IGI global online science learning best practices and technologies may 2008 ISBN 1599049864 pdf

In Online Science Learning: Best Practices and Technologies, we hear from two scientists who made the deliberate decision, years ago, to embrace professional education praxis.. in onlin

Online Science Learning: Best Practices and Technologies

Kevn F Downng DePaul Unversty, USA

Jennfer K Holtz DePaul Unversty, USA

Information Science Publishing

Acquisition Editor: Kristin Klinger

Senior Managing Editor: Jennifer Neidig

Assistant Managing Editor: Carole Coulson

Managing Development Editor: Kristin M Roth

Assistant Managing Development Editor: Jessica Thompson

Assistant Development Editor: Deborah Yahnke

Editorial Assistant: Rebecca Beistline

Published in the United States of America by

Information Science Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global)

Web site: http://www.igi-global.com

and in the United Kingdom by

Information Science Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global)

Web site: http://www.eurospanbookstore.com

Copyright © 2008 by IGI Global All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or

by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher Product or company names used in this book are for identification purposes only Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Online science learning : best practices and technologies / Kevin F Downing and Jennifer K Holtz, authors.

p cm.

Summary: “This book reviews trends and efforts in web-based science instruction and evaluates contemporary philosophies and pedagogies of online science instruction This title on an emergent and vital area of education clearly demonstrates how to enrich the academic character and quality of web-based science instruction” Pro- vided by publisher.

ISBN 978-1-59904-986-1 (hardcover) ISBN 978-1-59904-987-8 (e-book)

1 Science Study and teaching (Higher) 2 Web-based instruction 3 Education Computer network sources 4 Education, Higher Computer-assisted instruction 5 Education, Higher Effect of technological innovations on I Downing, Kevin F II Holtz, Jennifer K

Q179.97.O55 2008

507.8’5 dc22

2007049561

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is original material The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher

To my wonderful wife Lisa whose passion and dedication to enriching her students’ knowledge

is a constant inspiration To my beloved sons, Alexander and Sean, with whom every second shared is the greatest joy, may your lives always be bountiful in the quest for knowledge To Mom, Dad, Ray, and Bri, bonis avibus always –KFD

In memory of my father, Arthur F Peters, Jr., who dreamed of this first for himself, then for

me I miss you, Dad –JKH

Online Science Learning:

Best Practices and Technologies

Table of Contents

Foreword ix

Preface xi

Section.I: Science.Education.and.Online.Science.Learning Chapter.I Online Science: Its Role in Fostering Global Scientific Capital 1

Building Global Science and Technology Capital 2

Valuing Science Education Globally 3

Global Implications for Online Science Education 10

Conclusion 10

References 11

Chapter.II Controversies.and.Concurrence.in.Science.Education 14

The U.S Failure in Science 16

Additional Factors Influencing Science Education 19

Other Considerations that Influence Online Learning Pedagogy 21

Issues in Learning Science 22

Learning Theories and Concepts 22

Conclusion 27

References 27

Chapter.III Virtual.School.Science 30

U.S Virtual Schools 31

Obstacles to Seamless K-16 Science Instruction in the U.S 34

Enrichment at the Interface: Coordinated K-16 Online Science Learning 36

Online Professional Development for Science Teachers 37

Selecting, Employing, and Designing Online Science Learning Objects for Schools 38

Contemporary Approaches to Online Science Learning at Schools 40

Conclusion 43

References 44

Chapter.IV Taking.University.Science.Education.Online 49

Survey of Undergraduate Distance Science Education (SUDSE©) 50

Revisiting Current Practice 54

Conclusion 55

References 56

Appendix: SUDSE Online Survey 58

Chapter.V The.Role.of.Practical.Work.in.Online.Science 73

What is Practical Work? 74

Where Does Practical Work Take Place? 76

A Brief History of Practical Work in the UK and U.S 76

Purpose and Value of Practical Work 79

Value of Practical Field Work 80

Additional Purposes for Practical Work 80

Practical Work Controversies 82

Designing Practical Work Tasks 85

Epistemological and Procedural Introduction to Practical Work 86

Example: Employing Situated Cognition and Scaffolding in Practical Work 87

Conclusion 88

References 89

Appendix: Compilation of Learning Outcomes for Practical Work 93

Chapter.VI Knowledge.Transfer.and.Collaboration.Structures.for.Online.Science 98

Collaborative vs Cooperative Online Learning 99

Online Collaboration 100

Collaborative Learning and Online Science 101

Stages and Models of Online Collaboration 101

Effective Approaches to Collaboration and Group Structures 104

Social Software for Online Science 106

Role of the Instructor in Online Collaboration 107

The Sage on the Stage Lives? 107

E-Moderating 108

Gesture and Silence in the Online Science Classroom 108

Using Collaboratories to Enrich and Sustain Science Knowledge 109

Collaboration in Virtual Worlds to Support Science Learning 110

Live Online Classrooms 111

Laboratory E-Notebooks 112

Science Collaboration Miscellany 113

Evaluating Online Science Collaboration 113

Conclusion 114

References 115

Section.II: Online.Science.Instructional.Strategies.and.Technologies Chapter.VII Online.Science:.Contemporary.Approaches.to.Practical.Work 121

Learning Objects 122

Learning Objects Classification 123

Learning Object Repositories 124

Multimedia 124

Streaming Digital Video in Online Science 125

Typologies for Web-Enabled Science Laboratories 126

Benefits of Simulations in Online Science Learning 129

3-D Learning Objects as Simulated Specimens 129

Additional 3-D Learning Objects for Online Science Learning 132

3-D Virtual Worlds 133

Caveats of Using Virtual Worlds 135

Affordances of Virtual Science Environments 135

Examples of Online Virtual Science Learning Environments 136

Educational Science Games 137

Models for Online Learning Game Development 137

Remote Experimentation 139

Remote Experimentation: Design Approaches and Considerations 139

Examples of Remote Experiments 141

Remote Experiment Affordances 142

Hands-on Laboratory Approaches for Online Students 143

Virtual Field Trips 145

Actual Field Study to Support Distance Education 147

Virtual Puzzles for Learning Science 149

Hybrid or Blended Science Courses 150

Digital Libraries and Repositories for Science Education 151

Conclusion 152

References 153

Chapter.VIII The.Cutting.Edge:.Promising.Technologies.and.Strategies.for.Online Science.Education 159

Emerging Learning Systems for Online Science Education 161

Remote and Virtual Experimentation to Support Student Research 163

Mobile Technologies for Online Science Education 164

Using PDAs and iPods® in Online Science 166

Mobile Learning Objects 167

Advances in Visualization 168

Emerging 3-D Learning Environments 171

Haptic Design 178

Virtual Instructors, Classmates, and Tutors 180

Virtual Science Museums and Science Centers 184

Trends 186

Impact of Online Technological Innovation to the Science Professoriate 186

Conclusions 187

References 187

Section III: Assessing Online Science Learning Chapter IX Assessing Science Competence Achieved at a Distance 196

Assessment Standards and Science Assessment 197

Novice-to-Expert Knowledge 198

Aligning Content, Instruction, and Assessment 199

Interpretive Assessment Online 201

Online Science Assessment Cases 204

Conclusions 211

References 212

Section IV: Disciplinary Examples in Online Science Courses Chapter X Online Mathematics and Physical Science (Mathematics, Astronomy, Chemistry, and Physics) 216

Designing Online Math Learning Activities 217

On the Design of Physical Science Learning Activities 218

Courses 219

Simulations and Virtual Labs 224

Collaborations, Virtual Science Museums, and Digital Libraries 234

Trends and Conclusion 238

References 239

Chapter XI Online Geoscience 242

Courses 243

Virtual Field Trips 246

Virtual Laboratories 250

Collaboration, Virtual Science Museums, and the Cyberinfrastructure 256

Collaboration 257

Virtual Science Museums 258

Cyberinfrastructure 260

Trends and Conclusion 260

Online.Life.Sciences 265

Courses 266

Virtual Field Work and Laboratories 273

Online Resources 285

Trends and Conclusion 287

References 287

Section.V: Best.Practice.Model.for.Online.Science.Learning Chapter.XIII A.Didactic.Model.for.the.Development.of.Effective.Online.Science.Courses 291

Considerations 293

Phase 1: Course Planning 293

Phase 2: Design 298

Phase 3: Implementation 304

Phase 4: Course Assessment and Redesign 309

Conclusion 310

Epilogue 312

References 312

Appendix: Model Planning Documents 317

About.the.Authors 338

Index 340

In November 2007, the Inaugural Conference of the International Mind, Brain and tion Society (IMBES) was held in Fort Worth, Texas Its purpose was to foster collaboration between practitioners and researchers in the neurosciences, cognitive sciences, and similar fields Interestingly, and unlike past practice, educators were also included in this group Each

Educa-of us knows “default educators,” members Educa-of any given prEduca-ofession who believe, because they completed their own professional program, that they can teach in their field There is

no doubt that some are able to do so—a few are remarkably talented—yet many are not In

Online Science Learning: Best Practices and Technologies, we hear from two scientists who

made the deliberate decision, years ago, to embrace professional education praxis

The praxis of Downing and Holtz is matter-of-fact, yet thorough, much like the authors themselves These are researchers and educators who read widely, think globally, and act locally They use the tenets presented here in each of their courses, whether online or on-site in format, and whether learners are adult or traditional-aged In fact, Kevin Downing’s emphasis on experiential learning in science made him instrumental in establishing their current online program, and Jennifer Holtz’s previous work with resident physicians informed her current practice philosophy

Their lack of credence with more ephemeral aspects of education and learning theory is palpable, yet they clearly identify valuable features from behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism, typically those based on reproducible research These they merge with

neurological advances in learning to posit neuro-cognitive instrumentalism, a learning

theory that emphasizes hypothetico-predictive behaviors that current evidence supports as naturally occurring Their work is well grounded in both contemporary and classic education and learning literature, yet it requires us to think differently, more inventively, about ideas that we believe we understand

Although the titular focus is online science learning, the model presented is also applicable to on-site courses that incorporate—or could incorporate—computer-based learning activities Furthermore, as Downing and Holtz address in Chapter III, the tenets developed here likely

have application to secondary, as well as tertiary, education applications that could improve the state of science education for all learners, regardless of the method of instruction.

W Franklin Spikes, Ed.D.

Professor & Director

Doctoral Program in Adult Education

Kansas State University

USA

in online science learning for university faculty, no general survey of current and emerging technologies for teaching science online, little consideration of the role of online science education as a burgeoning force for building American and global science capital, and no pragmatic models to inform the comprehensive development of online science programs, courses, and constituent learning activities This book concentrates on this void by providing

a general treatment of online science learning in the sciences—a subject area we affirm is

an emergent and vital area of science education While we review and incorporate selected examples from vast literature in computer science and engineering, we have purposefully constrained the chief focus of our treatment to online science learning in the natural sciences The other fields within the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) knowledge areas are certainly deserving of comprehensive treatments of their own online learning practices, but are beyond the scope of this book Likewise, while our approach is largely U.S in focus, we have tried, whenever possible, to incorporate non-U.S consider-ations and concerns, and hope that this effort is apparent

Educational.Context

The current fervor over distance learning in schools and universities inspires the impression that it is an educational construct borne recently of the computer age, but this is certainly not the case For almost two centuries, learning separated spatially from teaching has been an approach to acquiring knowledge (Bell & Tight, 1993) In contrast, online learning is a rela-tively young format for distance teaching and is fostered by and parallels the contemporary

revolution in communication and information technologies (CIT) The rapid proliferation and tacit acceptance of online instruction in higher education and school instruction has effectively made the terms “distance education” or “distance learning,” in practical usage, synonymous with “online learning” Likewise, the term “distance education” is often used interchangeably but unsuitably with “e-learning”, which is actually learning that relies on CIT technologies in a variety of contexts; thus it significantly overlaps, but not necessarily involves, distance education (Guri-Rosenblit, 2005)

In the hierarchy of learning forms in the “lifelong learning” framework (Figure 1), online science learning is nested within distance learning, e-learning, and online learning, respec-tively Other important learning types such as blended learning (also called hybrid and mixed) and mobile learning (also called m-learning) can also be used in conjunction with online science learning

Organization.and.Character.of.the.Book

Online Science Learning: Best Practices and Technologies is organized into five sections (Figure 2) spanning: (1) fundamental issues and concepts in online science learning, (2) emerging online science practices and technologies, (3) assessment of online science activi-ties, (4) current online practices in mathematics and natural science disciplines, and (5) a detailed instructional design model to develop online science activities Section I reviews the value of science education in terms of scientific capital It also evaluates global and national

Figure 1 The domain of online science learning positioned within lifelong learning framework

trends in both science and online science education In addition, this section examines the epistemological and pedagogical foundations of online science and introduces the character

of online science in schools In the final chapters of this section, contemporary online science practices in higher education are investigated and the essential topics of practical work and collaboration are reviewed from the online science perspective

In Section II of this book, we appraise and provide examples of contemporary approaches

in online science instruction and review emerging technologies that may soon significantly affect the character of how science is taught online Our book’s Section III provides a review of best practices in online assessment of learning, including specific applications

to online science learning In Section IV, we compile and review a substantial number of best practice cases of online science from recent publications in the physical and chemical sciences, earth and environmental sciences, and the life sciences Our book’s final section

is devoted to presenting an instructional best practices model for developing online science exercises, courses, and programs Our model is didactic and derived from a hypothetico-predictive philosophy consistent with the neurological basis of human learning This section also provides course authors and designers developmental worksheets to aid in the various designs or redesign phases of an online science course or learning activity

Figure 2 Organization of Online Science Learning: Best Practices and Technologies

Online science learning can be a remarkably visual-rich experience and we have attempted

to bring some of its vitality through to the reader with the graphics used We note that our publisher’s cost considerations prohibit a printed color version of this book However, the reader is encouraged to access the digital rendering of this book, which is principally in color

A brief description of each of the chapters follows:

Chapter I provides an overview of the state of global science capacity and online science education initiatives designed to increase that capital, with emphasis on developing countries

We briefly describe the valuation of science education, and establish a base from which advances in online science education is explored in the remaining chapters

Chapter II evaluates trends in online science education within the context of the biggest sues in contemporary science education, the ongoing debate about the definition of science, the proper role of science education and the steps necessary to correct the science gap in the United States Almost by definition, this controversy falls along theoretical camps—the variety of constructivists versus the movement toward a hypothetical-predictive learning theory more tightly bound to the neurological (i.e., biological) source of learning

is-Chapter III provides the reader a foundational look at the contemporary character and role

of online science learning in virtual schools With an emphasis on secondary schools, we examine the interdependence and existing obstacles to seamless K-16 science instruction The affordances of the online science environment to generate a more connected science education strategy for students from K-12 through their university studies are investigated, including the crucial area of professional development for science teachers To illuminate the salient similarities in the character and efforts between online science learning at schools and universities, we conclude this section with a comparison of practices and technologies applied commonly to each We offer general guidance on areas of online science learning that can be capitalized on to improve student learning in science within our schools Chapter IV presents an investigation of the current use of cutting-edge science technologies and explores the pedagogical foundations of online science education that effect how use choices are made We examine strategies consistent with the neurological basis of learn-ing linked to hypothetical-predictive processes and where those strategies are currently utilized

Chapter V reviews and defends the concept of practical work and its use to support online science instruction We review practical work’s historical foundation, purpose, and value,

as well as controversies concerning practical work’s utility in science instruction This chapter builds a rationale for practical work’s intentional implementation in online science learning environments and supports subsequent chapters that review current and emerging approaches and technologies to support online practical work

Chapter VI provides a general overview of online collaboration but emphasizes the role and types of collaboration useful to teaching science online This chapter reviews models and effective approaches to online collaboration including establishing greater lifelong learning ties to scientific information through lasting forms of collaboration facilitated online.Chapter VII presents an analysis of the key forms of contemporary online instructional design concepts and practical work approaches to online science learning such as learning objects, simulations, remote laboratories, and virtual field trips Our discussion incorporates best practice examples, which form the groundwork of an extensive review of disciplinary science examples in Chapters X-XIII

Chapter VIII reviews and encourages the use of innovative technologies to promote tive online science learning This chapter considers the outlook for the character of online science learning in the near future synthesizing recent research in the CIT and online tech-nology areas.

effec-Chapter IX reviews current and emergent best practices in online learning assessment, notes similarities in on-site and online methods, and explores the differences and how those dif-ferences are or can be addressed Particular attention is paid to the assessment of typical online science activities (e.g., practical work) and troublesome theory incongruities (e.g., discrete knowledge)

Chapter X provides a review of best practice cases in online science from mathematics and the physical sciences Examples are grouped into the chief areas: courses, simulations, vir-tual laboratories, collaborations, virtual science museums, and digital libraries This chapter provides a foundation of resources to consider in the development or redesign of math and physical science learning activities and courses

Chapter XI’s focus is to present a more discipline-centered review of representative lished examples from the geosciences Our review takes account of courses, virtual field trips, virtual laboratories, collaboration, virtual science museums, and the relationship of the cyberinfrastructure to the geosciences This chapter provides a variety of resources to consider in the development or redesign of online earth and environmental science learning activities and courses

pub-Chapter XII reviews representative published examples from the life sciences Our review takes account of courses, virtual field trips, virtual laboratories, collaboration, and virtual science museums Our goal is to provide the reader with an appreciation of the best practices, innovations, and initiatives in online science in the life science area

Chapter XIII presents our didactic model for online science instruction based upon best practices in both science education and online education coupled with insights from the diverse and substantial literature reviewed in previous chapters We blend concepts of distance education and science into a practical model that addresses the learning needs of major and non-major students, and the instructional design constraints of their instructors and institutions We approach the instructional design topic with the assumption that the published online modalities included herein are generally effective as presented, but have noted evidence of ambiguity, where found The summation of this treatment is an integrated model that takes into account emerging ideas about the neurological basis of human learning and consideration of the different philosophies of science education, although we make no apologies for holding a particular perspective Our chief goal is to present the reader a process flow and supporting development tools through key course design steps bringing together original learning design structures with sensible best practices from the literature

Who.is.This.Book.For?

We have written this book with the intent of serving several audiences within the science education community of practice Foremost, our book is intended to serve as a practical resource for science programs and community college and university-level science instructors

whether fully online or blended Accordingly, we provide both a theoretical and practical background on online science learning as well as a model for course development Moreover,

we have deliberately presented many of the best practice cases organized by key scientific areas so that science educators can get a quick view and be inspired by contemporary best practice examples in their own mathematics or natural science disciplines Although our perspective is through the window of science, our hope is that practitioners of online learn-ing from other disciplines will also find the topics, review of technologies, and strategies informative

In addition, this book should be useful for instructional designers involved with the ment of online scientific materials We anticipate that this book will enhance the dialogue between instructional design staff and science faculty Utilizing this book’s analysis of practical work and collaboration as well as its review of socio-economic (i.e., valuation) aspects of science, trends in online science, and online science pedagogy; this tome can

develop-be employed as an effective resource or text for education department courses on science

at the upper division and/or graduate level Similarly, with the rapidly growing interest in augmenting K-12 education with online activities and resources, this book is also intended

as a reference for secondary school educators and administrators Lastly, we share deeply

in the concern regarding America’s “failure” in science education over the last few decades and its long-term consequences for America’s prosperity Consequently, this book is intended

to inform and motivate policy makers to explore and make the most of this important and emerging area of science instruction to increase scientific capital, both here and abroad

Bell, R., & Tight, M (1993) Open universities: A British tradition? Buckingham: The

Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press

Guri-Rosenblit, S (2005) “Distance education” and “e-learning”: Not the same thing

Higher Education, 49(4), 467-493.

Section I

Science Education and Online Science Learning

Moreover, science is arguably the single most important force behind world economies, for good or ill, the potential for which has been recognized since World War II (Bush, 1945)

Of the market categories identified by UNESCO World Development Indicators, fense, transportation, power and communication, information technologies, and science and technology—rely on advances in science knowledge Science education is valued for its immediacy and its investment, as can be seen by remarkable advances across the globe

five—de-in science capacity

However, advances in myriad science and technology fields are not uniform, just as science education is not uniform (Schulman, 2002; UNESCO, 2004) Where Southeast Asia advances, for example, much of the Middle East lags Science capacity is, truly, global capital, yet capacity must be meaningfully applied in order to be sustainable and carry worth It has been said, “A Nobel Prize for science will do little by itself to alleviate poverty or gener-ate new business in developing countries,” (Watkins, Osifo-Dawodu, Ehst, & Cisse, 2007, para 4), emphasizing that science without actionable purpose accomplishes little In fact, developing countries often lose their most highly skilled scientists to institutions that offer better salaries and the potential for revolutionary work.

In this chapter, we provide an overview of the state of global science capacity and online science education initiatives designed to increase that capital, with emphasis on developing countries We see the online environment as a connective tool to bridge very large gaps in wealth and capacity, an educational bootstrapping mechanism that has not yet been fully tapped We briefly describe the valuation of science education, and establish a base from which advances in science education will be explored in the remaining chapters

Building.Global.Science.and.Technology.Capital

Whether eliminating hunger or developing global partnerships, the concerted effort to meet the needs of the world’s population requires that those who serve and are served have the ability to take advantage of opportunities developed That ability is capacity and capacity evolves from education

With increasing frequency, officials in low and middle income countries are coming to the conclusion that they must build up their science, technology and innovation (STI) capacity

in order to make demonstrable progress in achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs); raise productivity, wealth, and standards of living by developing new, competi- tive economic activities to serve local, regional, and global markets; and address social, economic, and ecological problems specific to each country (Watkins, Osifo-Dawodu, Ehst

& Cisse, 2007, para 4).

Agricultural and environmental husbandry, access to energy and access to health care are the most visible needs of those in developing countries, yet foundational to these are infrastruc-ture—both regulatory and physical, and collaboration—both as internal, public support and external partnerships (Watson, Crawford, & Farley, 2003) The World Bank identifies four essential factors for successful development of human capital, environments, and support systems that facilitate innovation:

• Education for the knowledge economy refers to foundational secondary and tertiary

education and lifelong learning, as well as specialized education in technology, ence, and communications;

sci-• Research and development (R&D): Producing and acquiring economically relevant knowledge mandates activities that lead to applied, rather than theoretical knowl-

• Science and technology policy making capacity refers to the ability of policy makers to

“understand the challenges and opportunities flowing from the global economy and to devise appropriate policies” (Science, Technology, and Innovation, 2007, para 6)

Underlying each of these factors is education and the use of knowledge at multiple levels in science, technology, and innovation, each of them problem-based and solution-oriented An example of operationalizing the four factors outlined by the World Bank is Juma’s (2007) description of infrastructure initiatives that incorporate funding for engineering education, one way of addressing the World Bank’s emphasis on sustainability at the local level Juma identifies key elements as road and rail construction and upgrades, improvements to ports and harbors, and enhanced telecommunication systems

Lindholm (2007) describes a combination public-private economic collaboration that vitalized an area of the former East Germany, relying heavily on existing, underemployed scientists and entrepreneurial-minded intermediaries who could facilitate collaboration Both Lindholm (2007) and Juma (2007) stress the importance of having in place people who can identify strategic opportunities and people to forecast human capacity needs In fact, the importance of growing the numbers of variously skilled workers is a common point

re-in development, one also stressed by the World Bank They characterized it as, “Producre-ing knowledge intensive, technologically sophisticated, higher value goods and services is not possible without a trained management cadre and labor force with the appropriate mix of technical and vocational skills” (Science, Technology, and Innovation, 2007, para 2) Such a group would, by necessity, include scientists experienced in research and development, and engineers and technicians to adapt and use the resultant technologies for specific pursuits

To that end, “vocational, secondary and tertiary education must all contribute to turning out graduates with the necessary skills Moreover, since the skills required by today’s labor market may not be the same as those that will be required in the future, a process of lifelong learning must be built into the education system And at all levels and life-cycle stages, the education system must work with the private sector to understand and respond to its needs” (Science, Technology, and Innovation, 2007, para 2-3)

Valuing.Science.Education.Globally

Bateman and Willis’s (1999) work on environment valuation is readily extrapolated to

sci-ence education Its primary considerations are those of use value and conservation value,

each of which are of significant importance in building science capacity and sustainable

modernization among the world’s nations While their framework is explored in more detail

in Chapter IV, a brief introduction here to the valuation model helps put the importance of global examples into perspective

The examples described in preceding sections represent use value Science education is of

direct use value to those who utilize science education in professional science or a career

that integrates science knowledge, those who use science knowledge as one comprising an informed citizenry, or for personal enjoyment or avocation Career applications are evident

in both the Juma (2007) and Lindholm (2007) examples Indirect use value is manifest in

infrastructure, commodities, and the general application of science knowledge to societal functions for the common good, again evident in both Juma (2007) and Lindholm (2007)

Option use value refers to untapped potential, as Lindholm (2007) described.

The conservation value of science education, despite its connotation of a lack of immediacy,

is just as crucial to developing countries and areas in need of revitalization Bequest

con-servation value refers to the benefit gleaned by future generations from what is done today,

a key motivating factor in the development efforts described Existence conservation value

recognizes the worth of science education as a force for reason or progress, what Watkins, Osifo-Dawodu, Ehst, and Cisse (2007) describe as the motivating force for countries on

the verge of development Finally, intrinsic conservation value holds perhaps the weakest

position in science education immediacy, referring as it does to, as we state in Chapter XIII,

“the natural quest of understanding of a thinking organism.” Science education is of intrinsic value because it enables the educated person to conceptualize issues larger than the immedi-ate, larger than self or of any economic consequence These valuations are also clearly seen

in the science education initiatives occurring throughout the world and, sadly, in those areas without such initiatives, where the lack of use value efforts affects the current populace, but the lack of conservation value efforts bodes ill for subsequent generations

Much of our treatment of online science addresses and incorporates examples from the U.S., UK, and Europe To provide a broader view of the efforts and the informational technology infrastructure that will assist in building global scientific capital, we present next brief summaries from other regions, particularly in developing countries These initia-tives are usually part of a larger, more comprehensive aid package that addresses health, infrastructure, and education needs, often—especially in the cases of World Bank and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)—also addressing a variety

of needs related to capacity building

Middle East Scientific Capital

Perhaps nowhere is the valuation structure described by Bateman and Willis (1999), and applied here to science capacity, more necessary than in the Middle East and North Africa The most recent figures available, which are a regional composite, indicate that unemploy-ment approaches 20% in some areas Despite gains in school enrollment, rates remain low and “there is little evidence that education has contributed to economic growth” (Sarbib,

2002, p 1) Currently, the majority of students who leave Middle East countries for higher education—most to the U.S.—do not return, and those that do face the same unemployment challenges as the less-educated (Taqrir Washington, June 13, 2007) Yet, as Sarbib (2002) points out, the region faces a larger challenge

Harnessing the region’s human and social capital so that it can take its place among today’s leading knowledge economies will take less financial investment than policy reform: trans- forming education systems to meet the demands of a global economy driven by advances

in knowledge and technology; encouraging private businesses to invest in research and development; creating business and research set-ups that foster innovation (Sarbib, 2002,

p 1).

There are exceptions; sophisticated information and communications technology (ICT)

is found in the oil-rich Gulf States, where options for students are more numerous (Taqrir Washington, June 13, 2007) Dubai Internet City (DIC) offers what it calls a “one-stop-shop environment” for technology oriented international businesses, while incorporating a national development plan (The Career Centre, 2007) Away from the Gulf States, and among those disenfranchised by cultural mores, options are fewer It is, indeed, ironic that Arab countries find themselves with such wide disparity both among themselves and their economic classes, and between themselves and the industrialized world, considering the role of Arabic culture

in fostering scientific and mathematical advances prior to the Renaissance

Jordan

While not specifically science education-oriented, Jordan’s Education Reform for edge Economy (ERfKE) program is designed to increase the overall capacity of Jordanian primary and secondary students, better positioning them for higher education Now in its fourth year, ERfKE is comprised of components that address Sarbib’s (2002) concern for policy reform, including provision of ICT for student use (Education Reform for Knowledge Economy I Program, 2003)

Knowl-The first component is significant in that it addresses overall policy and the refinement of systems responsible for policy implementation, including an effective decision support system and “comprehensive and coordinated educational research, policy analysis, and monitoring and evaluation activities” (Education Reform for Knowledge Economy I Program, 2003, para 3) The second ERfKE component encompasses revised curriculum and assessment, the provision of professional development and learning resource development and acqui-sition including, with the third component, the need for both computer and science labs Component 3 also provides for a sufficient number of safe, uncrowded schools, which, with the fourth component, “promotes readiness for learning through early childhood education

It is designed to enhance equity in low-income areas by providing kindergarten for children

of age 5” (Education Reform for Knowledge Economy I Program, 2003, para 3)

Lebanon

Michigan State University, through its College of Communication Arts & Sciences, is ing with Lebanese American University to develop an ICT education program “to strengthen the capacity for ICT training and to help Lebanese educators, particularly women, as they develop new strategies for teaching” (U.S Department of State, 2006, para 2) The goal is

work-to build regional capacity in ICT, integrating what is known about how women approach

technology (Research Around the World: Lebanon, 2007) The project is an initiative of the U.S State Department’s Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI), with equal funding from each university and additional assistance from the U.S Agency for International Develop-ment (USAID) (U.S Department of State, 2006)

Tunisia and Egypt

Tunisia’s Education Quality Improvement Program (EQIP) is dual-phased, with Phase 1 having closed in 2006 Project evaluation documents classified the initial phase as satisfac-tory in meeting the three project goals:

• Achieve near-universal completion of basic education (Grade 1 through 9)

• Provide a greater number of students with opportunities for post-basic education

• Modernize the sector in ways that improve the quality of outputs and the efficiency with which they are produced (Education Quality Improvement Program, 2000)

Both EQIP Phase 2 (2004) and Egypt’s Higher Education Enhancement Project (2002) are similar to Jordan’s ERfKE program in scope, particularly in improvement of infrastructure for subsequent development initiatives

Russian Federation Scientific Capital

While the core centers of Russia itself and the former Soviet Union (e.g., Moscow, St Petersburg, Volgograd) have a rich history of science investigation and science education, the areas currently comprised of republics and regions that are more isolated have long suf-fered from a dearth of options Two collaborative initiatives seek remedies The Education Reform Project, in collaboration with the Russian Federation’s Ministry of Education (now the Ministry of Education and Science), seeks to reform existing infrastructure and policy, while initiating what the West knows as vocational education Specifically, the goals of the project are to “improve quality and standards; promote the efficient and equitable use of scarce public resources for education; modernize the education system (structure of network and institutions); improve the flexibility and market-relevance of initial vocational educa-tion” (Education Reform Project, 2001, para.5)

The E-Learning Support Project (2004), working with the Ministry of Education and Science,

“seeks to improve the accessibility, quality and efficiency of general and initial vocational education,” through ICT (para 8)

• Building sustainable Russian capacity to produce high quality, affordable and flexible learning materials…

• Supporting both pre-service and in-service teacher training in the introduction of ICT into classrooms and its embedding in teaching and learning practices…

• Establishing in project regions a network of resource centers which would improve regional access to ICT enhanced education opportunities and dissemination of new teaching practices (E-Learning Support Project, 2004, para 9).

The British Council’s Faulkes Telescopes Project established a collaborative with urban Russia that has the potential for outreach to more remote areas as ICT infrastructure de-velopment permits Users access the remote-controlled telescopes, located in Hawaii and Australia, through a control center in the UK, transmit commands and then receive the requested images through Microsoft® (Redmond, WA) or Apple® (Cupertino, CA) operat-ing systems Professional astronomers collaborate with individual schools, working with teachers and students to identify a suitable research project Designated projects require hands-on activity by teachers and students, including data collection “which will contribute

to finding answers to research questions which are of interest to professional astronomers Through a new website, ‘Hands-On Universe, Russia’, schools and astronomers will share and discuss their findings with each other and with schools and astronomers in the UK and across Europe” (Faulkes Telescope in Russia, 2006, para 3)

Southeast.Asia.Capacity

As in the Middle East, development across Southeast Asia is neither uniform nor universal, although the past decade has witnessed tremendous growth and a comprehensive study of the region was recently completed (UNESCO, 2004) Australia, South Korea, and Singapore are vigorously engaged in science education, with special emphasis on distance science education Typically, “almost all classrooms are equipped with computers and other ICT tools; the student/computer ratio is high; Internet access is available in all schools; cur-riculum revision ensures nationwide ICT integration; delivery of education is increasingly online” (UNESCO, 2004, p 9) Later chapters include work from some of these countries,

as we discuss standards for best practices (Clark & James, 2005; Rich, Pitman, Gosper, & Jacobson, 1999)

Surprisingly, the same UNESCO study found that Japan, typically considered an academic powerhouse, was joined by China, Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines, and India in a second, less vigorously engaged group These countries each had developed national ICT education policies, with goals and objectives, but had not yet fully integrated ICT

Other countries (e.g., the Vietnamese peninsula) are in the early stages of ICT development

or “have no relevant policies but are running pilot ICT projects In both instances, however, there is insufficient budget to implement policies and work plans and ICT infrastructure and penetration are poor” (UNESCO, 2004, p 9)

African.Capacity

Juma’s (2007) examination of an initiative that integrates engineering education is only one

of many initiatives in place throughout Africa, although most are limited to foundational

development or infrastructure, rather than science education or promotion of science specific promotion An important initiative that was approved as recently as July 2007 for a six-year period is the Niger Basin Water Resources Development and Sustainable Ecosystems Management Project (2007) As with many of the initiatives worldwide, the first component

field-of the initiative is devoted to “institutional strengthening and capacity building,” specifically

in and between the Niger Basin Authority and existing water management entities within the existing national and regional governments (2007, para 4) The second component then focuses on “rehabilitating and upgrading the existing large water infrastructure” (para 5), specifically the Kainji and Jebba dams and power plants An integral aspect continues the focus on capacity by assessing optimization and management options for those structures Finally, the third component focuses on “sustainable management of selected degraded ecosystems and rehabilitation of small water infrastructure” (2007, para 7) Similar Global Environmental Projects are underway throughout Africa; while the initiatives do not spe-cifically incorporate science education, they develop the infrastructure to accommodate learning environments

An anticipated project is Tanzania’s Science, Technology and Higher Education Reform Program (2007), with the broad outcome of “education for the knowledge economy” (para.1), focusing exclusively on tertiary education A similar development initiative already under way in Uganda is the Millennium Science Initiative (2006), the objective of which “is for Ugandan universities and research institutes to produce more and better qualified science and engineering graduates, and higher quality and more relevant research, and for firms to utilize these outputs to improve productivity for the sake of enhancing Science and Technology-led (S&T) growth” (para 2) What neither project does is combine distance technologies with science education, although their efforts are foundational for potential distance education and complements the distance learning initiatives in Mauritania and Burkina Faso These

two projects are similar in that each tests the viability of distance learning in situ, with clear

implication that its acceptance is an uncertainty

Description of Burkina Faso’s Development Learning Center Project (2002) pointedly dresses foundational goals, to determine “its ability in approaching international knowledge,

ad-to improve implementation of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) Bank financed projects, and in the coordination of local training institutions as regards national capacity building policy” (para 4) Every element of the infrastructure was supplied in the first com-ponent, including the laying of electrical and telecommunication lines, and construction of the actual building In the second component, operating costs for three years were provided

on a decreasing basis, to include staff training, development of operational structures and initial program development; the third component included evaluation and measurement The center opened in June 2006, with its initial programming scheduled for the subsequent fiscal year, pending a request for at least 24 months of additional funding (Status of Projects

in Execution FY06, 2006)

Mauritania’s Global Learning Center (2001) has experienced substantially greater success,

although goals and objectives were essentially the same The World Bank’s report, Status

of Projects in Execution FY2006, documents success in addressing the needs of multiple

educational, government, private and non-government organizations (NGOs) Moreover,

“the Center is on good track in view of improving its financial sustainability: by the end

of the reporting period, the Center recovered 55% of its operating costs after 30 months of operations and its revenues are increasing” (Status of Projects in Execution FY06, 2006, p 370) Demand for use of the system is increasing and has led to development of a portal for distance access (Status of Projects in Execution FY06, 2006).

Central.and.South.American.Capacity

As in Africa, most initiatives in Central and South America address not science capacity

or access to distance education in the sciences, but basic health, education, and welfare needs Peru’s Rural Education Project (2003) is not specifically science oriented, but in the first component addresses foundational issues of education equity and quality, followed by improved accessibility through distance delivery of secondary education Teaching quality

in rural areas comprises the second component, followed by a third component focusing

on reform of education management and policy, “motivating linkages towards educational standards, by supporting school development, within the national assessment system, through strategic analysis and policy research” (Rural Education Project, 2003, para 3) Mid-term review found mixed results, with rural initiatives showing lesser progress (Status of Projects

in Execution FY06, 2006)

Similarly, Brazil’s Ceara Basic Education Quality Improvement Project (2000) demonstrated mixed results by 2006, with indication that there had been recent, rather than consistent, improvements (Status of Projects in Execution FY06, 2006) The Ceara project consists of four components, initially focusing on educator development and early childhood prepara-tion, then moving into televised access and accelerated programs for adult learners, with substantial investment in both educator in-service and development of teaching tools and processes The revised priorities reported are not detailed, but the report’s omission of ac-celerated program development may be telling

Yet, Chile’s Life-long Learning and Training Project (2002) is successfully providing young adults with basic and secondary education opportunities, with certification options,

as well as “ vertical articulation of technical secondary, with tertiary technical-professional education, through the establishment of technological curricular disciplines As well, the horizontal articulation of technical secondary, and tertiary education with the labor market, will be constituted through regional networks of educational institutions at the technical, secondary, and tertiary levels” (Life-long Learning and Training Project, 2002, para 4) Mid-term review documented that these programs are, in fact, realized (Status of Projects

in Execution FY06, 2006)

Other components of the initiative included enhanced teacher training, “a national system

of competency framework, and professional-vocational pathways on selected sectors of the economy” (Life-long Learning and Training Project, 2002, para 5) and funding for infrastructure Again, each was documented as functioning well at the mid-term review, with full cooperative of Chile’s Ministry of Education (Status of Projects in Execution FY06, 2006)

It is clear that a global cyber-infrastructure does not exist and that developing nations are

in many cases far from capitalizing on the connectivity to online distributed scientific knowledge and education resources that could spur innovation, thus improving economies and the quality of life In some cases, as evidenced by the reports provided and many others not included, social and geopolitical forces impede such development, yet an increasing number of initiatives ranging from foundational to implementation stage are found around the world In part, disparity in infrastructure is what prevents full implementation of the innovations explored in the remaining chapters of this book Such useful learning objects

as animations, 2-D and 3-D visualizations and streaming audio and video are the principal alternatives to traditional experiential learning and practical work that make distance science education possible at levels beyond the conceptual Simple, blended, and Web-facilitated courses are possible with basic Internet access, which would also support elementary, e-mail-based collaboratories The lack of flexibility inherent to simple ICT infrastructures is invisible—indeed, empowering—to those whose pedagogical options are limited, but such inflexibility restricts them from emerging best practices

In addition to the absence of technological infrastructures, much of the world is restricted from emerging best practices simply because of a lack of collaboration between educators and ICT developers, which is typically unintentional As we found in our own institution, ICT developers often know what is possible, but lack an application, while educators know what students need, but are unaware of the extent to which ICT can meet those needs Furthermore, neither has fully explored the pedagogical foundations, including assessment issues, of hybrid and fully online courses, although isolated attempts are underway (Holli-man & Scanlon, 2004) These disconnects might very well change as a result of emerging inquiry into collaboratory design of learning interfaces

By no means is the developed countries’ lack of pedagogical and technical integration meant to minimize the challenges faced by developing countries On the contrary, the com-paratively slow pace of implementation bodes well for those countries currently securing infrastructure, as it enables them to enter the field of distance learning on a par with much

of the world, having learned from the mistakes of others and with a clear path to bootstrap the way to practices that are pedagogically and financially sound Many of the innovations explored in later chapters fall short of the sophisticated multimedia currently considered state of the art, but sparsely employed

Conclusion

As the opening quotation of this chapter from Einstein maintains, concern for humans and their fate is the penultimate concern in technological innovation In the broadest sense, we frame the application of online learning environments to science in this book as tied to that

central objective Building science capacity through the use of ICT to augment education

options for and to increase the capacity of people throughout the world, particularly those in

isolated areas or circumstances, is a worthy goal, one to be embraced by both governments and agencies with the resources to help those governments

The agencies and, increasingly, the governments, consider science education a key to pacity building and development, and those discussed—as well as others not mentioned, but at a similar developmental level—are well positioned to take advantage of emerging technologies that impact best practices in distance science education As will be discussed

ca-in later chapters, there are those who question the verity of this position, and who consider science capacity a neutral element, at best Moreover, the very definition of science and its importance to a large segment of the world’s populace is considered by critics to be debatable However, we maintain that only those countries with the most highly sophisticated science capacity have both the time and freedom to concern themselves with innovations in science education, and the results, as later chapters explain, are of varying quality To those in need, the philosophical debate on the purpose of science education is, rightly, merely specious

References

Bateman, I., & Willis, K (Eds.) (1999) Valuing environmental preferences: Theory and

practice of the contingent valuation method in the US, EU, and developing countries

Oxford: Oxford University Press

Bush, V (1945) Science, the endless frontier Washington, DC: U.S Government Printing

Office Retrieved July 28, 2007, from http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/vbush1945.htm#summary

Clark, I & James, P (2005) Blended learning: An approach to delivering science courses

online Paper presented at Breaking Down Boundaries: A Conference on the International

Experience in Open, Distance and Flexible Learning, Adelaide, South Australia.Development Learning Center Project (2002) The World Bank Project P076159 Retrieved July 21, 2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P076159Education Reform for Knowledge Economy I Program (2003) The World Bank Project P075829 Retrieved May 27, 2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?Projectid=P075829&Type=Overview&theSitePK=40941&pagePK=64283627

&menuPK=64282134&piPK=64290415

Education Reform Project (2001) The World Bank Project P050474 Retrieved May 27,

2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/RUSSIANFEDERATIONEXTN/ 0,,contentMDK:20440936~menuPK:952979~pagePK:141137~piPK:217854~theSitePK:305600,00.html?1=1&l=e&id=43

Education Quality Improvement Program (2000) The World Bank Project P050945 trieved May 27, 2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64312881&piPK=64302848&theSitePK=40941&Projectid=P050945

Re-Education Quality Improvement Program Phase 2 (2004) The World Bank Project P082999 Retrieved May 27, 2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64312881&piPK=64302848&theSitePK=40941&Projectid=P082999

E-Learning Support Project (2004) The World Bank Project P075387 Retrieved May 27,

2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/RUSSIANFEDERATIONEXTN/ 0,,contentMDK:20440936~menuPK:952979~pagePK:141137~piPK:217854~theSitePK:305600,00.html?1=1&l=e&id=34

Faulkes Telescope in Russia (2006) British Council Russia Retrieved May 27, 2007, from http://www.britishcouncil.org/russia-science-faulkes-telescope.htm

Global Distance Learning Center (2002) The World Bank Project P071881 Retrieved July

21, 2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627

&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P071881

Holliman, R., & Scanlon, E (Eds.) (2004) Mediating science learning through information

and communications technology New York: RoutledgeFalmer.

Juma, C (2007) Engineering in international development: Linking with infrastructure

investments in Africa Science & Technology for Development, January Retrieved

May 1, 2007, from http://www1.worldbank.org/devoutreach/textonly.asp?id=394Life-long Learning and Training Project (2002) The World Bank Project P068271 Retrieved July 21, 2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64312881&piPK=64302848&theSitePK=40941&Projectid=P068271

Lifelong Learning Project (2007) The World Bank Project P095514 Retrieved May 27,

2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P095514

Lindholm, P (2007) Commercialization of science: A key landmark for an efficient national

innovation system Science & Technology for Development, January Retrieved May

1, 2007, from http://www1.worldbank.org/devoutreach/textonly.asp?id=398

Tarqiq Washington (2007, June 13) Middle Eastern students face new obstacles in U.S

higher education Retrieved May 27, 2007, from

http://www.taqrir.org/eng/show-article.cfm?id=69

Millennium Science Initiative (2006) The World Bank Project P08513 Retrieved July 15,

2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64312881&piPK=64302848&theSitePK=40941&Projectid=P086513

Niger Basin Water Resources Development and Sustainable Ecosystems Management Project (2007) The World Bank Project P093806 Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P093806

Research Around the World: Lebanon (2007, Spring) Communicator, Spring, 10.

Rich, D C., Pitman, A J., Gosper, M., & Jacobson, C (1999) Restructuring of Australian

higher education: Information technology in geography teaching and Australian

Geographer, 28(2), 135.

Rural Education Project (2003) The World Bank Project P055232 Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P055232

Sarbib, J L (2002) Special policy forum report: The Middle East and the World Bank, post

September 11 Washington, DC: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy

Re-trieved July 17, 2002, from http://www.ciaonet.org/pbei/winep/policy_2002/2002_607.html

Science, Technology, and Higher Education Reform Program (2007) The World Bank Project P098496 Retrieved July 21, 2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P098496

Science, Technology, and Innovation (2007) Retrieved May 1, 2007, from http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/ 0,,contentMDK:20457068~menuPK:2458448~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:282386,00.html

Schulman, S (2002) Trouble “the endless frontier”: Science, invention and the erosion of

the technological commons Washington, DC: New America Foundation Retrieved

July 21, 2007, from less_frontier.pdf

http://www.publicknowledge.org/pdf/trouble_on_the_end-Status of Projects in Execution FY06 (2006) World Bank Retrieved July 21, from http://www1.worldbank.org/operations/disclosure/SOPE/FY06/SOPEreportFY06-rev1.pdf

The Career Centre (2007) DIC Retrieved May 27, 2007, from http://www.careercentre.ae/website/UAENationalDev.aspx

UN Millennium Development Goals Retrieved May 1, 2007, from lenniumgoals/

http://www.un.org/mil-UNESCO (2004) Integrating ICT into education: Lessons learned Bangkok: UNESCO

Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education

U.S Department of State (2006, November 24) Middle East Partnership Initiative

an-nounces four new awards Retrieved May 27, 2007, from http://usinfo.state.gov/

xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&y=2006&m=November&x=200611241603401CJsamohT0.2505304

Watkins, A., Osifo-Dawodu, E., Ehst, M., & Cisse, B (2007) Building science,

technol-ogy, and innovation capacity: Turning ideas into actions Science & Technology for

Development, January Retrieved May 1, 2007, from

http://www1.worldbank.org/de-voutreach/textonly.asp?id=393

Watson, R., Crawford, M., & Farley, S (2003) Strategic approaches to science and

technol-ogy in development World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3026 Retrieved May

1, 2007, from 1089743700155/StrategicApproachesS&T.pdf

– Jules Henri Poincaré (1854-1912)

The practical application of theory, or praxis, in science education is arguably less

straight-forward today than it has been in preceding generations While formal education and ing theories have been promulgated for close to 100 years, the changing disposition and balance of academia, and the consequent dissemination of questionable and unverifiable

learn-social theories, have led to a more ambiguous discussion and application of au courant

learning theories to science education Much of what the authors consider the detrimental entanglement in academia of definitions and educational theories about science occurs at the confluence of different professional attitudes and motivation Scientists are generally complacent in terms of championing and defending their own core philosophy and epistemol-ogy, and a scientist’s professional rewards and efforts rarely consist of debunking critics in the so-called other “ways of knowing” (see the Science Wars Web site and the Sokal Affair for a droll exception at http://members.tripod.com/ScienceWars/) The defense of scientific

reasoning is not what scientists focus on by training; thus, this is an area that almost certainly needs more systematic attention and treatment in science curricula By contrast, science’s detractors in the humanities, social sciences, and even education find professional incentive

and marketable topic in assailing the science colossus Most notably, postmodernism with

its socially relativistic and radical constructivist theories, replete with the denial of objective truth, have attempted to undermine science, or as Fishman (1996) noted, are attempting to put science on an “indefinite furlough” (p 95) Like it or not, the science community is at war with nihilistic ideologies and one of the battlegrounds is pedagogy, a deliberation that extends to online science learning environments

While such debates about science may seem to be pedantic and simply the posturing of academics, there are concrete consequences for how science education is carried out in schools and universities As colleges of education—the fount of pedagogy—accept and convey postmodernist theory (“fashionable nonsense” of Sokal & Bricmont, 1998) and its derivative pedagogies to budding science teachers, the epistemology and stature of science and science reasoning is diminished in the classroom and, thus, the science learning out-

comes for students and their subsequent students It is difficult to develop a science literate

society when the foundation of science and reason is bantered about as suspect As Gross (2000) stated, “Educational constructivism is in whole or in part a postmodernist view of things, and postmodernism questions the objectivity of observation and the truth of scientific knowledge….” (p 14)

As a result of this conflict, not only is how science should be taught debated—a reasonable

and proper discussion—but whether and to what extent science belongs in the curriculum has been reduced in academia to a matter of dispute In our own experience at an interdis-ciplinary faculty meeting not long ago, a humanities colleague openly stated opposition to restructuring a research methods course, maintaining within the argument that the sciences are no more than inquiry This revelation effectively negated the value of science subject matter, but even more stunning were the multiple heads nodding in agreement from other humanities and social scientists in the meeting Osborne (2006) states that this sort of per-spective—science as inquiry, rather than content—was documented as early as 1851, when Great Britain was concerned about the quality of its science education; worth noting is that the perspective was rejected as an influencing factor on curriculum

Furthermore, beyond the definition and validity of science as “the world’s most comprehensive, consistent, and successful knowledge acquisition system for nearly 400 years” (Gross, 2000,

p 12) contemporary society’s role for science has also caused considerable misunderstanding

among the public, educators, and practicing scientists, as seemingly competing views and needs come to the fore Society looks to science and the science community to help explain and deal with complex problems that affect the quality of life, such as those involving the environment, health, and natural resources However, as introduced in Chapter I, there is

a prominent, if not growing, gap in science literacy between the public and the scientific community The rapid expansion of human knowledge in science and technology makes it problematic even for scientists to keep abreast of developments in their own areas, not to mention developments in closely allied disciplines It might be said that there is a growing literacy gap even between scientists of different disciplines In this chapter, we summarize competing educational and learning theories, those that apply to science as well as those that apply to online science learning In this way, our discussion provides the epistemological

and pedagogical background and rationale behind discussions in later chapters, including support of the model introduced in Chapter XIII, to meet the seemingly disparate needs in online science education

Valverde & Schmidt, 2006) Many researchers contend that the United States, most noticeably,

is losing its science and technology edge and, hence, its long-term economic vitality This line of argument is substantiated by many measures, such as drain of researchers to other countries, trade deficits in advanced technology and the number of patents granted in the U.S (Lemonick, 2006) Moreover, this trend is suggested also in the comparative percent-ages of young adults who have attained a science or engineering degree, where the U.S is twentieth out of 26 nations examined (Figure 2.1) It is also supported by the comparative numbers of engineering graduates in India, China, and the United States It is estimated that China is graduating as many as five times the number of undergraduates in engineering as

is the U.S Equally troubling is that approximately 60% of the engineering PhD degrees at U.S institutions are awarded to non-native students, predominantly from India and China (Wadhwa, Gereffi, Rissing, & Ong, 2007) Related to this pattern is the relative decrease in articles published by U.S scientists to Asia and Western European scientists (Figure 2.2).College and university science faculty maintain that the current strategies for science and mathematics in schools have led to the trend of under-prepared students That is, the majority

of matriculating students are not ready for tertiary level coursework, resulting in prolonged remedial work and unnecessary attrition (Altschud, 2003) To our knowledge, what impact the lack of science preparation or science emphasis plays on driving students away from science careers has not been determined However, we observe science and math phobia

Figure 2.2 Comparison of scholarly articles published by the U.S., Western Europe, and Asia From the Association of American Universities 2006 National Defense Education and Innovation Initiative Used by permission.

in the vast majority of our adult learners, who report not feeling as if they have adequate background to approach the work; many would avoid these areas completely if possible,

to avoid failure anxiety

Meanwhile, others decry the privileging of science knowledge that supposedly keeps many

learners from developing science literacy (Roth, 2005; Roth & Barton, 2004) National statistics on science education, such as those provided by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), indicate a small increase in scores for students in Grade 4 assessment in the U.S since the standards-based No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (Pub-lic Law 107-110) was implemented, but show little change for later grades, indicating that there are still systemic problems in the preparatory lead-up to college science (The Nation’s Report Card: http://nationsreportcard.gov/science_2005/) These results are evidence for those who criticize NCLB’s emphasis on math and reading skills, its reliance on supposed

scientifically based research standards that vary widely in validity and generalizability, and

its lack of flexibility in working with students whose capabilities are not average (Beghetto, 2003; Ryan, 2004)

In addition to the problematic issues of K-12 science instruction, it can be further strued that the U.S failure in science also involves the rewards system for scientists and the restrained public discourse about science’s pivotal importance to the well-being of U.S society These function separately Scientists are not rewarded for speaking out in public;

con-on the ccon-ontrary, such efforts reduce the time spent in investigaticon-on, where funded work occurs Bench scientists who choose to embrace education, for example, find very quickly that time for laboratory and field work diminishes dramatically, and, thus, their funding Yet, it is reported that in China, science researchers who publish in international journals are accorded national acclaim (Wadhwa et al., 2007)

Complicating science education reform are hotly debated epistemological beliefs on the value

of science knowledge for society at large and what science literacy should mean Thus, the

field of science education finds itself in substantial flux, with reformers debating the nature of science and science standards, particularly the comparative merits and limitations of science

literacy, defined by some as citizen science versus power science, as well as the means for

achieving each Citizen science has been characterized as “…a form of science that relates

in reflexive ways to the concerns, interests and activities of citizens as they go about their everyday business” (Roth & Barton, 2004, p.9) In this way, its purpose is to empower learn-ers by emphasizing application of science concepts, from the internal workings of a lawn mower motor to the multi-faceted, community investigation of polluted groundwater, while de-emphasizing tenets that would be of interest only to those, not the majority, interested in the cooperative realm of academic and industrial science (Roth & Barton, 2004) Conversely, those in support of teaching power science maintain that de-emphasizing traditional science fails to bring that majority to scientific literacy In fact, such citizen science programs relegate learners to a level of understanding that effectively removes them from power science and its associated careers, further aggravating the existing perception of professional scientists that college graduates are not adequately prepared to enter the science work environment (Holliman & Scanlon, 2004; Scanlon, Murphy, Thomas, & Whitelegg, 2004) Moreover, an emphasis on citizen science may well diminish the option value of science held within the individual, which can be utilized by the individual or society at a later date

Parallel to this argument for citizen science run decidedly career-oriented program initiatives

to increase the number of women choosing science as a career, including those to engage girls in authentic science activities as early as middle school (Girls Re-designing and Excel-ling in Advanced Technology [GREAT!] Judy Brown, NSF Grant 0114669; Women on the Prairie: Bringing Girls into Science through Environmental Stewardship, Beth Montelone, NSF Grant 0114723) Similar programs seek to engage racial minorities (NIH’s Minority K-12 Initiatives for Teachers and Students [MKITS]; Louis Stokes Louisiana Alliance for Minority Participation [LS-LAMP], NSF Grant 0503362) Such initiatives focus on situated, context-sensitive and non-threatening interfaces designed to emphasize personal meaning and personal potential within science, but still convey the substance of a science career, including those elements that do not have direct applicability to students’ personal lives

Where the citizen science and power science camps converge is on application of

experien-tial, inquiry-based learning experiences, although they come from different angles While those in support of citizen science consider laboratory work—practical work, as described

in Chapter V—unnecessary, constructivist learning theory, on which citizen science bases its tenets, is heavily experiential However, Edelson (1999), whose research is on the imple-mentation of scientific visualization to learning school science, concludes that convergence

of content and process is the crux for any student success Process alone does not lead to science literacy in either citizen science or power science

The most significant criticisms of citizen science relate to its heavy reliance on radical constructivism, education’s primary canon—perhaps dogma—for the last decade or more Specifically, critics maintain that under the constructivist foundation, which will be discussed

in detail later in this chapter, (1) content takes a back seat to socially driven experience, (2) emphasis is placed on derivative and repackaged theory, (3) anti-reason, anti-science, and political philosophy holds sway; and (4) emerging insights on the neurological basis of learning are not taken into account (Gross, 2000; Matthews, 2002; Rezaei & Katz, 2002; this volume) However, as noted, performance in the sciences by U.S students has been declining compared to other nations for decades Thus, effective pedagogical approaches to learning content knowledge are yet another area of flux within science education

Additional Factors Influencing Science.Education

Government.Guidelines

National standards are developed for primary and secondary school However, they are developed in collaboration with the National Science Foundation, should be congruent with upper levels of science education and are therefore adequate for extrapolation for tertiary level science learning This is elaborated on in the context of seamless K-16 online science learning in the following chapter In addition, quasi-governmental organizations have also weighed in on what is needed in the area of science education For example, the Association of

American Universities’ National Defense Education and Innovation Initiative identifies three general objectives that support U.S competitiveness and security at the college level:

• Enhance the U.S.’s research capacity in order to sustain scientific and technical novation.

in-• Cultivate U.S talent to enhance the nation’s math, science, engineering, and foreign language expertise

• Continue to attract and retain the best and brightest international students, scientists, engineers and scholars

Within the details of these general goals, a key strategy is the training and retraining of K-12 teachers Online science learning may readily contribute to this area

Personal.Objectives

At the tertiary level, a student’s learning goals generally fall within three specific areas, identified by Houle (1961) in his examination of adult learners First is the social learner, who, in the case of formal learning, takes a course because of the social aspect The second type, who learns for the sake of learning, takes a course because it simply sounds interest-ing The third is goal-oriented, as in major bound, and takes a course because it is required Depending on what category a learner falls into, the level of science understanding may

be that of citizen science or of power science Hence, it is inherently difficult to partition citizen science or power science into exclusive sets of learning objectives that can be ap-plied to a diverse classroom

Figure 2.3 Differences between material taught, depending on student emphasis in science education Students intending science or science-oriented careers would learn Science Explanations, while other students would learn Ideas-about-Science (from Osbourne & Hennessy, 2006) Used by permission.

There can be a disconnect between those types in the classroom A career or vocational science learner may be expected to understand citizen science level materials, while a citi-zen science level learner may not understand the nuances required for science knowledge Considering this, there are two issues to address The first is what Osborne and Hennessy (2006) addressed in their Delphi study of science curriculum, in which respondents were asked to identify what science should be taught to the different types of learners Respondents

to the Delphi study were science educators at the tertiary level and professional scientists What the study concluded was that a tracking system was necessary, in the opinion of the respondents Students who foresaw a career in professional science or in a vocation that used the science knowledge would by necessity need to be taught different content than those students who did not intend to enter science as a career (see Figure 2.3) In the case that students should later decide on science careers, they would need to complete whatever remedial work was deemed necessary by their intended programs, just as students do now While tracking in the classroom environment is known to be complex in operational terms and on psycho-social impact, distance learning lends itself readily to track systems, as stu-dents are able to engage in multiple types and multiple levels of learning activities, whether individually or collaboratively

A detailed study of what science and engineering graduates actually do with their degree (Reget, 2006, in Lowell, 2006) is relevant to how personal objectives and employment op-portunities influence the use of a student’s scientific capital This study revealed that more than half of the students receiving science and engineering degrees did not seek an additional degree Of those who sought advanced degrees, 62% pursued them in professional and non-science areas (e.g., business, medicine) The vast majority of individuals who earned science and engineering degrees considered their learning useful and relevant to their job responsibilities well into their careers, including those that moved into management This supports the idea that power science plays an important role even for science and engineer-ing students who reposition their careers away from the science and engineering degree they first accomplished

Other Considerations that Influence

Online.Learning.Pedagogy

As we will argue throughout this book, the structure of online learning should be gogically driven; however, one must not lose sight that there are pragmatic considerations important to the learner that should also inform instructional design and implementation The adult online learner tends to be goal-oriented in the sense of Houle (1961), as described earlier For example, in a recent survey of a group of adult student learners, mostly teach-ers, O’Lawrence (2007) determined that two key factors influence them to undertake online study: incentives from employers and “suitable” offerings from programs In addition,

peda-this study indicated that only 9% of students selected the distance format because of the

self-directed learning approach (i.e., pedagogy), but that 89% indicated flexibility was the foremost factor (that is, accommodating transportation, child care, and career demands)