contain adequate quantities of these nutritionally essential

amino acids Each day the kidneys filter over 50 g of free amino

acids from the arterial renal blood However, only traces of free

amino acids normally appear in the urine because amino acids

are almost totally reabsorbed in the proximal tubule, ing them for protein synthesis and other vital functions Not all amino acids are, however, beneficial While their proteins contain only l-α-amino acids, some microorganisms secrete mixtures of d-amino acids Many bacteria elaborate peptides that contain both d- and l-α-amino acids, several of which possess therapeutic value, including the antibiotics bacitracin and gramicidin A and the antitumor agent bleomycin Certain other microbial peptides are toxic The cyanobacterial pep-tides microcystin and nodularin are lethal in large doses, while small quantities promote the formation of hepatic tumors The ingestion of certain amino acids present in the seeds of

conserv-legumes of the genus Lathyrus results in lathyrism, a tragic

irreversible disease in which individuals lose control of their limbs Certain other plant seed amino acids have also been implicated in neurodegenerative disease in natives of Guam

3

16 SECTIOn I Structures & Functions of Proteins & Enzymes

PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS

The Genetic Code Specifies

20 l- ` -Amino Acids

Although more than 300 amino acids occur in nature,

pro-teins are synthesized almost exclusively from the set of 20

l-α-amino acids encoded by nucleotide triplets called codons

(see Table 37–1) While the three-letter genetic code could

potentially accommodate more than 20 amino acids, the

genetic code is redundant since several amino acids are

specified by multiple codons Scientists frequently represent

the sequences of peptides and proteins using one- and

three-letter abbreviations for each amino acid (Table 3–1) These

amino acids can be characterized as being either hydrophilic

or hydrophobic (Table 3–2), properties that affect their

loca-tion in a protein’s mature folded conformaloca-tion (see Chapter 5)

Some proteins contain additional amino acids that arise by

the post-translational modification of an amino acid already

present in a peptide Examples include the conversion of

peptidyl proline and peptidyl lysine to 4-hydroxyproline and

5-hydroxylysine; the conversion of peptidyl glutamate to g-carboxyglutamate; and the methylation, formylation, acety-lation, prenylation, and phosphorylation of certain aminoacyl residues These modifications significantly extend the biologic diversity of proteins by altering their solubility, stability, cata-lytic activity, and interaction with other proteins

Selenocysteine, the 21st

Selenocysteine (Figure 3–1) is an l-α-amino acid found in

proteins from every domain of life Humans contain mately two dozen selenoproteins that include certain per-oxidases and reductases, selenoprotein P, which circulates in the plasma, and the iodothyronine deiodinases responsible for converting the prohormone thyroxine (T4) to the thyroid hormone 3,3'5-triiodothyronine (T3) (see Chapter 41) As its name implies, a selenium atom replaces the sulfur of its ele-mental analog, cysteine Selenocysteine is not the product of

approxi-a posttrapproxi-anslapproxi-ationapproxi-al modificapproxi-ation, but is inserted directly into

a growing polypeptide during translation Selenocysteine thus

TABLE 3–1 l -`-Amino Acids Present in Proteins

NH3+COO —

TABLE 3–1 l -`-Amino Acids Present in Proteins (continued)

NH3+

COO —

CH2SH

CH2

CH3

2.1 9.3

With Side Chains Containing Acidic Groups or Their Amides

Containing Aromatic Rings

Histidine His [H] See above.

Imino Acid

Proline Pro [P]

+ N

—

2.0 10.6

18 section i Structures & Functions of Proteins & Enzymes

is commonly termed the “21st amino acid.” However, unlike

the other 20 protein amino acids, incorporation of

selenocys-teine is specified by a large and complex genetic element for

the unusual tRNA called tRNASec which utilizes the UGA

anti-codon that normally signals STOP However, the protein

syn-thetic apparatus can identify a selenocysteine-specific UGA

codon by the presence of an accompanying stem-loop

struc-ture, the selenocysteine insertion element, in the untranslated

region of the mRNA (see Chapter 27)

stereochemistry of the Protein

Amino Acids

With the sole exception of glycine, the α-carbon of every

amino acid is chiral Although some protein amino acids are

dextrorotatory and some levorotatory, all share the absolute

configuration of l-glyceraldehyde and thus are defined as

l-α-amino acids Even though almost all protein amino acids

are (R), the failure to use (R) or (S) to express absolute

ste-reochemistry is no mere historical aberration l-Cysteine is

(S) since the atomic mass of the sulfur atom on C-3 exceeds

that of the amino group on C2 More significantly, in

mam-mals the biochemical reactions of l-α-amino acids, their

pre-cursors and their catabolites are catalyzed by enzymes that

act exclusively on l-isomers, irrespective of their absolute

configuration

Posttranslational Modifications confer Additional Properties

While some prokaryotes incorporate pyrrolysine into proteins, and plants can incorporate azetidine-2-carboxylic acid, an ana-log of proline, a set of just 21 l-α-amino acids clearly suffices for the formation of most proteins Posttranslational modifica-tions can, however, generate novel R-groups that impart further properties In collagen, for example, protein-bound proline and lysine residues are converted to 4-hydroxyproline and

5-hydroxylysine (Figure 3–2) The carboxylation of glutamyl

residues of proteins of the coagulation cascade to

g-carboxy-glutamyl residues (Figure 3–3) forms a chelating group for the

calcium ion essential for blood coagulation The amino acid side chains of histones are subject to numerous modifications, includ-ing acetylation and methylation of lysine and methylation and deamination of arginine (see Chapters 35 and 37) It also now is possible in the laboratory to genetically introduce many differ-ent unnatural amino acids into proteins, generating proteins via recombinant gene expression with new or enhanced properties and providing a new way to explore protein structure-function relationships

extraterrestrial Amino Acids Have Been Detected in Meteorites

In February 2013, the explosion of an approximately 20,000 metric ton meteor in the skies above Chelyabinsk, Western Siberia, dramatically demonstrated the potential destructive power of those extraterrestrial bodies However, not all the effects of meteors are necessarily undesirable Some meteor-ites, the remnants of asteroids that have reached earth, con-tain traces of several α-amino acids These include the protein amino acids Ala, Asp, Glu, Gly, Ile, leu, Phe, Ser, Thr, Tyr, and Val, as well as biologically important nonprotein α-amino

acids such as N-methylglycine (sarcosine) and β-alanine.

Extraterrestrial amino acids were first reported in 1969 following analysis of the famous Murchison meteorite from southeastern Australia The presence of amino acids in other meteorites, including some pristine examples from Antarctica,

TABLE 3–2 Hydrophilic & Hydrophobic Amino Acids

The distinction is based on the tendency to associate with, or to minimize contact

with, an aqueous environment.

FIGURE 3–1 cysteine (left) & selenocysteine (right) pK3, for

the selenyl proton of selenocysteine is 5.2 Since this is 3 pH units

lower than that of cysteine, selenocysteine represents a better

FIGURE 3–2 4-Hydroxyproline & 5-hydroxylysine.

has now been amply confirmed Unlike terrestrial amino

acids, these meteorites contain racemic mixtures of d- and

l-isomers of 3- to 5-carbon amino acids, as well as many

addi-tional amino acids that lack terrestrial counterparts of biotic

origin In addition, nucleobases, activated phosphates and

molecules related to sugars have also been detected in

meteor-ites These findings offer potential insights into the prebiotic

chemistry of Earth, and impact the search for extraterrestrial

life Some speculate that, by delivering extraterrestrially

gener-ated organic molecules to the early earth, meteorites may have

contributed to the origin of life on our planet

Metabolic roles

l-α-Amino acids fulfill vital metabolic roles in addition to

serving as the “building blocks” of proteins As discussed in

later chapters, thyroid hormones are formed from tyrosine;

glutamate serves as a neurotransmitter as well as the precursor

of g-aminobutyric acid (GABA); ornithine and citrulline are

intermediates in urea biosynthesis; and homocysteine,

homo-serine, and glutamate-g-semialdehyde participate in the

inter-mediary metabolism of the protein amino acids (Table 3–3)

The protein amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine serve

as precursors of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and DOPA

(dihydroxyphenylalanine)

adversely Impact human health

The consumption of certain nonprotein amino acids present

in plants can adversely impact human health The seeds and

seed products of three species of the legume Lathyrus have

been implicated in the genesis of neurolathyrism, a profound neurological disorder characterized by progressive and irre-versible spastic paralysis of the legs Lathyrism occurs widely

during famines, when Lathyrus seeds represent a major

con-tribution to the diet l-α-Amino acids that have been cated in human neurologic disorders, notably neurolathyrism

impli-(Table 3–4) include L-homoarginine and

β-N-oxalyl-l-α,β-diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP) The seeds of the “sweet pea,”

a Lathyrus legume that is widely consumed during famines,

contain the osteolathyrogen g-glutamyl-β-aminopropionitrile (BAPN), a glutamine derivative of β-aminopropionitrile

(structure not shown) The seeds of certain Lathyrus species

also contain α,g-diaminobutyric acid, an analog of ornithine, that inhibits the hepatic urea cycle enzyme ornithine trans-carbamoylase The resulting disruption of the urea cycle leads to ammonia toxicity Finally, L-β-methylaminoalanine,

a neurotoxic amino acid present in Cycad seeds, has been

TABLE 3–3 examples of Nonprotein l -`-amino acids

Ornithine

H 2 N

NH2OH O

Intermediate in urea synthesis

Product of cysteine biosynthesis

(Figure 27-9).

Glutamate-f-semialdehyde

H

NH2OH O O

Serine catabolite (Figure 29-3).

TABLE 3–4 potentially toxic l -`-amino acids Nonprotein l -`-amino acid Medical relevance

Homoarginine

H2N

NH2NH

OH O

N H

Cleaved by arginase

to l -lysine and urea

Implicated in human neurolathyrism.

a-N-Oxalyl

diaminopropionic acid (a-ODAP)

HO

NH2O

OH O O

H N

A neurotoxin

Implicated in human neurolathyrism.

Inhibits ornithine transcarbamylase, resulting in ammonia toxicity.

a-Methylaminoalanine

OH O

HN NH

CH3 Possible risk factor for

neurodegenerative diseases.

20 SECTIOn I Structures & Functions of Proteins & Enzymes

implicated as a risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases

including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-Parkinson dementia

complex in natives of Guam who consume either fruit bats

that feed on cycad fruit, or flour made from cycad seeds

d-Amino acids that occur naturally include free d-serine and

d-aspartate in brain tissue, d-alanine and d-glutamate in the cell

walls of gram-positive bacteria, and d-amino acids in certain

peptides and antibiotics produced by bacteria, fungi, reptiles,

and other nonmammalian species Bacillus subtilis excretes

d-methionine, d-tyrosine, d-leucine, and d-tryptophan to

trigger biofilm disassembly, and Vibrio cholerae incorporates

d-leucine and d-methionine into the peptide component of

their peptidoglycan layer

PROPERTIES OF THE

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

OF AMINO ACIDS

Amino Acids May Have Positive,

negative, or Zero net Charge

In aqueous solution, the charged and uncharged forms of the

ionizable weak acid groups ´COOH and ´NH3+ exist in

dynamic protonic equilibrium:

While both R´COOH and R´NH3+ are weak acids, R´COOH

is a far stronger acid than R´NH3+ Thus, at physiologic pH

(pH 7.4), carboxyl groups exist almost entirely as R´COO–

and amino groups predominantly as R´NH3+ The imidazole

group of histidine and the guanidino group of arginine exist as

resonance hybrids with positive charge distributed between two

nitrogens (histidine) or three nitrogens (arginine) (Figure 3–4)

Figures 3–5 and 3–6 illustrate the effect that the pH of the

aque-ous environment has on the charged state of aspartic acid and

lysine, respectively

Molecules that contain an equal number of positively- and

negatively-charged groups bear no net charge These ionized

neutral species are termed zwitterions Amino acids in blood and most tissues thus should be represented as in A, below.

O OH

NH2

R O

O –

NH3

R

Structure B cannot exist in aqueous solution because at any

pH low enough to protonate the carboxyl group, the amino group would also be protonated Similarly, at any pH suffi-ciently high for an uncharged amino group to predominate,

a carboxyl group will be present as R´COO– The uncharged

representation B is, however, often used when diagramming

reactions that do not involve protonic equilibria

of Weak Acids

The strengths of weak acids are expressed as their pKa For

molecules with multiple dissociable protons, the pKa for each acidic group is designated by replacing the subscript “a” with

a number The net charge on an amino acid—the algebraic sum of all the positively and negatively charged groups pres-

ent—depends upon the pKa values of its functional groups and the pH of the surrounding medium In the laboratory, altering the charge on amino acids and their derivatives by varying the

pH facilitates the physical separation of amino acids, peptides, and proteins (see Chapter 4)

At Its Isoelectric pH (pI), an Amino Acid Bears no net Charge

Zwitterions are one example of an isoelectric species—the

form of a molecule that has an equal number of positive and negative charges and thus is electrically neutral The isoelec-

tric pH, also called the pI, is the pH midway between pKa ues for the ionizations on either side of the isoelectric species

val-For an amino acid such as alanine that has only two

dissociat-ing groups, there is no ambiguity The first pKa (R´COOH) is

2.35 and the second pKa (R´NH3+) is 9.69 The isoelectric pH (pI) of alanine thus is

For polyprotic acids, pI is also the pH midway between the pKa

values on either side of the isoionic species For example, the

pI for aspartic acid is

H

R

N H N

H

NH R

C NH2

NH2

NH R

C NH2

NH2

NH R

C NH2

NH2

FIGURE 3–4 Resonance hybrids of the protonated R groups

of histidine (TOP) and arginine (BOTTOM).

vip.persianss.ir

Similar considerations apply to all polyprotic acids (eg,

pro-teins), regardless of the number of dissociable groups

pres-ent In the clinical laboratory, knowledge of the pI guides

selection of conditions for electrophoretic separations For

example, two simple amino acids (with one COOH and

one NH3+ group) can be separated by electrophoresis either

at an acidic or basic pH that exploits subtle differences in

net charge based on subtle differences in pK1 or pK2 values

Similar considerations apply to understanding

chromato-graphic separations on ionic supports such as

diethylamino-ethyl (DEAE) cellulose (see Chapter 4)

The environment of a dissociable group affects its pKa

(Table 3–5) A nonpolar environment, which possesses

less capacity than water for stabilizing charged species, thus

raises the pKa of a carboxyl group making it a weaker acid, but

lowers the pKa of an amino group, making it a stronger acid

Similarly, the presence of an adjacent oppositely charged group

can stabilize, or of a similarly charged group can destabilize, a

developing charge Therefore, the pKa values of the R groups of

free amino acids in aqueous solution (see Table 3–1) provide

only an approximate guide to their pKa values when present

in proteins The pKa of an amino acid’s side chain thus will

depend upon its location within a given protein pKa values

that diverge from aqueous solution by as much a 3 pH units

are common at the active sites of enzymes An extreme

exam-ple, a buried aspartic acid of thioredoxin, has a pKa above 9—a

shift of more than 6 pH units!

The Solubility of Amino Acids Reflects Their Ionic Character

The charges conferred by the dissociable functional groups

of amino acids ensure that they are readily solvated by—and thus soluble in—polar solvents such as water and ethanol but insoluble in nonpolar solvents such as benzene, hexane,

or ether

Amino acids do not absorb visible light and thus are orless However, tyrosine, phenylalanine, and especially tryp-tophan absorb high-wavelength (250-290 nm) ultraviolet light Because it absorbs ultraviolet light about ten times more efficiently than either phenylalanine or tyrosine, tryptophan

A

In strong acid (below pH 1);

NH3

NH 3 – O

O

NH3

NH 2 – O

O

NH 2

NH 2 – O

O

In strong acid (below pH 1) net charge = +2

In strong base (above pH 12) net charge = –1

Around pH 4 net charge = +1 Around pH 6-8net charge = 0

pK2 = 9.2 (α-NH 3 +)

H+

pK1 = 2.2 (COOH)

pK3 = 10.8 ( -NH' 3)

FIGURE 3–6 Protonic equilibria of lysine.

TABLE 3–5 Typical Range of pKa Values for Ionizable Groups in Proteins

Dissociating Group pKa Range

α-Carboxyl 3.5–4.0 Non-α COOH of Asp or Glu 4.0–4.8 Imidazole of His 6.5–7.4

ε-Amino of Lys 9.8–10.4 Guanidinium of Arg ~12.0

22 SECTIOn I Structures & Functions of Proteins & Enzymes

makes the major contribution to the ability of most proteins to

absorb light in the region of 280 nm (Figure 3–7).

THE `-R GROUPS DETERMINE

THE PROPERTIES OF

AMINO ACIDS

Each functional group of an amino acid exhibits all of its

characteristic chemical reactions For carboxylic acid groups,

these reactions include the formation of esters, amides, and

acid anhydrides; for amino groups, acylation, amidation, and

esterification; and for ´OH and ´SH groups, oxidation

and esterification Since glycine, the smallest amino acid, can

be accommodated in places inaccessible to other amino acids,

it often occurs where peptides bend sharply The

hydropho-bic R groups of alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine and the

aromatic R groups of phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan

typically occur primarily in the interior of cytosolic proteins

The charged R groups of basic and acidic amino acids

stabi-lize specific protein conformations via ionic interactions, or

salt bridges These interactions also function in “charge relay’’

systems during enzymatic catalysis and electron transport in

respiring mitochondria Histidine plays unique roles in

enzy-matic catalysis The pKa of its imidazole proton permits

his-tidine to function at neutral pH as either a base or an acid

catalyst without the need for any environmentally induced

shift The primary alcohol group of serine and the primary

thioalcohol (´SH) group of cysteine are excellent

nucleo-philes, and can function as such during enzymatic catalysis

The pK3 of selenocysteine, 5.2, is 3 units lower than that of

cys-teine, so that it should, in principle, be the better nucleophile

However, the secondary alcohol group of threonine, while a

good nucleophile, is not known to fulfill an analogous role in

catalysis The ´OH groups of serine, tyrosine, and threonine

frequently serve as the points of covalent attachment for

phos-phoryl groups that regulate protein function (see Chapter 9)

Amino Acid Sequence Determines Primary Structure

Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds

O

O–

H N

N H SH

poly-in peptides are called ampoly-inoacyl residues, and are referred to

by replacing the -ate or -ine suffixes of free amino acids with -yl (eg, alanyl, aspartyl, tyrosyl) Peptides are then named as deriv- atives of the carboxy terminal aminoacyl residue For example, lys-leu-Tyr-Gln is called lysyl-leucyl-tyrosyl-glutamine The -ine ending on the carboxy-terminal residue (eg, glutamine) indicates that its α-carboxyl group is not involved in a peptide

bond Three-letter abbreviations linked by straight lines resent an unambiguous primary structure lines are omitted when using single-letter abbreviations

rep-Glu-Ala-Lys-Gly-Tyr-Ala

E A K G Y A

Prefixes like tri- or octa- denote peptides with three or eight

residues, respectively By convention, peptides are written

with the residue that bears the free α-amino group at the left

This convention was adopted long before it was discovered that peptides are synthesized in vivo starting from the amino-terminal residue

Peptide Structures Are Easy to Draw

To draw a peptide, use a zigzag to represent the main chain or backbone Add the main chain atoms, which occur in the repeat-ing order: α-nitrogen, α-carbon, carbonyl carbon Now add a hydrogen atom to each α-carbon and to each peptide nitrogen, and an oxygen to the carbonyl carbon Finally, add the appro-priate R groups (shaded) to each α-carbon atom

Cα N C

N Cα N C

CαC O

O C

C C

CH2H

N H

+ H3N HN COO–

– OOC

H3C H

C C

CH 2

OH H

Some Peptides Contain Unusual Amino Acids

In mammals, peptide hormones typically contain only the

20 codon-specified α-amino acids linked by standard tide bonds Other peptides may, however, contain nonprotein

FIGURE 3–7 Ultraviolet absorption spectra of tryptophan,

tyrosine, and phenylalanine.

vip.persianss.ir

amino acids, derivatives of the protein amino acids, or amino

acids linked by an atypical peptide bond For example, the

amino terminal glutamate of glutathione, a tripeptide that

participates in the metabolism of xenobiotics (see Chapter 47)

and the reduction of disulfide bonds, is linked to cysteine by

a non-α peptide bond (Figure 3–8) The amino terminal

glu-tamate of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is cyclized

to pyroglutamic acid, and the carboxyl group of the carboxyl

terminal prolyl residue is amidated The nonprotein amino

acids d-phenylalanine and ornithine are present in the cyclic

peptide antibiotics tyrocidin and gramicidin S, while the

hep-tapeptide opioids dermorphin and deltophorin in the skin of

South American tree frogs contain d-tyrosine and d-alanine

The Peptide Bond Has Partial

Double-Bond Character

Although peptide structures are written as if a single bond

linked the α-carboxyl and α-nitrogen atoms, this bond in fact

exhibits partial double-bond character:

C N

O

C

H

C N +

O –

H

Hence, the bond that connects a carbonyl carbon to an

α-nitrogen cannot rotate, as this would require breaking the

partial double bond Therefore, the O, C, N, and H atoms of

a peptide bond are coplanar The imposed semirigidity of the

peptide bond has important consequences for the manner in

which peptides and proteins fold to generate higher orders

of structure Encircling brown arrows indicate free rotation

about the remaining bonds of the polypeptide backbone

(Figure 3–9).

noncovalent Forces Constrain Peptide

Conformations

Folding of a peptide probably occurs coincident with its

bio-synthesis (see Chapter 37) The mature, physiologically active

conformation reflects the collective contributions of the amino

acid sequence, noncovalent interactions (eg, hydrogen

bond-ing, hydrophobic interactions), and the minimization of steric

hindrance between residues Common repeating tions include α-helices and β-pleated sheets (see Chapter 5)

conforma-Peptides Are Polyelectrolytes

The peptide bond is uncharged at any pH of physiologic interest Formation of peptides from amino acids is therefore accompanied by a net loss of one positive and one negative charge per peptide bond formed Peptides nevertheless are charged at physiologic pH owing to their terminal carboxyl and amino groups and, where present, their acidic or basic

R groups As for amino acids, the net charge on a peptide

depends on the pH of its environment and on the pKa values

of its dissociating groups

ANALYSIS OF THE AMINO ACID CONTENT OF BIOLOGIC MATERIALS

As discussed in Chapter 4, the amino acid content of proteins generally is extrapolated from the DNA sequence of the encod-ing gene, or directly analyzed by mass spectrometry The follow-ing material, while primarily of historical interest, can still find applications, for example, in the detection of abnormal quantities

of urinary amino acids when modern equipment is lacking Free amino acids released by cleavage of peptide bonds in hot hydro-chloric acid can be separated and identified by high-pressure liq-uid chromatography (HPlC) or by paper chromatography (TlC) that employ a mobile phase composed of a mixture of miscible

polar and nonpolar components (eg, n-butanol, formic acid, and

water) As the mobile phase moves up the sheet or down a column

CH2

C N

O

C O

COO –

H

H

NH3H

FIGURE 3–8 Glutathione (f-glutamyl-cysteinyl-glycine)

Note the non- α peptide bond that links Glu to Cys.

FIGURE 3–9 Dimensions of a fully extended polypeptide chain the four atoms of the peptide bond are coplanar Free rotation

can occur about the bonds that connect the α-carbon with the

α-nitrogen and with the α-carbonyl carbon (brown arrows) the

extended polypeptide chain is thus a semirigid structure with thirds of the atoms of the backbone held in a fixed planar relation- ship one to another the distance between adjacent α-carbon atoms

two-is 0.36 nm (3.6 Å) the interatomic dtwo-istances and bond angles, which are not equivalent, are also shown (Redrawn and reproduced, with permission, from Pauling L, Corey LP, Branson HR: the structure of proteins: two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the poly- peptide chain Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1951;37:205.)

24 SECTIOn I Structures & Functions of Proteins & Enzymes

it becomes progressively enriched in the less polar constituents

Nonpolar amino acids (eg, leu, Ile) therefore travel the farthest

while polar amino acids (eg, Glu, lys) travel the least distance

from the origin Amino acids can then be visualized using

ninhy-drin, which forms purple products with most α-amino acids but

a yellow adduct with proline and hydroxyproline

SUMMARY

■ Both d-amino acids and non-α-amino acids occur in nature,

but proteins are synthesized using only l-α-amino acids

d-Amino acids do, however, serve metabolic roles, not only in

bacteria, but also in humans.

■ l-α-Amino acids serve vital metabolic functions in addition to

protein synthesis Examples include the biosynthesis of urea, heme,

nucleic acids, and hormones such as epinephrine and DOPA.

■ The presence in meteorites of trace quantities of many of the

protein amino acids lends credence to the hypothesis that

asteroid strikes might have contributed to the development of

life on earth.

■ Certain of the l-α-amino acids present in plants and plant

seeds can have deleterious effects on human health, for

example in lathyrism.

■ The R groups of amino acids determine their unique

biochemical functions Amino acids are classified as basic,

acidic, aromatic, aliphatic, or sulfur-containing based on the

composition and properties of their R groups.

■ The partial double-bond character of the bond that links the

carbonyl carbon and the nitrogen of a peptide render the four

atoms of the peptide bond coplanar, and hence restrict the

number of possible peptide conformations.

■ Peptides are named for the number of amino acid residues

present, and as derivatives of the carboxyl terminal residue

The primary structure of a peptide is its amino acid sequence,

starting from the amino-terminal residue, a direction in which

peptides actually are synthesized in vivo.

■ All amino acids possess at least two weakly acidic functional groups, R´NH3+ and R´COOH Many also possess additional weakly acidic functional groups such as phenolic

´OH, ´SH, guanidino, or imidazole moieties.

■ The pKa values of all functional groups of an amino acid or of

a peptide dictate its net charge at a given pH pI, the isoelectric

pH, is the pH at which an amino acid bears no net charge, and thus does not move in a direct current electrical field.

■ The pKa values of free amino acids at best only approximate pKa

values in a protein, which can differ widely due to the influence

of the surroundings in a protein.

REFERENCES

Bell EA: Nonprotein amino acids of plants Significance in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture J Agric Food Chem 2003;51:2854.

Bender, DA: Amino Acid Metabolism, 3rd ed Wiley, 2012.

Burton AS, Stern JC, Elsila JE, et al: Understanding prebiotic chemistry through the analysis of extraterrestrial amino acids and nucleobases in meteorites Chem Soc Rev 2012;41:5459.

Kolodkin-Gal I: d-Amino acids trigger biofilm disassembly Science 2010;328:627.

Kreil G: d-Amino acids in animal peptides Annu Rev Biochem 1997;66:337.

deMunck E, Muñoz-Sáez E, Miguel BG, et al: l-alanine causes neurological and pathological phenotypes mimicking Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis (AlS): The first step towards an experimental model for sporadic AlS Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 2013;36:243.

β-N-Methylamino-Nokihara K, Gerhardt J: Development of an improved automated gas-chromatographic chiral analysis system: application to nonnatural amino acids and natural protein hydrolysates

25

BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE

Proteins are physically and functionally complex

macro-molecules that perform multiple critically important roles

For example, an internal protein network, the cytoskeleton

(see Chapter 51) maintains cellular shape and physical

integrity Actin and myosin filaments form the contractile

machinery of muscle (see Chapter 51) Hemoglobin

trans-ports oxygen (see Chapter 6), while circulating antibodies

defend against foreign invaders (see Chapter 52) Enzymes

catalyze reactions that generate energy, synthesize and

degrade biomolecules, replicate and transcribe genes,

pro-cess mRNAs, etc (see Chapter 7) Receptors enable cells to

sense and respond to hormones and other environmental

cues (see Chapters 41 and 42) Proteins are subject to cal and functional changes that mirror the life cycle of the organisms in which they reside A typical protein is “born” at translation (see Chapter 37), matures through posttranslational processing events such as selective proteolysis (see Chapters 9 and 37), alternates between working and resting states through the intervention of regulatory factors (see Chapter 9), ages through oxidation, deamidation, etc (see Chapter 58), and “dies”

physi-when degraded to its component amino acids (see Chapter 29)

An important goal of molecular medicine is to identify markers such as proteins and/or modifications to proteins whose presence, absence, or deficiency is associated with spe-

bio-cific physiologic states or diseases (Figure 4–1).

4

O B J E C T I V E S

After studying this chapter,

you should be able to:

isolation of proteins from biologic materials

■ Describe how electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gels can be used to determine

a protein’s purity, relative mass, and isoelectric point

■ Describe the basis on which quadrupole and time-of-flight spectrophotometers determine molecular mass

■ Give three reasons why mass spectrometry (MS) has largely supplanted chemical methods for the determination of the primary structure of proteins and the detection of posttranslational modifications

■ explain why MS can identify posttranslational modifications that are undetectable by edman sequencing or DNa sequencing

■ Describe how DNa cloning and molecular biology made the determination of the primary structures of proteins much more rapid and efficient

■ explain what is meant by “the proteome” and cite examples of its ultimate potential significance

■ Describe the advantages and limitations of gene chips as a tool for monitoring protein expression

■ Describe three strategies for resolving individual proteins and peptides from complex biologic samples to facilitate their identification by MS

■ comment on the contributions of genomics, computer algorithms, and databases to the identification of the open reading frames (OrFs) that encode a given protein

proteins: Determination

of primary Structure

Peter J Kennelly, PhD & Victor W Rodwell, PhD

26 SECTIOn I Structures & Functions of proteins & enzymes

PROTEINS & PEPTIDES MUST BE

PURIFIED PRIOR TO ANALYSIS

Highly purified protein is essential for the detailed

exami-nation of its physical and functional properties Cells

con-tain thousands of different proteins, each in widely varying

amounts The isolation of a specific protein in quantities

suf-ficient for analysis of its properties thus presents a formidable

challenge that may require successive application of multiple

purification techniques Selective precipitation exploits

dif-ferences in relative solubility of individual proteins as a

func-tion of pH (isoelectric precipitafunc-tion), polarity (precipitafunc-tion

with ethanol or acetone), or salt concentration (salting out

with ammonium sulfate) Chromatographic techniques

sepa-rate one protein from another based upon difference in their

size (size exclusion chromatography), charge (ion-exchange

chromatography), hydrophobicity (hydrophobic interaction

chromatography), or ability to bind a specific ligand (affinity

chromatography)

Column Chromatography

In column chromatography, the stationary phase matrix

con-sists of small beads loaded into a cylindrical container of glass,

plastic, or steel called a column Liquid-permeable frits confine

the beads within this space while allowing the mobile-phase

liquid to flow or percolate through the column The stationary phase beads can be chemically derivatized to coat their sur-face with the acidic, basic, hydrophobic, or ligand-like groups required for ion exchange, hydrophobic interaction, or affinity chromatography As the mobile-phase liquid emerges from the column, it is automatically collected in a series of small por-

tions called fractions Figure 4–2 depicts the basic

arrange-ment of a simple bench-top chromatography system

HPLC—High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography

First-generation column chromatography matrices consisted

of long, intertwined oligosaccharide polymers shaped into spherical beads roughly a tenth of a millimeter in diameter

Unfortunately, their relatively large size perturbed phase flow and limited the available surface area Reducing particle size offered the potential to greatly increase resolu-tion However, the resistance created by the more tightly packed matrix required the use of very high pressures that would crush beads made from soft and spongy materials such

mobile-as polysaccharide or acrylamide Eventually, methods were developed to manufacture silicon particles of the necessary size and shape, to derivatize their surface with various func-tional groups, and to pack them into stainless steel columns capable of withstanding pressures of several thousand psi

Membrane

AAAAA mRNA Ribosome

Synthesis 1

10 Degradation

Ubiquitination 9

8 “Aging” (eg, oxidation, deamidation, denaturation)

Folding

4 Covalent modification (eg, fatty acid acylation)

3'

5' Val

Gln Phe Asp Met

Val Gln Phe

Phe

Asp Met Met-Asp-Phe-Gln-Val

Trp

S 2H+ 2e−

Products Substrates

SH SH

S

S S

S S

Gly Pro Lys lle

Ub Ub Ub Ub

Thr AsnAla Cys

Glu His

FIGURE 4–1 Diagrammatic representation of the life cycle of a hypothetical protein (1) the life

cycle begins with the synthesis on a ribosome of a polypeptide chain, whose primary structure is dictated by

an mrNa (2) as synthesis proceeds, the polypeptide begins to fold into its native conformation (blue) (3)

Folding may be accompanied by processing events such as proteolytic cleavage of an N-terminal leader

sequence (Met-asp-phe-Gln-Val) or the formation of disulfide bonds (S—S) (4) Subsequent covalent tions may, for example, attach a fatty acid molecule (yellow) for (5) translocation of the modified protein to a membrane (6) Binding an allosteric effector (red) may trigger the adoption of a catalytically active conforma- tion (7) Over time, proteins get damaged by chemical attack, deamidation, or denaturation, and (8) may be

modifica-“labeled” by the covalent attachment of several ubiquitin molecules (Ub) (9) the ubiquitinated protein is

sub-sequently degraded to its component amino acids, which become available for the synthesis of new proteins.

vip.persianss.ir

Because of their greater resolving power, high-pressure

liq-uid chromatography systems have largely displaced the once

familiar glass columns in the protein purification laboratory

Size-Exclusion Chromatography

Size-exclusion—or gel filtration—chromatography separates

proteins based on their Stokes radius, the radius of the sphere

they occupy as they tumble in solution The Stokes radius is a

function of molecular mass and shape When rapidly tumbling,

an elongated protein occupies a larger effective volume than a

spherical protein of the same mass Size-exclusion

chroma-tography employs porous beads (Figure 4–3) The pores are

analogous to indentations in a riverbank As objects move

down-stream, those that enter an indentation are retarded until they

drift back into the main current Similarly, proteins with Stokes

radii too large to enter the pores (excluded proteins), remain in

the flowing mobile phase, and emerge before proteins that can

enter the pores (included proteins) Proteins thus emerge from

a gel filtration column in descending order of their Stokes radii

Ion-Exchange Chromatography

In ion-exchange chromatography, proteins interact with the

stationary phase by charge-charge interactions Proteins with

a net positive charge at a given pH will tightly adhere to beads

with negatively charged functional groups such as ates or sulfates (cation exchangers) Similarly, proteins with a net negative charge adhere to beads with positively charged functional groups, typically tertiary or quaternary amines (anion exchangers) Nonadherent proteins flow through the matrix and are washed away Bound proteins are then selec-tively displaced by gradually raising the ionic strength of the mobile phase, thereby weakening charge-charge interactions Proteins elute in inverse order of the strength of their interac-tions with the stationary phase

carboxyl-Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography

Hydrophobic interaction chromatography separates proteins based on their tendency to associate with a stationary phase matrix coated with hydrophobic groups (eg, phenyl Sepharose, octyl Sephadex) Proteins with exposed hydrophobic surfaces adhere to the matrix via hydrophobic interactions that are enhanced by employing a mobile phase of high ionic strength After nonadherent proteins are washed away, the polarity of the mobile phase is decreased by gradually lowering its salt con-centration If the interaction between protein and stationary phase is particularly strong, ethanol or glycerol may be added

to the mobile phase to decrease its polarity and further weaken hydrophobic interactions

R

C

R2

M P

F

1

FIGURE 4–2 Components of a typical liquid chromatography apparatus r1 and r2:

reservoirs of mobile-phase liquid p: programmable pumping system containing two pumps,

1 and 2, and a mixing chamber, M the system can be set to pump liquid from only one ervoir, to switch reservoirs at some predetermined point to generate a step gradient, or to mix liquids from the two reservoirs in proportions that vary over time to create a continuous gradient c: Glass, metal, or plastic column containing stationary phase F: Fraction collector

res-for collecting portions, called fractions, of the eluent liquid in separate test tubes.