Handbook of research on examining global peacemaking in the digital age

In addition to a number of national and international research institutes, there emerged a strong development of the non-profit sector, which on different levels of generality and specia

on Examining Global Peacemaking in the

Digital Age

Bruce L Cook

Chicago ORT Technical Institute, USA

A volume in the Advances in Public Policy and

Administration (APPA) Book Series

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Names: Cook, Bruce L., 1942- editor.

Title: Handbook of research on examining global peacemaking in the digital

age / Bruce L Cook, editor.

Description: Hershey PA : Information Science Reference, [2018]

Identifiers: LCCN 2017012048| ISBN 9781522530329 (hardcover) | ISBN

9781522530336 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Peace-building Technological innovations | Peacekeeping

forces.

Classification: LCC JZ5538 H363 2018 | DDC 327.1/72 dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017012048

This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Public Policy and Administration (APPA) (ISSN: 6644; eISSN: 2475-6652)

Proper management of the public sphere is necessary in order to maintain order in modern society search developments in the field of public policy and administration can assist in uncovering the latest tools, practices, and methodologies for governing societies around the world

Re-The Advances in Public Policy and Administration (APPA) Book Series aims to publish

schol-arly publications focused on topics pertaining to the governance of the public domain APPA’s focus on timely topics relating to government, public funding, politics, public safety, policy, and law enforcement

is particularly relevant to academicians, government officials, and upper-level students seeking the most up-to-date research in their field

Mission

G David Garson North Carolina State University, USA

ISSN:2475-6644 EISSN:2475-6652

Establishing Food Security and Alternatives to International Trade in Emerging Economies

Vasily Erokhin (Harbin Engineering University, China)

Business Science Reference • copyright 2018 • 406pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522527336) • US $195.00 (our price)

Smart Technologies for Emergency Response and Disaster Management

Zhi Liu (Waseda University, Japan) and Kaoru Ota (Muroran Institute of Technology, Japan)

Information Science Reference • copyright 2018 • 312pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522525752) • US $225.00 (our price)

Driving Efficiency in Local Government Using a Collaborative Enterprise Architecture Framework Emerging Research and Opportunities

Amit Tiwary (Principal Enterprise Architect, Australia)

Information Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 150pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522524076) • US $120.00 (our price)

Impacts of Faith-Based Decision Making on the Individual-Level Legislative Process Emerging Research and Opportunities

Karla Drenner (Kaplan University, USA)

Information Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 186pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522523888) • US $120.00 (our price)

Handbook of Research on Emerging Business Models and Managerial Strategies in the Nonprofit Sector

Lindy Lou West (Griffith University, Australia) and Andrew Worthington (Griffith University, Australia) Business Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 509pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522525370) • US $245.00 (our price)

Ideological Messaging and the Role of Political Literature

Önder Çakırtaş (Bingol University, Turkey)

Information Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 317pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522523918) • US $175.00 (our price)

Therapeutic Jurisprudence and Overcoming Violence Against Women

Debarati Halder (Centre for Cyber Victim Counselling (CCVC), India & Unitedworld School of Law, India) and

K Jaishankar (Raksha Shakti University, India)

Information Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 344pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522524724) • US $230.00 (our price)

Public Sector Entrepreneurship and the Integration of Innovative Business Models

Mateusz Lewandowski (Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland) and Barbara Kożuch (Jagiellonian University

in Kraków, Poland)

Business Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 309pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522522157) • US $190.00 (our price)

701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USATel: 717-533-8845 x100 • Fax: 717-533-8661

GeorgeA.Barnett,University of California – Davis, USA

HaroldW.Becker,The Love Foundation Inc., USA

RaisNezaBoneza,Transcend Global Network, Norway

CarolMcPeakBrinjak,Point Park University, USA

MargaretCanary,Independent Researcher, USA

KumarDhal,Magadh University, India

RachelGoldberg,DePauw University, USA

ErnestoKahan,Tel Aviv University, Israel

EraldaKanacevic,Oakton Community College, USA

JangHungKim,Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea

BobKisiki,Literary RTI International, Uganda

MaximilianoEmanuelKorstanje,University of Palermo, Argentina

MuliwaKyendo,Syokimau Cultural Centre, Kenya

GlenMartin,Radford University, USA

IkbalMaulana,Indonesian Institute of Sciences Jakarta, Indonesia

JeffMikyska,Holy Trinity Church, USA

MladenMilosevic,University of Belgrade, Serbia

KennethMulholland,The Authorme Group, Australia

JohnOryem,PEAL, South Sudan

BishnuPathak,Commission of Investigation on Enforced Disappeared Persons, Nepal

SurendraKumarPathak,IASE Deemed University, India

BerniePhillips,Interdisciplinary Education Group, USA

SaptoPriyanto,Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia

NenadPutnik,University of Belgrade, Serbia

IdhamsyahEkaPutra,Persada Indonesia University, Indonesia

JamesRanney,Widener University School of Law, USA

MaitreyeeBardhanRoy,University of Calcutta, India

ClaudeShemaRutagengwa,Cardiff University, UK

MuratSeyfi,Gaziosmanpaşa University, Turkey

LidaSherafatmand,Independent Researcher, Malta

SunitaSingh-Sengupta,University of Delhi, India

GospavaRistoStojanović,University of Belgrade, Serbia

AshokChakravarthyTholana,Independent Researcher, India

LajUtreja,Institute of Spiritual Harmony, USA

ReneWadlow,Association of World Citizens, France

PollyWalker,Juniata College, USA

Abdosamadi, Ali /Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch, Iran 185

Arimbi, Reisa Suci/Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia 94

Ayoola-Amale, Ayo /First Conflict Resolution Services Inc., Ghana 211

Barnett, George A./University of California – Davis, USA 145

Becker, Harold W./The Love Foundation Inc., USA 372

Boneza, Rais Neza/TRANSCEND International, Norway 195

Brinjak, Carol McPeak/Point Park University, USA 324

Cook, Bruce L./Chicago ORT Technical Institute, USA 127

Cook, Bruce Lawrence/Chicago ORT Technical Institute, USA 202

Danamasi, Dimas Okto/Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia & Universitas Atma Jaya, Indonesia 94

Feng, Bo /University of California – Davis, USA 145

Gayatriprana, Sister /Independent Researcher, UK 257

Hellmich, Philip /The Shift Network, USA 19

Holou, Roland /DiasporaEngager, USA 335

Jiang, Ke /University of California – Davis, USA 145

Johnson, Kurt /The Interspiritual Network, USA 19

Korstanje, Maximiliano Emanuel/University of Palermo, Argentina 169

Kumar, Dhal Pravat/Magadh University, India 284

Kyendo, Muli wa/Syokimau Cultural Centre, Kenya 350

Lee, Steven P./Hobart and William Smith Colleges, USA 45

Mallawaarachchi, Chammika /University of Visual and Performing Arts, Sri Lanka 303

Martin, Glen T./Radford University, USA 276

Martin, Glen Theron/Radford University, USA 361

Maulana, Ikbal /Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Indonesia 51

Meyerhof, Nina /City College of New York, USA 315

Milošević, Mladen /University of Belgrade, Serbia 1

Pathak, Bishnu /Commission of Investigation on Enforced Disappeared Persons, Nepal 70

Priyanto, Sapto /Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia 94

Putnik, Nenad /University of Belgrade, Serbia 1

Putra, Idhamsyah Eka/Persada Indonesia University, Indonesia 94,243 Rufaedah, Any /Universitas Nahdlatul Ulama, Indonesia & Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia 94,243 Seyfi, Murat /Gaziosmanpaşa University, Turkey 116

Shema, Claude R./Cardiff University, UK 224

Stojanović, Gospava Risto/University of Belgrade, Serbia 30

Taylor, Laramie D./University of California – Davis, USA 145

Foreword xxii Preface xxiii Acknowledgment xxxi

Section 1 The Problem of Peacemaking Chapter 1

TrendsinPeaceResearch:CanCyberDétenteLeadtoLastingPeace? 1

Nenad Putnik, University of Belgrade, Serbia

Mladen Milošević, University of Belgrade, Serbia

Chapter 2

SacredandSecularActivistsAreNowJoiningTheirStrategiesforPeacebuilding 19

Philip Hellmich, The Shift Network, USA

Kurt Johnson, The Interspiritual Network, USA

Section 2 Main Threats to World Peace Chapter 3

Section 3 Social Actions as a Solution Chapter 6

ProcessDocumentationofInterfaithPeacebuildingCycle:ACaseStudyFromNepal 70

Bishnu Pathak, Commission of Investigation on Enforced Disappeared Persons, Nepal

Chapter 7

TacklingIslamicTerrorismandRadicalisminIndonesiabyIncreasingtheSenseofHumanityandFriendship 94

Idhamsyah Eka Putra, Persada Indonesia University, Indonesia

Dimas Okto Danamasi, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia & Universitas Atma Jaya,

Ke Jiang, University of California – Davis, USA

George A Barnett, University of California – Davis, USA

Laramie D Taylor, University of California – Davis, USA

Bo Feng, University of California – Davis, USA

Section 5 The Problem of Leadership Chapter 13

Peacebuilding,Media,andTerrorismin21stCenturyandBeyond:APsychologicalPerspective 224

Claude R Shema, Cardiff University, UK

Chapter 17

Recognition,Apology,andRestorationofIndonesians’PastMaltreatmentsofPeopleLabeledasCommunists 243

Idhamsyah Eka Putra, Persada Indonesia University, Indonesia, Indonesia

Any Rufaedah, Universitas Nahdlatul Ulama, Indonesia & Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia

Section 7 The Problem of Religion Chapter 18

UnderstandingOurMindsandHowWeCanLiberateOurselvesandOthersFromtheHexoftheInternet:AVedanticCaseStudy 257

Sister Gayatriprana, Independent Researcher, UK

Section 8 Solutions for Peace in the Digital Age Chapter 19

WorldCitizenship 276

Glen T Martin, Radford University, USA

Chammika Mallawaarachchi, University of Visual and Performing Arts, Sri Lanka

Foreword xxii Preface xxiii Acknowledgment xxxi

Section 1 The Problem of Peacemaking Chapter 1

TrendsinPeaceResearch:CanCyberDétenteLeadtoLastingPeace? 1

Nenad Putnik, University of Belgrade, Serbia

Mladen Milošević, University of Belgrade, Serbia

Inthischapter,theauthorsdiscussthephenomenonofinterstateconflictsincyberspace.Inthelasttwentyyears,thisissuehasbecomemoreexplicit,andcountriesaremakingincreasinglyfrequentmutualcyberwarfareandcyberespionageaccusations.Thepoliticalandmilitaryeliteofconflictingcountriesperceivethesituationasveryseriousandarepreparingnotonlyfordefendingtheirsegmentofcyberspace,butfordevelopingoffensivestrategiesforcyberwarfare,aswell.Theauthorsendeavortocontributetopeaceresearchbyexaminingthepossibilitiesforachievingcyberdétente,theideapromotedbyHenryKissingerin2011.Inthischapter,theauthorsidentifyandanalyzeproblemswhosesolutionshouldbethefocusoftheStatesPartiestocyberdétente:thequestionofdenotationandpotentialdesecuritizationoftechnicalterms,thequestionofidentificationandclassificationofcyberthreatsandtheproblemofthelegalframeworkfortheiropposition.Inaddition,theauthorsgiveguidelinesfortheirsolution,basedonsecuritizationtheory

Chapter 2

SacredandSecularActivistsAreNowJoiningTheirStrategiesforPeacebuilding 19

Philip Hellmich, The Shift Network, USA

Kurt Johnson, The Interspiritual Network, USA

Thecommongroundapproachesofthenewpeacenetworksarebasedonanimplicittrustinthehumanspirit,bethatdefinedsacredlyorsecularly.Whenthereisrecognitionofcommonhumanity,innatespiritualqualitiesoftolerance,compassion,forgiveness,andlovecanbeawakened.Withthesepositivehumanqualitiespresent,itiseasierforpeopletoshifttheirmindset.Anewconsciousnessarises,onewheretheycanstarttodiscernthatthe“others”arenottheproblem,butratherthattheymayshare

Section 2 Main Threats to World Peace Chapter 3

TheRoleofEducationinReducingtheThreatofNuclearWar 30

Gospava Risto Stojanović, University of Belgrade, Serbia

Wearecurrentlywitnessingbigproblemsandconflictsthatplagueourcontemporarysociety.Itisourrightandaswellasobligationtoaskourselveswhethermankindisindanger.Regardlessofthefactthatacertaincountrydoesnotpossessnuclearweapons,itcanbeaffectedbyconsequencesofanuclearattack.Therefore,thequestionofnuclearsecurityisimportantforthewholeinternationalcommunity.Inthatsense,itisimportanttodevelopeducativeprojectsinthefieldofnuclearsecurityinallcountries,throughadditionaltrainingoflecturers,bothforuniversityprogramsandfaculties,aswellasfortrainingthatwouldbeorganizedondifferentlevelsforvariousinterestedgroups

Chapter 4

MinimizingtheDangerofNuclearWeapons 45

Steven P Lee, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, USA

Manyofthoseconcernedaboutglobalpeaceadvocateapolicyofnucleardisarmamentinordertoeliminatethedangerposedbytheseweapons.Thelogicisthateliminatingtheweaponswouldeliminatethedangertheypose.ButIarguethattheseareseparategoals,thateliminatingtheweaponswouldnoteliminatethedanger,andinfactmightmakeitworse.Afterthecoldwar,manythoughtthatitwasfinallypossibletoridtheworldofnuclearweapons,butsince1991,theworldhasnotmovedsubstantiallytowardsthisgoal.Thereasonisthatnuclearweaponscreateasecuritydilemmainwhicheffortstousethemtomakesocietiessafer,throughthepracticeofnucleardeterrence,endupmakingthemlesssafe.Thisisbecauseefforts(throughminimumdeterrence)tousethemtoavoidadeliberatenuclearattackcreateriskofnuclearwarbyescalation,andefforts(throughcounterforcedeterrence)tominimizetheriskofnuclearwarbyescalation,createtheriskofdeliberatenuclearattack.Thewayoutofthisdilemmaisthroughdelegitimizationofnuclearweapons

Chapter 5

MutualUnderstandingintheAgeofVulnerableTruth 51

Ikbal Maulana, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Indonesia

Peacefulrelationsamongpeoplerequiremutualunderstandingamongthem,whichinturnnecessitatesinformationexchange.Currentinformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICT)allowpeopletoexchangeinformation,offerinformationaboutthemselves,andsearchinformationaboutotherswithease,therefore,technically,misunderstandingamongpeoplecanbeeasilyovercome.However,havingaccesstoabundanceofinformationdoesnotnecessarilymakepeopleknowledgeableandwise.Itisbecause

Section 3 Social Actions as a Solution Chapter 6

ProcessDocumentationofInterfaithPeacebuildingCycle:ACaseStudyFromNepal 70

Bishnu Pathak, Commission of Investigation on Enforced Disappeared Persons, Nepal

TheconceptofthisstudywastoexplicitlydefinethecharacteristicsofProcessDocumentation(PD),auniquetypeofrecordkeepingsystem.ThePDisaprocessoflessonslearned-centricpilotingapproachwhichisaneologisminSocialScienceresearch.ThePDmovesforward“anti-clock-wise”directionandgenerallyappliestohumanitarianagenciesinsupport,careandemergencyreliefprogramstodeliverbasicservicestoneedypeople.ThePDwasfirstusedinthePhilippinesin1978,butappliedinNepalafterpeaceaccord2007tounite,reconcileandintegratethesocietythroughinterfaithpeacebuilding(IP)initiatives.TheobjectivesweretodocumenttheprocessoftheIPandanalyzechangeperceptionscontributingtotransformingtheongoingconflict.Themethodledtointerviews,storytelling,FGDs,observationandparticipation.ThePDofIPgenerallyfunctionsthroughEnd-to-EndLifecyclethatisorganicallysimilartoanecosystem.Interfaithisnotareligion,butagloriousartofsymphonythatmakesapassageforpeace,harmony,co-existenceandfriendship

Chapter 7

TacklingIslamicTerrorismandRadicalisminIndonesiabyIncreasingtheSenseofHumanityandFriendship 94

Idhamsyah Eka Putra, Persada Indonesia University, Indonesia

Dimas Okto Danamasi, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia & Universitas Atma Jaya,

Section 4 The Problem of Media Chapter 8

IdentityandSocialPeaceintheDigitalWorld 116

Murat Seyfi, Gaziosmanpaşa University, Turkey

Theconceptofidentityischanginganddevelopingwithdigitalization.Macroandnationalidentities,whicharethebasisofconflictsintheworld,havestartedtodecreaseandlosetheirimportanceagainstmicro-identitiesintroducedbydigitalization.Thisformsthebasisofre-shapingtheconceptofpowerintheworld.Digitalidentitiesplayakeyroleinsustainingconflictsandpeaceinthisnewbalanceofpower.Withdigitalization,individualsgetnumerousidentitiesandhavetheopportunitytoformajointidentitywithotherindividualsandgroupsatamicrolevel.Thesenewidentitiesformedinmicrolevelagainstmacroidentitiesarebecominganorganicstructurethathashorizontalandverticalcomponentsinordertoestablishpeaceintheworldbycreatingtime,placeandmemories.Thisenablestheconceptofpeacetohavemultipleintelligenceindigitalplatforms.Theaimofthisstudyistosearchthepowerandeffectofmicro-identitieswhichareformedinvirtualplatformsandintheprocessofbuildingsocialpeaceinthedigitalworld

Chapter 9

SocialMediaandPeacemaking:ASnapshotofLiterature 127

Bruce L Cook, Chicago ORT Technical Institute, USA

Takentogether,thissnapshotofarticlesaffirmsthatsocialmediaparticipatesintheprocessofpeacemaking.Unliketraditionalmedia,whichusedtosettheagendaforpeace,socialmediadiffusestheprocess,makingitpossibletospeakonbothsidesofanyissue.ThesearticlesrevealthatgovernmentslikeRussia,China,Malaysia,andTurkeycancontrolsocialmediaasakeypartofpropaganda.Atthesametime,asintheArabSpring,activistgroupscanusesocialmediatounderminegovernment,despitethefactthattheirnewapproachmightprovetemporary.Perhapsmostimportantistheviewthatmediacontinuetomirrorsocietyinthedigitalage.Priortosocialmedia(about2005),traditionalmediafulfilledthisfunctionuntilaninternalelitecadreofjournalistsstartedspeakingtoeachotherandcontrollingtheagendathroughsomethingtheycalled“advocacyjournalism.”Havingthusshatteredthemirrorofsociety,theynowfacetheprospectofgivingwaytocitizens’journalism,wheretheirgatekeepingfunctionareinrapiddecline

Chapter 10

DynamicCo-EvolutionsofPeaceFramesintheUnitedStates,MainlandChina,andHongKong:ASemanticNetworkAnalysis 145

Ke Jiang, University of California – Davis, USA

George A Barnett, University of California – Davis, USA

Laramie D Taylor, University of California – Davis, USA

Bo Feng, University of California – Davis, USA

ThischapteremployssemanticnetworkanalysistoinvestigatetheonlinedatabaseLexisNexistostudythedynamicco-evolutionsofpeaceframesembeddedinthenewscoveragefromtheAssociatedPress(AP UnitedStates),XinhuaNewsAgency(XH MainlandChina),andSouthChinaMorningPost(SCMP—HongKong).From1995to2014,whilethewarandharmonyframeswererelativelystableinAPandXHrespectively,therewasatrendtowardconvergenceoftheuseofwarframesbetweenAP

Chapter 11

MediatingDeath:TheRoleofMassMediainThana-Capitalism 169

Maximiliano Emanuel Korstanje, University of Palermo, Argentina

Originally,digitaltechnologieswerecontemplatedbypublicopinionasinstrumentswhichservetomakefromthislifeasaferplace.Whileoverrecentdecades,thedigitalrevolutionwasorientedtodiscusstowhatextenthumansbeingarecredibleandagentswhocanreachobjectivity,nolesstruewasthatsomemass-mediapavedthepathwaysfortheriseofanewatmosphereofterror,whichtriggeredafter9/11.Doubtless,terrorism,ISISand9/11werethemainallegoriesforthesocietyofconsumers.Thisopensthedoorsforaparadoxicalsituation,simplybecauseviewersareenmeshedinastrangefascinationfornewsdisseminatingcrimes,terroristattacks,calamitiesanddisasters.Inearlierresearch,wehavedubbedtothisnewstageofcapitalism,asThana-Capitalism.Inthisrespect,onceconceivedasasignofweakness,consumingothers’deathimpliesanauraofsuperiorityforthosewhohavebeennottouchedbydeath.IntheriseofThanaCapitalism,fearanddeathseemtobetwotouchstonesthatmediatebetweencitizensandtheirinstitutions

Chapter 12

SocialMediaandDemocracy 185

Ali Abdosamadi, Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch, Iran

InformationTechnologyisanunseparatedpartofhumanlife.Inotherwords,now,humankindcouldnotcontinuehislifewithoutanytechnologyaccess.Digitalmediaiswellknownasagreattechnologynowadays.Amongallfacilitieswhichareprovidedbydigitaltechnology,internetcouldberecognizedasthebestwaythroughwhichhumanideascouldbesharedreciprocally.SocialnetworksasFacebook,Twitter,Instagram,Telegram,LinkedInandseveralothernetworksareprovidingbestwaysthroughwhichideascouldbetransmitted.Acrossthistransmission,aphenomenonisgrowingupandthisonecouldbenamedas“socialmediademocracy”.Socialmediacouldbeagreatexercisetoreachademocraticsocietyandtolerateotherideas.Bylaminatingsectionsofthisarticle,ashorthistoryofinternetandmoreparticularlysocialnetworkswillbededicated,alsotheroleofthisnetworksondemocracyandtolerationofotherideaswillbepresented

Section 5 The Problem of Leadership Chapter 13

FromNegativeLeadershiptoHealingLeadership:ATherapyStrategytoRemedyAfrican

Instability 195

Rais Neza Boneza, TRANSCEND International, Norway

Sincetheirindependences,theissuesofleadershipinAfricancountrieshasbeenachallengingnotionbothpracticallyandtheoretically.AfterthelongColdWar,regimesofstrongstateswithonenationalpartyasanexpressionofpowerhadpriority.However,withtheeventofdemocracyinthe90’s,freedom

Chapter 14

ResponsibleLeadershipandPeacemaking 202

Bruce Lawrence Cook, Chicago ORT Technical Institute, USA

Thischaptersuggeststhatimmediateactionisneededinregardtosolvingwhattheauthorbelievesistherootcausefortheseproblems.Afewquestionssuggestvariousapproaches–asetofstrategiesforworldpeace.Precisetacticsarelefttotheprofessionals.It’ssadthatworldpeaceshouldrequirespecialstrategiesandtactics.Ideally,worldpeacewouldemergefromchangesinparenting,education,thearts,andotherareas.Forexample,considerStrategiesforPeace,anattempttosurveythoseneeds.Thereisonecentralproblemunderlyingthese.Pleaseconsidertheunpleasantfactthattoday’semergencycallsforimmediateactiontoaddressthecentralproblem–aproblemoffailedleadership

Chapter 15

WomeninLeadership:WhyWeNeedMoreWomenLeaders 211

Ayo Ayoola-Amale, First Conflict Resolution Services Inc., Ghana

dominatedworld.Problemsofwar,starvation,andinjusticeintoday’sworldcanbeblamedontheabsenceofwomeninleadershippositions.Thissituationdemandsimmediateattentionbecausetheworldneedsbothfeminineandmasculinetraitstosolveglobalproblems.Womenarehalfthetalentofthehumanrace.Theworldneedsthemforeconomicandsocialsuccess.Womenbringaperspectivethatvaluesnotonlycompetitionbutalsocollaborationinorganizationsandteams.Theirfemininevaluesareafunctionalsystemofcontemporary,communalandopeneconomy.Ultimatelywomen’sleadershipwillimprovenotonlybusiness,thefamilyandsociety,buttheworldwhichwillbecomemoresustainableandpeacefulasaresult.Wedarenotexcludeanygroupofpeoplebasedongender,colourorracefromtheopportunitytoleadotherstoabetterfuture

Womeninleadershipconstitutesamajorproblemwhichbarelyreceivesattentionintoday’smale-Section 6 The Problem of Government Repression Chapter 16

Peacebuilding,Media,andTerrorismin21stCenturyandBeyond:APsychologicalPerspective 224

Claude R Shema, Cardiff University, UK

The21stcenturyfacedchallengesthatunderminepeaceandharmonyamonghumankindontheplanetearth.Apartfromscarymanmadeenvironmentalrelatedcalamities,the21stcenturyemergedwiththemassmediaera,wheretheinternet,digitalandsocialmediabasedthreatsandterrorizingpropagandahascatapultedtounspeakableandunprecedentedextremeradicalizationfromallovertheglobe.The

Chapter 17

Recognition,Apology,andRestorationofIndonesians’PastMaltreatmentsofPeopleLabeledasCommunists 243

Idhamsyah Eka Putra, Persada Indonesia University, Indonesia, Indonesia

Any Rufaedah, Universitas Nahdlatul Ulama, Indonesia & Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia

Usingsocialpsychologicalperspectives,thispaperaimsto(1)explorehowcommunismwassociallyconstructedinIndonesiaandwhycommunismattributeslabeledtoapersoncanleadtonegativeeffects,suchassocialexclusions.(2)Afterthat,itpresentsfindingsofourstudyexplainingthatremindingpeoplethathumanisnaturallygoodandkindcanreducethenegativeeffectsofthecommunismstigma.(3)ThischapteralsodiscussesissuesofpastmaltreatmentstopeoplelabeledascommunistsinIndonesia,andwhyaskingthegovernmenttoapologizeonbehalfofIndonesianshasnotsucceededsofar–thegovernmentrefusestoapologize.Tothismatter,itisarguedthatasastart,whatcanbedoneisapologizingtothevictimsofviolenceandinjusticebecauseofthecommunistpartyofIndonesia(PKI)stigma,andtheoffspringswhodon’tknowthepoliticalturbulence.Fromhere,itmaybepossiblethatthetruthcanslowlyberevealed

Section 7 The Problem of Religion Chapter 18

UnderstandingOurMindsandHowWeCanLiberateOurselvesandOthersFromtheHexoftheInternet:AVedanticCaseStudy 257

Sister Gayatriprana, Independent Researcher, UK

Infacingthefrustrationandangergeneratedbytheimpositionbythedigitalworldofthepowerofconceptualthinkingandunseenalgorithms,theWesthassoughttofindthebalanceofinnerexperience.Fromprogressivedevelopmentsinpsychologyandastudyofthegreatspiritualteachersoftheworldamodelofbalancebetweenconceptualthinkingandinternalexperienceemerges:Thereisaneed,notonlytothinkclearlyandrationally,butalsotofeelandempathizewithall,toknowdeepfromwithinwhatisofprimaryhumanvalueandtheinnaterelationshipbetweenallbeings,fromthephysicalworldtothegreatestBuddha.Thesuggestionisthat,throughaseculartypeofspiritualityintegrationofallofthosequalities,anoverallworldviewwillemerge.Suchintegrationwillleaddirectlytoexuberantactionthatnotonlybenefitsindividuals,butallwhomtheymeetandfromthereoutwards,outwards,andoutwards,tointegrateandblessthecontentsoftheentireuniverse

Section 8 Solutions for Peace in the Digital Age Chapter 19

WorldCitizenship 276

Glen T Martin, Radford University, USA

Thischapterreviewsthehistoryoftheconceptofworldcitizenshipaswellastheseveralbasicsensesinwhichthisphrasehasbeenusedincontemporaryliterature.Itlinkstheconceptwiththedevelopingtraditionofhumanrights,andtheemergenceofthenewholisticparadigmbeginninginthe20thcentury.Italsorelatestheconceptofworldcitizenshipwithamainstreamincontemporarypsychologicaltheoriesofhumandevelopmentthatseebecoming“worldcentric”asahigherlevelofhumanmaturity.Finally,itreviewsanumberoforganizationstodaythatpromoteworldcitizenship,andaddressestheconceptoflegalcitizenshipwhichtodayremainswiththenation-states.Itasksthequestion:isthereaneedforalegalizedworldcitizenshipundertheauthorityofaConstitutionfortheFederationofEarth?

Chapter 20

EducationforaNewAge:NewEducationforEstablishingPeaceandHarmonyintheGlobe 284

Dhal Pravat Kumar, Magadh University, India

Timeimmemorialeducationhasbeenexperimentinganddiversifying.Inthisdigitalageeverythingseemsmundane.Lifeappearsinturmoil.Theearthistremblingbyactionsofignorantpeople.Inthiscircumstance,itiscommonthoughttoestablishpeaceinthislovelyworld.Togetpeacewehavetogotothecorepartofmanthepsychic.Itistheleaderofthemarch.Thenatureofthepsychicissemblancewithsoul,i.e.Truth,Beauty,Power,Love,Wisdom,Light,Peaceetc.TheseareGodlyqualities.EachhumanbeinghastwopathsnamelyGodanddevil.Devil’spathdirectstobecomeandshowdemonlikebehaviors.God’spathleadstobecomedivineandshowthedivinequalities.Forpeaceandharmony,wehavetodiscoverthepsychicandfollowtheintegralapproachofeducation.Theessenceofthiseducationisfusionofspiritandmatter.Herebothteacherandtaughtseektogetherthewisdom.SchoolwillbeconsideredasaTemplewhereeverylearnerwillgowithlove.Godisthesourceofallknowledge.TheteacherisamediumtoconnectthelearnerwiththeSource

Chapter 21

ImportanceofClassroomSettingsinEducationalInstitutionstoPromotePeacebuildingThroughaSpecificIntendedLearningOutcome 303

Chammika Mallawaarachchi, University of Visual and Performing Arts, Sri Lanka

Overthedecades,therehasbeenanemphasisontheimportanceofpeaceeducationforimprovingcultureofpeaceinsociety.Theeffectofthisisverymuchimportantandattachedtoclassroomsettingsineducation,becauseclassroomsettingsinacultureofpeacesituationhavecreatedanenablingenvironmentforstakeholderstogetengagedinactivities,thataregearedtowardsbuildingpositivepeace.Itindicatedthatpeaceeducationcreatesconduciveenvironmentstomeettheemotional,social,andintellectualneedsofdiversegroupsofindividualsinterestedinempoweringthemselves.Theemphasisonclassroomsettingsandpeaceeducationisbasedonthefactthatthesetwoareasareinseparableaspectsofcultureofpeace.Nocultureofpeaceistrulyprogressivewithouttheuniversalprinciplesofpeacebuilding

Chapter 22

SoulEducationforChildrenoftheEarth 315

Nina Meyerhof, City College of New York, USA

Weliveinatimelymomentinthehistoryofhumanity.Weeducatetomovebeyondreligiousdividesintotheunderstandingthatweareallspiritualbeings.Ourphilosophicalpremiserecognizesthatalloflifeissacred.Ourgoalistoliveinunitivesyncreticexperiencesofourdeepestunderstandingthatwearecollectivespecieswhomayuseourconsciousnesstoevolvesystemsthatbringusintoaninterdependent,interconnectedharmoniousfamilyofhumankind,stewardingtheneedsofourearth

Chapter 23

TheResponsibilityofEducatorsinPeacekeeping:AViewFromtheUSA 324

Carol McPeak Brinjak, Point Park University, USA

Inthe21stCentury,thespecterofcatastrophicwarismorethreateningthanever,andyettheprospectofreducinganimosityisclosertobeingwithinourreach.Thecausesofstrifearebasedmostlyonfearandignorance,andeducationisthekeytoerasingthesetwomaladies.Asmoderntechnologybringsthehumancommunityclosertogether,itisnowpossibletoeducateallpeopleacrosstheglobe.Thefocusofeducators’attentionmustbe:a)toseeeachmemberofhumanityasaspiritualbeing;b)torecognizeandemulatethepurveyorsofvirtue;andc)tofacehead-onthedangerouspeoplewhostandinthewayofamoreGod-centereduniverse.Thischapterwillexploreeachofthesethreeareasfromanindividualperspective,aswellasonanationallevel,andfinallyontotheworldstage

Chapter 25

InterethnicConflicts:UnderstandingtheImportantRoleofFolktales 350

Muli wa Kyendo, Syokimau Cultural Centre, Kenya

TheargumentinthisChapteristhatthekeytobringingaboutlastingethnicpeaceandharmonyinKenya–andintherestofAfrica–liesinunderstandingtheattitudesandvaluesfoundincommunityfolktales.Folktalesreflectacommunity’sattempttogiveformandshapetoitshopesandfearsandanswersto

Chapter 26

Gandhi’sSatyagrahaandtheEarthConstitution 361

Glen Theron Martin, Radford University, USA

MahatmaGandhidevelopedanintegratedworldviewwithintheveryspecificcontextsofhisstrugglesforjusticeandfreedominSouthAfricaandIndia.MuchofhisthoughtregardingsuchbasicconceptsasSatyagraha(clingingtotruth),ahimsa(nonviolence),swaraj(self-determination,independence),andsarvodaya(thewelfareofall)wasarticulatedinthelightoftheconcretestrugglesheencountered.SomescholarshaveundertakenthetaskofextrapolatingGandhi’sworldviewintermsofageneralphilosophyofliberation.However,thesestudieshavenotgenerallyextrapolatedthethemeofworldfederalismthatGandhioccasionallymentionsinhiswritings.ThispaperarguesthatGandhi’srelevanceforthe21stcenturyrequiresdelineatingthelargerscopeofhisvisioninrelationtoourcontemporarysituationandseeingthepossibilityofconcretelyactualizingthatvisionwithintheworldfederalismadvocatedbytheConstitutionfortheFederationofEarth

Chapter 27

UnderstandingOurPotentialforLoveandPeace:APhenomenologicalView 372

Harold W Becker, The Love Foundation Inc., USA

Inthispresentation,weexploreaviewofourhumanpotentialasanintuitiveandevolvingunderstandingonapersonallevel.Usingaphenomenologicalapproach,ratherthanatraditionalanalyticalsocialscienceapproach,wecandiscoverthevitalqualitativeaspectsthatarenotnormallyconsideredinatraditionalquantitativeanalysis.Thenatureofuniversalloveandpeacearemoreexperientialandsubjectiveataprimarylevel,involvingadeeperinquiryfromtheindividual’sperspective,interpretationandexperience.Consciousnessandself-awarenessarecentralthemesthatareessentialtoasustainablehumanityandplanetinthisunparalleledepochofquantumchange.Technology,andthemorerecentlyemergingreal-timeworldwidesocialinteractions,areacceleratingthisnewparadigmwheretypicalsurvivalinstinctsaretransformingintocreativeandcollaborative,holisticactionsonaglobalscale.Loveandpeacearethecoreattributesleadingthisshiftoftheagesanditisallbeginningfromwithin

Compilation of References 385 About the Contributors 423 Index 431

tiationprocesses,yesornotoviolenceandwar,controlofthemediabymakingWesternmediacopiesofUSmedia

They,therulingelites,wereinforagreatshock.Theythoughttheyhadeverythingundercontrol,nego-Andthenterrorismcamefrombelow,shatteringtheirmonopolyonviolence

tivenewsandviewsmediagenerallyandsocialmediaparticularly

Andthenthedigitalagecamefrombelow,shatteringtheirmonopolyontruth,threatenedbyalterna-Thisisourpresentreality,andthisbookexaminesglobalpeaceinthedigitalage,wellknowingthatenlightenedpeoplegodigitaltoknowaboutreality.Bothempiricalreality thefacts andpotentialreality thevisions

Theexcellentchaptersarewellorganizedwithsuchheadingsassocialaction,worldgovernment,media,leadershipandsoon.Thechaptertitlesareallhighlyappetizing.Thebookisamust

Letmeaddsomepersonalobservations.Ihavebeenamediatorfrom1958,verysoon60years,inabout150conflictsinvolvingabout150oftheworld’sterritorial,notdigital,countries.Andsomeyearsago,we,Transcend,couldclaimsomesuccess—sharedwithothers,ofcourse—inatleast35ofthem—seewww.transcend.orgforourtrackrecord.Whatwastherootofthat?

Thenwetookthestepfromdiagnosis-analysisviaprognosis-forecasting(ifnothingisdone)totherapy-remedieswithvisionsofwhatmightbedone.Thepointisnottogetstuckinthebaduniversityhabitofonlyanalysiswithcriticism,noconstructivevisionswithsolutions,andconciliationfortraumas.Ifindoptimismwarranted,butataprice.Noronlyhardworktoidentifytheunderlyingconflictsandtraumasanddialoguestogettheviews,thenarratives,thegoalsoftheparties.But,moretaxing,thecreativeworkofbridgingthegapsbetweenthelegitimategoalsofalltheparties

Trainingandexperiencehelp.Thus,withmyJapanesewife,IhavebeenworkingverymuchrecentlyonEastAsiaandhaveproducedabook,People’sPeace,inJapanese,tobetranslatedintoChineseandKorean.Withmanyrecommendations,includingclearingtheproblematicpastwithinternationalfact-findingcommissions,solvingtheproblemsofthepresentinvolvingcontestedislandsthroughjointownershipsharingbenefitsandcosts,andsharingthefutureinanAssociationofNortheastAsianNa-tions,ANEAN,modeledonthesuccessfulASEAN.Avision,letusseeifitworks,aftersometime.Optimismisneeded,pessimismischeap,butoptimismassumeshardwork

Goodluck,everybody!

Johan Galtung

TRANSCEND International, Norway

Alfaz, Spain, 26 June 2017

INTRODUCTION

Thiscollectionofarticlesonpeacebuildingincludesauthorsfrommanynations,forthereisnosinglefocusforabsolutetruthaboutpeacebuilding.Further,thetraditionalliteratureonpeacemakingseemsinadequatetodealwiththedangerousrealitiespresentinthedigitalage

Someacademicdisciplinescanstartwiththedistantviewinthehopethatallpartswillfallintoplace.However,whenitcomestopeacemaking,theconceptualterrainissorockyandirregularthatasmooththeoreticalbasisisimpractical.Acrystalwithmanyfacets,restingonapedestalinthesunlight,providesabetteranalogy.Inacrystal,onecanrotatetheobjectandallowlighttopenetrateoneoranotherfacet.Althoughallfacetsarecontainedintheobject,inthecaseofpeacemaking(orpeacebuilding),eachfaceaffordsauniqueview,andtheviewerwillseemoredifferencesthancommonalitywhencomparingeachfaceofthecrystal

Thistextcontainsakaleidoscopeofwritingfromscholarsandpeaceactivists.Thisstartlingvarietydemonstratesthatpeacemakinghasnosinglecorrectandjustsolution.Perhapstheonlythingthatallwriterswouldagreeuponwouldbethatpeacemakingisurgentlyneededbeforetheself-destructionofcivilization

Thefirstsectiondescribestheproblemofpeacemakingasoneofthemostvitalactivitiesinthedigitalera.Then,onamoreoptimisticnote,thecollectiondetailssocialactionprojectswhichactivelydealwithpeacemaking.Next,majorproblemsinpeacemakingareanalyzed(media,leadership,andreligion).Finally,globalandpermanentsolutionsaresuggestedinworldgovernment,educationandthearts.Thetextunearthsmanyuniqueandexcitingideaswhichwillchallengeandsharpentoday’sexpand-ingliteratureonconflictresolution,peace,andharmony.Itisthehopeoftheeditorthatthisbookwillmotivateeffectiveactiontominimizetoday’sterrorandmaximizepeaceandjusticeintoday’sworld

THE PROBLEM OF PEACEMAKING

Withsomanythreatstopeaceintoday’sworld,itbecomesimpossibletoclearlydefinetheproblemofpeacemaking.Intheearliestchapters,thisbookchroniclestwoviewpointsthatintroducethetopicandofferencouragement

Chapter1,“TrendsinPeaceResearch:CanCyberDétenteLeadtoLastingPeace?”byNanadPutnikandMladenMilošević,reviewspeaceresearchliterature.Startingwiththeobservationthattragicex-periencesoftwoworldwars,togetherwithpossibilitiesofmodernwarsandconflicts,theauthorsnote

InChapter2,“SacredandSecularActivistsAreNowJoiningtheirStrategiesforPeacebuilding,”PhilipHellmichandKurtJohnsonidentifyanewparadigmemphasizingaltruisminpeacemakingthatstandsincontrasttomainstreamthought.Theauthorsobservethatasignificantnarrativeofpeaceisquietlyandpowerfullyemergingaroundtheworld–onerootedinancientwisdomandacceleratedbymodernscienceandtechnology.Thenewnarrativeismoreaboutwhatpeopleareforandnotsimplywhatpeopleareagainst

MAIN THREATS TO WORLD PEACE

Althoughsuccessfulstrategiesforpeacemakingmightincreaseatanexponentialrate,negativeforcesarelikelytopersist.Tragically,thereisnowaytoblithelyignoretwomainthreatstoworldpeace:1)nuclearwarand2)terrorism.Ifcivilizationisunabletocontrolthesethreats,thelastdaysmaybeuponus.Chapter3,“TheRoleofEducationinReducingtheThreatofNuclearWar”byGospavaStojanović,offersagraphicaccountofresultsfromnuclearwar.Whilemanymayimaginethatnuclearskirmishescouldbeaminorthreattocivilization,thischapterprovesthatnuclearbombscouldbringcivilizationtoadarkandtragicend.2Stojanovićassertsthatnuclearwarcanbepreventedthrougheducation.InChapter4,“MinimizingtheDangerofNuclearWeapons,”StevenLeeexpandsonthedangerofnuclearweaponsandsuggestsinnovativemethodsforminimizingtheirdanger.Workingatapolicylevel,hebeginswiththeobvioussolution,eliminatingnuclearweapons.Sadly,hediscoversthattheproblemisfarmorecomplex.Havingexaminedalternatives,Leeoffersanencouragingsolution

InChapter5,“MutualUnderstandingintheAgeofVulnerableTruth,”IkbalMualanasuggeststhatinformationandcommunicationtechnologyadvancedemocracy,democratizationprocess,andinterna-tionalpeace.Nevertheless,thesemediaalsoraiseconcernsandevenanxieties.Theauthorestablishesthatterroristsocialmediausersexercisepowerwhichmayaffectthesocialornationallandscapeofpower.Thisdevelopmentdispersesthepoweroverinformationwhichwaspreviouslypossessedbymediaowners.Theauthorobservesthatweareincreasinglyconnectedtooneanotherasourlives,oursecurity,andourhopesareinextricablylinkedtooneanotherbyaprocessofglobalization

SOCIAL ACTION AS A SOLUTION

Againstthisdepressingbackground,somesocialactionprojectsgivereasontohopeforapositivefuture.Asalternativestohand-wringingovernuclearwarandterrorism,theseprojectsdemonstratesuccessinthefaceofgravechallenges.Theystandasachallengeforpeacemakinginthefuture

pal,”BishnuPathakdescribesasuccessfulsocialexperimentbringinginterfaithpeacebuildingtotwodistrictsofNepal,wheremajorsocio-culturalviolenceeruptedin2007.TheaimofthisprojectwastobringallNepalreligiousandnon-religiousactorstogethertogivesynergytoInterfaithpeacebuildinginitiatives,includingpeaceandmediationpractitioners,academics,journalistsandsocialworkers.The

AnotherreactiontoterrorismisdescribedinChapter7,“TacklingIslamicTerrorismandRadicalisminIndonesiabyIncreasingtheSenseofHumanityandFriendship”byIdhamsyahEkaPutra,DimasOktoDanamasi,AnyRufaedah,ReisaSuciArimbi,andSaptoPriyanto.TheauthorscitetheGlobalTerrorismIndex(2015),whichreportedthatIslamicterroristgroupswereontheriseandhavebecomeaglobalthreat.TheyconductedsocialprogramsinthreeareasofIndonesiawhichsuccessfullybroughtterroristsfromprisontolivenormallives.Further,theyinterviewedwivesofterroristprisoners

THE PROBLEM OF MEDIA

Surprisingly,mediahasemergedasathirdthreattoworldpeace.Historically,newspapersgainedpublictrustuntilradioandtelevisionstationsbeganreportingthenews.Theselessexpensivemediapermittedgovernmentsandspecialintereststobroadcastpropaganda.Within60years,theInternetradicallyalteredthesituationasadvocacyjournalismandsocialmediausersbegantopoliticizemasscommunicationandcreateadvocacygroups

Chapter8,“IdentityandSocialPeaceintheDigitalWorld”byMuratSeyfi,lamentstherapidspreadofhatespeechandviolentcontentviamassmedia,causingthedesensitizationofpublicreactionstoviolence,whichisbecomingacceptedasnormal.Heassertsthataprofoundchangeinidentityisalter-ingtraditionalconceptslikenationalism.Macroandnationalidentities,whicharethebasisofconflictsintheworld,havestartedtodecreaseandlosetheirimportanceagainstmicro-identitiesintroducedbydigitalization.Sadly,thisisformingthebasisofre-shapingtheconceptofpowerintheworld

InChapter9,“SocialMediaandPeacemaking:ASnapshotofLiterature,”BruceL.Cooksurveysthecomplexityofsocialmediainthedigitalage.Usinga“snapshot”ofscholarlyarticlesonsocialmediaandpeace(November2016–February2017),thisliteraturereviewextractsausefullistofsubjectsdealingwithsocialmedia.Thisreviewsurveysarapidlyevolvingliteraturetohelpresearchersapproachpositiveandnegativeaspectsofthisrelativelynew(since2006)4formofcommunication

InChapter10,“DynamicCo-EvolutionsofPeaceFramesintheUnitedStates,MainlandChina,andHongKong:ASemanticNetworkAnalysis”,KeJiang,GeorgeA.Barnett,LaramieD.Taylor,andBoFengconductanextensivecontentanalysisofnewstextsfromthreegeographicalareas.Thischapterusessemanticnetworkanalysistoexaminehownewstextsonpeaceembodieddifferentwordsrelatedtopeace.TheanalysissuggeststhataprocessofculturalconvergencebetweentheU.SandChinawill,inthefuture,havesignificantimpactsonthemaintenanceofculturaldiversityofsmallcountriesandregions.Thiscancontributetothepeaceatthegloballevel.Mostimportantly,inthenextfewdecades,ifChinaovertakestheU.S.asworld’slargesteconomy,Chineseharmonyculturemayplayamoresig-nificantroleinthemaintenanceofworldpeace

Chapter11,“MediatingDeath.TheRoleofMassMediainThana-Capitalism”byMaximilianoKorstanje,offersaradicalviewofmassmediaandeventourism.Hesupportsadevelopingviewpointsuggestingthataudiencesarefascinatedbydeathandseekoutnewsofdisasterswhichgivethemsat-isfactionbecausetheyaresurvivorswhodidnotsufferacalamity.Hechargesthatthemedia,whileprofessionallyreportingadisaster,becomeanunwittingaccompliceinfurtheringterroristgoals.Theauthorassertsthatthisrepresentsanewpower:amplificationofmediaterrorism

THE PROBLEM OF LEADERSHIP

Withthisradicalshiftincommunication,traditionaltop-downmassmediahasgivenwaytolaissezfairepersonalcommunication.Atthesametime,governmentleadershavelesspowertoachievetheirobjec-tives.Thus,responsibleleadershiphasbecomeoneofthemajorchallengesofthisage

Chapter13,“FromNegativeLeadershiptoHealingLeadership:ATherapyStrategytoRemedyAfricanInstability”byRaisNezaBoneza,tracesthesadremainsofacontinentdevastatedbycolonialrule.Heoffersawide-ranginghistoricalaccountestablishingthatAfrica’sproblemsareaproductofsetbacksenduredfromslavetrades,colonialconquests,resource-plundering,wars,dictatorialregimes,andneo-colonialismbroughtbythecold-warera

InChapter14,“ResponsibleLeadershipandPeacemaking,”BruceL.Cookplacestheresponsibilityforpeaceuponleaders,assertingthatworldpeaceisbeingthreatenedbyrogueleaderswhotakeadvan-tageofeconomic,social,historical,religious,orenvironmentalsituationstocreateandmaintaintheirpersonalpowerandprestige.Heplacespartoftheblameonadvocacyjournalism,whichunwittinglyoffersfreepromotiontorogueleaders

Chapter15,“WomeninLeadership:WhyWeNeedMoreWomenLeaders”byAyoAyoola-Amale,assertsthattheinclusionofwomeninleadershippositionswillimproveproductivity,economicperfor-mance,andimprovedprospectsforpeace.Sheidentifiesaneedtoinvestmoreingirls’educationandbringmorewomenintoemploymenttosuccessfullyfightglobalpovertyandlessencivilconflict.Shesuggeststhatthisgoesbeyondfairness,andfurtherthatwomenbringremarkabletalents,creativeideasandskillsthatmakethemgreatleaders

THE PROBLEM OF GOVERNMENT REPRESSION

Despitetechnologicaladvanceswhichcanovercomegovernmentinterferencewithmassmediaandsocialmedia,theproblemsofcensorshipandjammingsignalspersistinthedigitalage.Alarmingly,inrecentyears,governmentshaveemployedmediatourgepopulationgroupstokillpeopleinothergroups.Thus,evenwithadvancedtechnology,irresponsibleexcessesingovernmentcontrolremainaproblem.InChapter16,“Peacebuilding,Media,andTerrorismin21stCenturyandBeyond:APsychologicalPerspective,”ClaudeRutagengwadescribesthechillingsituationinRwandaandUgandawherehatemedia“RTLMRadio”motivatedtheHutumajoritygrouptokillTutsiminoritymembersandtheirsupporters.ForBosnia,hedocumentsasituationwherebroadcastmediadisseminatedrumorsandfeartofuelawar,alongwithbiasedperceptionofWesternmedia.Further,hetracestheArabSpringphe-nomenonandrevealshowitsproliferationwasduetothepowerofFacebook,Twitter,Snapchat,Skypeandthelike.Hismainconcernistheeffectofthesemediaeventsonthemindsofyoungpeopleintheworldtoday.Foryoungpeople,hisanalysisfindsthatsocialmediapropagandafromterroristsandoth-ersthreatenthepossibilitythattheywillestablishstrongbondswiththeircommunities.Insteadthey

THE PROBLEM OF RELIGION

Religionhasbeencastasanothercauseforterrorisminthedigitalage.Eachreligionhasitshistoricalrootsandusedtobeconfinedtospecific,isolatedgeographicalareas.Inthedigitalage,thiscommu-nicationisworldwide,andmanyadherentsoftraditionalreligionclaimalegacyto“win”inabattletoconvertworldcitizenstotheirdogma

InChapter18,“UnderstandingOurMindsandHowWeCanLiberateOurselvesandOthersFromtheHexoftheInternet:AVedanticCaseStudy,”SisterGayatriprana(JeanMacPhail)lamentsarisingtideofinchoatefurythatismanifestinglikeburstingabscessesallovertheworld.SheidentifiesaclashofmaterialisticmodernitywithtraditionalreligionsandculturesthatisespeciallyrapidandviolentasitispressedintoservicebyEasternfighterswhobattlefortheirowntraditions.Atthesametime,theauthorlooksforwardtotimeofcoexistencewherepeoplegenuinelyunderstandeachotherinthemostsolidbasisforpeace

SOLUTIONS FOR PEACE IN THE DIGITAL AGE

World Government

Asnationalismgiveswaytosocialmediagroups,thenotionofoneworldgovernmentisreceivingincreasedinterest.Intheoriginalcampaignforworldcitizenship,GarryDavis(2000)toreuphisUSpassportandbecame“WorldCitizenNumber1”in1948.PracticalplansforanearthgovernmentarenowreceivingthoroughattentionandplanningwiththeEarthConstitutionundertheleadershipofGlenT.Martin.InChapter19,“WorldCitizenship,”GlenT.MartinadvocatesthatcitizensofallnationsshouldjoinasCitizensofaworldorder.Thechaptershowssimilaritiesofculturesandreligioustraditions,suggest-inginterconnectednessofourplanetaryecology,globaleconomics,communications,andpolitics,allcomingtogetherwithenlightenmentideasabouthumanrights,democracy,andhumandignity.Thus,theauthorasserts,one’sidentitytranscendsgeographyorpoliticalborders,andhumankindisessentiallyone

Education for Peace

Educationmaywellbethemostattractivelong-termsolutionforpeace.Herestudentscanlearnamoralbasisforlivinginharmonywithothers.Eventheclassroomsettingcanbecomeamodelforlife.Atthesametime,there’sanincreasingneedtoprotecteducatorsfromdominationforpoliticalmotives.Whileeducationissurelythekeytothefuture,schooladministratorsandteachersmustbepermittedtoteachjustice,peaceandharmony

ingThroughaSpecificIntendedLearningOutcome,”ChammikaMallawaarachchisuggeststhatpeaceandeducationareinter-reliant.Inthisway,educationbuildspeacewhilemaintainingcohesionandprosperitywithinsocialgroups,enhancingknowledgeandpositiveattitudesinharmony.Atthesametime,theauthorcautionsthatpoorclassroomsettingscanabusetheentirepeacesituation,andthismayleadtosimilarproblemsforsociety

InChapter21,“ImportanceofClassroomSettingsinEducationalInstitutionstoPromotePeacebuild-Chapter22,“SoulEducationforChildrenoftheEarth”byNinaMeyerhof,advocatessouleducationandmoraleducation,tappingintohigherconsciousnesstotranslateexperienceintosocietalactionsforexternalglobalharmony.Theauthorobservesthatschoolsareinstitutionalizedbyrulesandregulationshavingamechanisticviewtomaintainthestatusquo.Insteadthere’saneedtoeducateforsoulrecogni-tionandallowourculturetoalteritsrigidviewsandstranglingpreconceivedideasofwhatagoodlifeisabout.Sheconcludeswithadescriptionofherorganization,ChildrenoftheEarth

InChapter23,“TheResponsibilityofEducatorsinPeacemaking:AViewfromtheUSA,”CarolMcPeakBrinjaksuggeststhateducatorsshouldintroducevariousrolemodelssuchasAbrahamLin-coln,MahatmaGandhi,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,AnwarSadatandMotherTheresa.Whileyoutharebadlyinformedtoday,theauthorsuggeststhatthecausesofbadeducationaremany:badparenting,dysfunctionalfamilies,absentparent,alcoholism,corruptpoliticians,andnegligentgovernments.Afterdescribingthereligiousrootsofterrorism,sheassertsthatpeacethroughstrengthistheonlysurewaytodefeatterrorists

Communication for Peace

Whiledigitalcommunicationisoftenseenasacauseforconflictandterrorism,itisalsopossibletoseeitasasolution.TechnologywasaninnocentpartyintheearlystagesoftheInternetandsocialmedia.Astimeprogressed,however,irresponsibleusersofthesemediabecameaseriousproblem.Despitethishistory,thereismeritinthenotionthatdigitalcommunicationcanrestorepeace

sporaEngager”byRolandHolou,takesauniqueapproachtopeacebyestablishinganeutralsystemofcommunication.His“DiasporaEngager”systemwasfoundedtohelpmitigatetheproblemsofthediaspora5andtheirstakeholdersandtohelpthemworktogetherinawin-winframework

Chapter24,“InternationalDiasporaInvolvementinPeacemakingThroughSocialMediaLikeDia-Folktales for Peace

Beyondeducation,theartshavealwayssupportedpeaceandharmony.Whileitisdifficulttoassignpeacemakingtospecificofferingsinart,music,andliterature,culturalexamplessuchasfolktalesoffernewinsightsintothepeaceprocess

InChapter25,“InterethnicConflicts:UnderstandingtheImportantRoleofFolktales,”MuliwaKy-Nonviolence and Peace

Giventhecomplexityoftoday’sdigitalworld,there’sadangerofforgettingtheprimaryargumentofyesterday:nonviolence.Severalheroesstoodfornonviolenceinthepast.ProminentexamplesareMartinLutherKing,Jr.andMahatmaGandhi

Chapter26,“Gandhi’sSatyagrahaandtheEarthConstitution”byGlenT.Martin,offersathoughtfulanalysisofMahatmaGandhi’sstancefornonviolence.MartinrevealsthatGandhiconcernedhimselfwiththepossibilityofsettingupanonviolentpoliceforce,anonviolentarmy,andpeacebrigadestomobilizepopularopinionbehindconstructiveprograms.Yet,Gandhiwarned,amilitarizedmodernstatecannotbedemocratic.MartinestablishesthatGandhicomparedpowertowelfare,whollyabyproductofsocialactivityandthecomplexwebofhumanrelationships,asexpressedthroughavarietyofgroupings,fromthefamilyupward.HedescribesthepossibilityofactualizingSatyagrahaforthefirsttimeinhu-manhistory,avisionthatMahatmaGandhiclearlyembraced.Thiswasaformofnonviolentresistancededicatedtobreakingthecycleofviolenceandwinningovertheoppressorsthroughtransformingtheirhearts,allowingthemtorecognizethegigantictruththatencompassesusall

The Importance of Love

Underpinningtheseviewsonhumanrelationships,nonecouldbeaspowerfulaslove.Forloveisthebasisforjustice,harmonyandpeace.Whilecomparisonsbetweenloveandotheremotionsabound,itisfascinatingtocomparetheemergenceoflovewithtoday’scultureoffear

InChapter27,“UnderstandingOurHumanPotentialforUniversalLoveandPeace,”HowardBeckerestablishesthathumansaresusceptibletoanartificialseparationfromourtrueselvesandtheworld.Thiscanbecometheexperienceoffearinnumerousmanifestations.Ultimately,thisfearcanbecomethebasisforcontrol,dominationandenslavementofminds,bodies,societiesandcultures,alongwithcountlessbattles,wars,needlessdeathsanddestruction.Instead,theauthorrecommendsanewapprecia-tionforunityandoneness.Heassertsthatthetimeisripefortheestablishmentofpeaceonearthwhereeveryonecanwalkinjoyandharmonyandknowthatalliswell

REFERENCES

Ball,S.(1970).The First Year of Sesame Street: An Evaluation Final Report, Volume III of V Volumes.

RetrievedfromERIC.(ED047823)

Cook,B.(2015).Voice of Social Media: 1999-2015.WorldMediationOrganization.Retrievedfrom

http://www.worldmediation.org/paper-3.pdf

Davis,G.(2000).Dear World, A Global Odyssey.XlibrisCorporation.

Eliot,T.S.(2009).Collected Poems 1909-1962.Faber&Faber.

ENDNOTES

1 Theauthorsdefinecyberdétenteashypotheticalbilateralormultilateralagreementthatwoulddefinethesteps,measuresandactionstoreducetensionsbetweentheStatesParties,causedbymutualconfrontationincyberspace

2 ThisbringsnewtruthtoT.S.Eliot’spoem“TheHollowMen”-Thisisthewaytheworldends;Notwithabangbutawhimper(Elliot,2009)

3 Thestudyalsodemonstratedthevalueofprocessdocumentation.Asananalogy,considerBarbaraReeves’useof“formativeevaluation”inthepopulareducationaltelevisionseries,SesameStreet(Ball,1970)

4 Socialmediaasweknowittodaystartedin2006(Cook,2015)

5 PerHolou,thewordDiasporareferstoanyonelivinginacountryortownthatisnothisorherplaceoforiginorancestryortheplacecalledhome.Somesynonymsofthewordareimmigrant,stranger,andalien.Tosomeextent,weallarepassengersonthisEarthandcanbeconsideredasanimmigrant.Therefore,thewordDiasporaasusedinthisarticlecanbeappliedtoanyone

Acknowledgment

Iwishtothankmywife,MaryHomeierCook,forherpatiencewiththisproject.Ialsothankmydaughter,HelenClareBrown,forherencouragement

The Problem of Peacemaking

by Henry Kissinger in 2011 In this chapter, the authors identify and analyze problems whose solution should be the focus of the States Parties to cyber détente: the question of denotation and potential dese- curitization of technical terms, the question of identification and classification of cyber threats and the problem of the legal framework for their opposition In addition, the authors give guidelines for their solution, based on securitization theory.

INTRODUCTION

The tendency to maintain or achieve peace becomes especially significant in the second half of the tieth century Due to tragic experiences of two world wars, together with growing critical and humanistic awareness of apocalyptic dimensions and possibilities of modern wars and conflicts, conflict resolution and termination became the subject of numerous studies within different sciences and disciplines during the fifties of the twentieth century To this end, a number of research institutes were founded, including the first and most significant Center for Research on Conflict Resolution, established in 1959 at the University of Michigan The question of conflict resolution became an integral part of a special line of research called Peace Research, which in the 1950s brought together most eminent scientists from all over the world

twen-Trends in Peace Research:

Can Cyber Détente Lead to Lasting Peace?

After the world division into blocks was terminated in the early nineties of the last century, dictability and escalation of various forms of social conflicts (war, class and racial) turned scientifically and humanistic minded public to a different approach in research and resolution of social and interstate conflicts In addition to a number of national and international research institutes, there emerged a strong development of the non-profit sector, which on different levels of generality and specialization became interested in problems of peace research and resolution of all types of conflict – from interstate, ethnic and religious to business and family.

unpre-Among the new security risks, challenges and threats in this period, the threat of cyber conflicts has taken a significant place The first problems related to the security of cyber space were identified upon releasing the Internet for public use in 1991 A continuous increase in the number and type of malicious codes, as well as techniques and tools for carrying out attacks in cyber space, led to a certain expansion

of conflicts in this virtual space The attackers have been numerous; they are individuals, ideologically motivated groups of civilians – hacktivists, criminal and terrorist groups, national armies and their in-telligence services They are driven by various motives the desire to prove themselves, the eagerness to inflict damage on a country perceived as hostile, illegal acquisition of goods, the realization of political and ideological goals, and achieving military and strategic advantages in cyber space

Attacks that affect information infrastructure are considered to be very dangerous to the security of the attacked state, for its operational disruption can lead to violation of its sovereignty, as it was shown

in case of Estonia in 2007 (Kešetović, Putnik & Rakić, 2013) Ever since, in all the world’s highly puterized countries, a fear of cyber-attacks on information structure has been growing For every serious attack, the official army of the state perceived as opposing is to be blamed, always without previously conducted thorough cyber-forensic analysis (Kešetović, et al., 2013) In recent years this has resulted

com-in countries (most often the United States, the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of Chcom-ina) making frequent mutual accusations regarding cyber warfare and cyber espionage

Due to the evident tensions, whose consequences are reflected both at political and diplomatic, military, and economic fields, the doyen of American diplomacy Henry Kissinger proposed a new method for easing tensions among the countries concerned with cyber détente Kissinger did not precisely define the term of cyber détente, nor did he determine the implied sequence of steps and set of actions Kissinger’s proposal did not significantly stir the academic community For that reason, as the aim of this chapter, the authors set the task to consider whether cyber détente could be an adequate method for achieving and maintaining peace in cyber space, and what set of activities it would involve

BACKGROUND

From a theoretical perspective it is significant that, until the nineties of the twentieth century, peace and social conflict research was based on classic interstate conflicts as well as global fixation on super-powers of the time, and military blocks This approach proved to lack adequacy for overemphasizing political and ideological aspects while overlooking economic, environmental and cultural aspects “Low intensity” conflicts were also ignored, being observed through the lens of the superior “high intensity conflict between East and West”

Research in the field of establishing and keeping peace brought forth various methods, like civilizing conflict (removing violence from the conflict), institutionalization of conflict (obeying certain rules and

tion such as the strategy of inactivity, appeasement, compromise, court judgment, etc (Meyers, 1993) and (Scherrer, 2002) In general, it is clear that resolving a conflict must be preceded by the conflicted parties reaching an agreement about disputed issues In that sense, in terms of peacekeeping, Henry Kissinger initiated a very important idea in the seventies of the twentieth century - to promote détente as

a precondition for ending tensions between the superpowers in order to reach lasting peace His tive worked, for the period of détente was characterized by a series of agreements, such as SALT I and

initia-II and the Helsinki agreement, which contributed to stopping the production of nuclear weapons in the United States and the Soviet Union, as well as improving direct communication between Washington and Moscow and promoting respect for human rights in Europe From today’s perspective, there is support for the claim that détente then represented a useful method for reducing tensions between the superpowers.The issue of conflict resolution is very complex, not only due to the complexity of social conflicts as such, but also the conceptual and terminology differences and ambiguities in their research (Boulding, 1962) Radical transformation of ambient security, complete reconfiguration of the system of global relations of power and force at the end of the Cold War and emergence of entirely new security chal-lenges, risks and threats (such as terrorism, organized crime, distribution of mass destruction weapons, increasing ethnic and religious conflicts, environmental and, especially cyber risk), only added to in-tensification of the debate on redefining the concept of security The central point of the debate was a question of whether and how to broaden and deepen the security concept without bringing its logical coherence into dispute, how to widen the focus of the research onto the other, non-military sectors, and how to keep the sole concept meaningful and a useful tool for analysts

Enormous contribution to the contemporary security studies was made by the so-called Copenhagen School of Security Studies, which offered a quite innovative, original perspective on a broad spectrum of security issues, perceiving clearly that security dynamics could no longer be reduced only to the military-political relations of the two superpowers, however important they might be However, the moment one leaves the idea of tying the concept of security only to certain referent objects (such as a state) and to certain kinds of security threats (such as military), a question of “what quality makes something a security issue” (Buzan, Weaver & de Wilde, 1998, p 21) arrives at the very centre of controversy Without dis-tinctive criteria which separate a security issue from non-security issue, the concept of security is trivial and leaves confusion behind The Copenhagen School of Security Studies conceptualizes security as a process of social construction of threats which includes a securitizing actor (mostly political elite), that declares certain matters as urgent and a posing threat for the survival of the referent object, that, once accepted by the audience, legitimizes the use of extraordinary measures for threat elimination This way, the issue is securitized and removed from the field of regular politics, then put on the “panic politics” agenda (Buzan, op cit., 1998, p 34) where media play an important role in its spreading

To treat something as a security issue is always a matter of choice – political choice (Weaver, 2000) This choice is actualized through a securitizing discursive practice of labeling something a security threat However, constructing the security issue through a speech act is not in a single person’s hands Should that be the case, there would be no difference between the speech act and the subjective perception and interpretation of the security threat, and the framework of the dichotomy of the subjective/objective defi-nition of security would not become obsolete Securitization is an “essentially inter-subjective process” (Buzan, op cit., p 30) It is the process of ongoing negotiations between the securitizing actor, who puts the issue on the agenda, and the audience, which has a choice of either accepting or declining the given agenda Securitization cannot be imposed Only the audience’s consent justifies the application of ex-traordinary measures, which include breaching of regular political procedures, all in order to neutralize

the threat “Thus, security (as well as politics) is ultimately neither with objects nor with subjects, but among the subjects” (Buzan, op cit., 1998, p 31).

Securitization of a certain issue leads to a downfall of the regular political process and liberal cratic procedures and therefore securitization should be perceived negatively and as a necessary evil

demo-As an optimum long-term option they suggest the opposite process – desecuritization, i.e returning certain issues from the domain of urgency, extraordinary, securitized to the domain of regular, public sphere In that sense, they do not regard their own theory a politically neutral analytical tool Moreover, whenever possible, they strive to aid desecuritization processes by deconstructing the existing securi-tization discourses

Particularly today’s securitized issues also include the matter of security threats in cyber space, pecially those called cyber warfare Former US Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Michael Mullen defined cyber security as “one of two existential threats the United States are facing, where the second

es-is nuclear weapons”, for why it should be present “in all our war thinking” (Muradian, 2011) cially an important threat to national, regional, and even global security are conflicts in cyber space,

Espe-or even negative effects on the political agenda they create on a bilateral and multilateral level This

is supported by countries making more and more frequent mutual espionage accusations (US – PRC, Germany – PRC, US – Russian Federation, India – Pakistan) and attacking critical infrastructure (US – Russian Federation, Estonia – Russian Federation 2007, Georgia – Russian Federation 2008, North Korea – South Korea 2016)

In addition, we can mention the activities of states and military alliances in creating strategic and doctrinal documents in order to protect their own cyber space and critical infrastructure, as well as pro-moting self-proclaimed authority for the use of offensive methods, techniques and tools in cyber space against enemy states This led Kissinger to re-actualize the idea of détente, cyber détente now, in 2011 with a view to easing the tension between the leading countries, protagonists of cyber conflicts (Eckert

& Magnowski, 2011) Kissinger’s initiative has not significantly echoed yet in the academic and sional public, except for the Global Cyberspace Cooperation Summit (The East West Institute, 2015), nor has it gathered the actors to calm the situation in the field

profes-Even though Kissinger’s initiative did not attract much of the academic public’s attention, it is our opinion that it should not be easily abandoned An idea which proved to be effective in the past could

be used as a method for reducing tension in the digital era as well This idea is certainly worth a closer consideration On a practical level, it would be important to examine the necessary steps and actions States parties to the cyber détente should take, if peace in cyber space is truly the goal

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH CYBER DÉTENTE

COULD LEAD TO LASTING PEACE

Signing cyber agreement would only be “a dead letter” if States Parties did not make a concerted fort to undertake specific activities and actions that could lead to lasting peace By accepting the cyber détente, countries that are signatories of the agreement should be obliged to take steps toward reaching the compliance in terms of defining cyber threats (especially the phenomena of cyber warfare, cyber terrorism and cyber espionage), to perceive the level of their securitization in their national framework, and then consider the possibility of reaching consensus on the treatment of cyber-crimes

ef-CYBER THREATS: PROBLEMS OF DENOTATION, (HYPER)

SECURITIZATION AND DESECURITIZATION

The discourse of security in cyberspace at the beginning of the 21st century is defined by four main categories of cyber threats, which differ based on whether they are associated with state or non-state factors (Nye, 2012) Cyber war and cyber espionage are initiated and encouraged by states, while cyber-crimes and cyber terrorism are initiated and encouraged by non-state elements (terrorists and criminals)

In the initial discourse, this was discussed about cyber war, but in the last several years, the term cyber warfare was imposed to emphasize the continuity and complexity of threats that require participation of armed forces, for war is the main purpose of the armed forces As we know, every war has its start and

an end, participants and legal framework, whereas cyber warfare is a far vaguer and temporally unlimited definition of conflict and opponents Using the discourse of militarization in an abstract space also leads

to problems in determining the threat and the appropriate response of an attacked country if we talk about the conflicting sides in the war In practical terms, this also includes the answer to the question

of whether cyber-attack is allowed to fight back with kinetic weapons Cyber space has undoubtedly become a universally accessible battlefield, the scene of conflicts which present all the complexity of relations arising from the process of globalization and its consequences It is therefore not surprising that the issue of cyber security has become a priority in the last two decades and that a number of docu-ments show that conflict in cyberspace will greatly supplement the “kinetic” nature of future conflicts This claim is supported by US, UK and RF doctrinal and strategic documents on cyber security, as well

as the recommendations of the Council of Europe no R (89) 9 on computer crime (Problems, 1990), The Council of Europe’s Convention on Cybercrime (Budapest Convention on cybercrime, 2002) and Resolution 65/230 of the General Assembly of the UN (United Nations, 2011), among many others.However, despite the fact that the perception of cyber threats is significant, imprecise and inconsis-tent use of the whole concept of cyber warfare and other terms having similar but imprecise meaning, has wiped out the differences between civilian and military targets, and also has actualized issues of categorization and systematization of subjects of threats in cyber space Today there is a large number of ways to classify a threat and categorize its actors, but this is always done for someone and for something – for the purposes of certain national or international institutions None of them is universally accepted.Evidently, there is a need for a universal and accepted classification of cyber threats and their ac-tors A clear and unambiguous definition of denotation of the basic concepts and their categorization

is important not only from the standpoint of epistemology, but also from a practical point of view Can the problem of cyber (in) security be solved if we don’t know its basic causes? Who are the actors of security threats; what are their goals and motives? Are they individuals, organizations or state structures?

Is endangered cyber space security a consequence of conflicting interests the actors in cyber space have,

or is it a problem with their different value orientations as well? These questions should be answered

by science, not political and military establishments of countries that are confronted in cyber space

If we observe the discourse of cyber space security in terms of securitization theory, the process of securitization is clearly successful Using striking metaphors in their speech acts, the main actors in the process of securitization present the cyber space security as an essentially important and unavoidable issue modern countries currently have Some authors refer to securitization as an extreme version of politicization and argue that certain cyber threats are hyper-securitized (hyper-politicized), which fur-ther complicates the problem of their definition and scientific systematization Hyper-securitization of cyber threats can be viewed from three different discourses: discourse of technical and software threats

based on metaphors from the world of microbiology and biology; discourse of spies, criminals and rorists based on metaphors related to crime and the fight against crime; and military-defense discourse

ter-of information warfare, deterrence and protection ter-of critical infrastructure based on metaphors ter-of war and interstate conflict (Stojkanović, 2013)

Hyper-securitization is recognized in the fact that cyber threat is established as condensed threat, defined by diverse cultural, media and political factors that create a successful mixture of threat and fascination with the new and unknown Cyber space becomes a metaphorical space that is more difficult

to control than state borders, so in politicians’ discourse we frequently find foreign “intruders” or “spies” (spies and identity thieves) that impair the safety of the cyber community A part of the problem of cyber security discourse is the very nature of cyberspace, which is defined as variable, infinite and unknown Therefore, there is a need for a strong and clear regulation of conduct in the area whose boundaries are difficult to define In the discourse of the US and UK military and political establishment, cyber space

is subjected to regulations and defined in the way state and social entities are defined, even though the nature of its volatility is continuously emphasized in all major strategic documents: “Cyberspace perme-ates nearly all the threats and factors listed in the National security strategy: it affects all of us, transcends national borders, to a considerable extent remains unknown while the technology that creates it is still rapidly developing” (Cyber security strategy of the United Kingdom, 2009)

The discourse of cyber security also gains a dimension of temporality, for cyber-attacks are constantly present and expected Despite all the measures, complete security can never be provided, and in the near future we can expect “electronic Chernobyl” (Azoulay, 2009); “digital bombs” (Akinyemi, 2014); “cy-ber Hurricane Katrina” (Ingersoll, 2013) and (Brito & Watkins, 2011); “digital Waterloo” (Marinescu, 2015), and “cyber Pearl Harbor” (Brito & Watkins, 2011) Since the nineties of the twentieth century, the category of negative actors in cyber space has been constantly expanding and potential opponents are divided into various categories – from script kiddies to cyber terrorist and special state teams called cyber warriors Cyber space is no longer a field where law and police should act; it has become a battlefield where military potentials have to be engaged In modern military doctrines, cyber space has gained the status of the fifth combat area, along with land, water, air and the space A growing number of authors believe that, in the future, primary battles will be fought in cyber space, while some countries are already preparing for such a concept for waging wars (Ifrah, 2008)

By making a connection between cyber security and the discourse of the military terminology and the language of war, and using metaphors to describe great disasters in cyber space, the rhetoric of cyber space becomes the rhetoric of threat which now includes skilled, sneaky external elements, and foreigners that act against the interest of the state and lives of its citizens (Stojkanović, 2013) Modern, developed countries have to maintain their economic supremacy and provide the infrastructure that superiority is based on, because “every intrusion, manipulation, sabotage, interruption or even destruction of some of these networks and systems” leaves consequences for the whole of society (Colarik, 2006) Terrorists are no longer primitive opponents; in the new discourse of threat they become intelligent and capable opponents, ready to create cyber bombs equally effective as firearms The process of cyber space milita-rization started during the first war with Iraq in 1991, after which the information cyber wars practically became a part of military doctrine Especially after September 11, 2001 and the beginning of “global war against terrorism”, the discourse of security in cyber space becomes semantically and symbolically associated with the current military rhetoric (Stojkanović, 2013) Cyber threats are inextricably linked to cyber terrorism and war operations Therefore, together with hidden and time bombs in the real world,

warheads – the term payload is used, which refers to the part of computer virus’s code that performs malicious function The same term, payload, is used in the military terminology for lethal cargo capac-ity or the amount of bombs an airplane drops on the target In that way, the lethality of virus’s code is metaphorically equated with the lethality of combat cargo or missile warhead As viruses are no longer created merely by individuals, but countries, as well, the virus has acquired the status of a legal police

or military weapons Today such militarized viruses cause cases of “friendly fire” – incidents when viruses designed to harm the opponent, damage their own computer networks and systems, just like a real life mistake leads to deaths of their own troops (Stojkanović, 2013) The US Congress has also been active in “securitization” of the cyber war rhetoric There have been warnings issued by congressmen of

“catastrophic economic loss and social chaos” that would be the result of cyber-attacks (Brito & Watkins, 2011) Even though no evidence has been provided to support these claims, equating cyber weapons and cyber war with physical weapons and the direct comparison has boosted the discourse of cyber threat

A similar thing happened in the speeches the UK authorities made about securitization, establishing the security of cyber space through spatial metaphors Former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown

in the foreword of Cyber security strategy of the United Kingdom wrote: “Just like in the 19th century

we had to secure the seas for our national safety and prosperity, and in the 20th century we had to secure the air, in the 21st century we also have to secure our position in cyber space in order to give people and businesses the confidence they need to operate safely there” (Cyber security strategy of the United Kingdom, 2009)

At the same time, many countries formed special types of armed forces intended for war in cyber space The discourse of cyber security supports cyber space militarization and abstract war in cyber space becomes continuous, i.e a metaphorical extension of wars and other conflicts in the real world (Barnard-Wills & Ashenden, 2012)

Securitization of cyber threats (and especially their hyper securitization) brings certain changes when

it comes to security policy of a state Some cyber threats (e.g cyber warfare, cyber terrorism etc.) through successful (hyper) securitization become relevant in terms of security and lead to the establishment of mechanisms which will allow an adequate response and way of dealing with them The materialization

of cyber threat securitization usually reflects in adoption of certain normative documents that will make the aforementioned dealing with cyber threats possible In the US, in the period following the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, a number of documents were issued relating to cyber threats The most significant ones are National Strategy to Secure Cyber space released in 2003 and International Strategy for Cyber Space in 2011 (Von Solms & Van Niekerk, 2013) By adoption of specific normative documents, response to the threat becomes institutionalized and a part of daily security and political praxis which may involve recourse to excessive military countermeasures or boosting state control and supervision.States Parties to Cyber détente would have to review the level of cyber threat securitization within their national framework and express preparedness to carry out the reverse process-desecuritization, when needed Desecuritization involves restoring a certain question from a securitized state of emer-gency to the normal field of normal political sphere negotiations Cyber threat desecuritization would

be the first step and the optimal long-term option necessary in peacekeeping activities This process consists of three phases First, there is a reaction and the purpose of changing the discourse comes out

in public debates Next, what was assumed to be a threat now turns into a problem which, as one may say, returns to the sector of normal politics Finally, the measures appropriate for state of emergency are abandoned and “the empire of panic policy” is left There is a possibility of canceling the emergency measures without the public debate, which leaves the problem solvable within political institutions - for