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Introduction to the Test Bank 1

1 Perspectives on Learning 2

2 Learning and the Brain 7

3 Behaviorist Principles and Theories

4 Applications of Behaviorist Principles 3

5 Social Cognitive Theory 52

6 Introduction to Cognitivism 69

7 Basic Components of Memory 78

8 Long-Term Memory Store and Retrieval Processes 90

9 The Nature of Knowledge 109

10 Cognitive-Developmental Perspectives 125

11 Sociocultural Theory and Other Contextual Perspectives 135

12 Metacognition, Self-Regulated Learning, and Study Strategies 154 13 Transfer, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking 168

14 Motivation and Affect 187

15 Cognitive Factors in Motivation 205

1-15 Integrative Essay Questions 223

INTRODUCTION TO THE TEST BANK

The items in this test bank include many items that appear in test banks for previous

editions of Human Learning Items that are no longer relevant to the book’s content have

been deleted Other items have been revised to enhance clarity or reflect new research in the field And there are numerous new items that reflect modifications and additions to the sixth edition of the book For the most part, items are written to emphasize

comprehension and application, rather than knowledge learned in a rote manner

Separate sets of multiple-choice and essay questions are presented for each chapter of the book In a final section are additional essay questions that require integration of material from two or more chapters

Multiple-Choice Questions

Each multiple choice question has only one correct answer Students sometimes like to have an opportunity to defend the alternatives they choose Jeanne Ormrod recommends that you may want to consider allowing students to write defenses on the back of the answer sheet; in her experience, this procedure minimizes the extent to which students try

to make after-the-fact arguments for incorrect choices

CHAPTER 1

PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING Multiple Choice Questions

1 Human beings undoubtedly learn more during the course of a lifetime than any other species on earth The major result of this capacity to learn is that:

a New instincts begin to emerge

b Human thought becomes less logical with each generation

c Humans can benefit from their experiences

d Humans are the only species whose behavior cannot be analyzed in terms

of stimuli and responses

2 Three of the following are examples of learning Which one is not?

a Abigail cries when she steps on a sharp pebble

b After many hours of heated debate, Brian begins to advocate political practices he has previously opposed

c Cara suddenly recognizes how the division fact “24 ÷ 4 = 6” is related to the multiplication fact “6 x 4 = 24.”

d David has been running away from German shepherds ever since he was bitten by a German shepherd two years ago

3 Reynelda has trouble tracing a complex shape with a pencil when she is in kindergarten, but she can do it quite well by the time she is in second grade Is this

an instance of learning?

a Yes, because her behavior has changed

b No, because the circumstances are too dissimilar

c Maybe, although the change may simply be due to physiological

maturation

d Maybe, but only if she is being reinforced for tracing accurately

4 Three of the following illustrate various ways that learning might be reflected

in a person’s behavior Which one of the following changes does not necessarily

reflect learning?

a Although it’s a school night, Dean plays video games until well past his usual bedtime As he becomes more tired, he finds it increasingly difficult

to concentrate on what he’s doing

b Even as a young child, Jerry could tell you that his grandparents

immigrated to the United States from Ireland But after a conversation with his grandmother, he can now describe the circumstances of the family’s immigration in considerable detail

c Day after day, Martin practices his basketball skills (shooting, dribbling, etc.) on a basketball court at a local park With each practice session, his movements become faster and smoother

d Lewis occasionally asks for help when he has difficulty with his

classwork, but most of the time he just struggles quietly on his own After his teacher assures him that asking for help is not a sign of weakness or inability, he begins asking for help much more frequently

5 _ research examines learning in tightly controlled settings and _ research examines learning in real-world settings

a Applied; Basic

b Basic; Qualitative

c Qualitative; Applied

d Basic; Applied

6 A principle of learning can best be characterized as:

a A description of the results of a particular research study

b A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning

c The measurement of how much learning has occurred in a particular

situation

d An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs

7 A theory of learning can best be characterized as:

a A description of the results of a particular research study

b A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning

c The measurement of how much learning has occurred in a particular

situation

d An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs

8 Three of the following are principles of learning Which one is a theory of

learning rather than a principle?

a A behavior that is followed by punishment decreases in frequency

b People learn by making mental associations between new information and their existing knowledge

c A response that is rewarded every time it occurs increases more rapidly than a response that is only occasionally rewarded

d Students tend to remember more of a lecture if they take notes on the lecture’s content

9 Which one of the following common sayings best reflects the concept of

introspection?

a “Where there’s a will, there’s a way.”

b “Nothing ventured, nothing gained.”

c “A penny for your thoughts.”

d “Old habits die hard.”

10 Which one of the following common sayings best reflects the basic premise

underlying social learning theory?

a “Monkey see, monkey do.”

b “Spare the rod and spoil the child.”

c “A friend in need is a friend indeed.”

d “A rolling stone gathers no moss.”

11 Which one of the following statements provides the most credible explanation for the fact that human beings seem to surpass all other animal species in their thinking and learning capacities?

a Only human beings have the capability to make tools

b Humans communicate regularly with one another and, in doing so, pass along what they’ve learned to future generations

c Human beings have a huge repertoire of instinctual behaviors from which they can draw when they encounter new experiences

d Human brains are smaller than those of other intelligent species (e.g., elephants, dolphins) and therefore can transmit messages more quickly and efficiently

12 Behaviorists and cognitivists tend to focus on different aspects of learning Which one of the following statements best describes this difference?

a Behaviorism focuses on temporary changes; cognitivism focuses on

relatively permanent changes

b Behaviorism focuses on relatively permanent changes; cognitivism focuses

on temporary changes

c Behaviorism focuses on internal mental changes; cognitivism focuses on external behavioral changes

d Behaviorism focuses on external behavioral changes; cognitivism focuses

on internal mental changes

13 Theories are advantageous in several ways Three of the following describe

advantages of learning theories Which one does not?

a Theories enable objective, unbiased reporting of research findings

b Theories help to condense large bodies of information

c Theories help practitioners design interventions that facilitate learning

d Theories provide an impetus for new research

14 Which one of the following statements is most accurate statement regarding

theories of learning?

a They have been proven to be true

b They will eventually be replaced by physiological explanations of how learning occurs

c They are often modified as new data emerge

d Any theory can be used to explain virtually every instance of learning

15 The textbook’s perspective regarding various theories of learning is that:

a Behaviorist theories are probably more accurate

b Cognitivist theories are probably more accurate

c There is currently no “right” theory, but one will eventually be developed

d Different theories may be applicable in different situations

2 Distinguish between principles and theories of learning, and give a specific

example of each

3 Theories of learning have both advantages and disadvantages Describe at least two advantages and one disadvantage; in each case, explain the particular effect that the advantage or disadvantage has on the advancement of our understanding

of human learning

CHAPTER 2

LEARNING AND THE BRAIN Multiple Choice Questions

1 Which one of the following is the best example of the central nervous system

(rather than peripheral nervous system) at work?

a Parts of the hindbrain are involved in regulating heart rate

b Cells in the retina at the back of the eye transmit information about light

c Some cells in the nose respond to certain kinds of chemicals

d Some cells in the skin are sensitive to heat or cold

2 Which one of the following statements most accurately describes a neuron’s

threshold of excitation?

a A neuron responds when it is stimulated by some of its neighboring neurons, but not when it is stimulated by other neighbors

b A neuron fires only when its electrical charge reaches a particular level

c A neuron is receptive to stimulation from other neurons only at points where there are gaps in its myelin sheath

d A neuron will fire at a maximum rate of no more than once every three seconds

3 Which one of the following best describes how neurons transmit messages to

one another?

a By stimulating the growth of surrounding glial cells

b By attaching themselves to the same terminal buttons

c By fusing the axon of one with a dendrite of the other

d By sending chemical substances across a tiny gap between them

4 Which one of the following is the best example of a reflex as psychologists

define the term?

a Going to sleep when you are tired

b Feeling sad when a close relative dies

c Pulling your foot away from a painful object

d Jumping up and down for joy when you get a good grade

5 Three of the following describe methods what researchers commonly use to

determine how the human brain probably functions Which one is not a

commonly used method to study the brain?

a Documenting the behaviors of people with various kinds of brain injuries

b Recording brain activity through PET scans, CAT scans, and similar technologies

c Measuring the levels of various hormones and other substances in the blood

d Removing a certain part of an animal’s brain and observing the animal’s subsequent behaviors

6 After a severe head injury, Mary has exceptional difficulty setting goals and in other ways planning her actions Without knowing anything else about Mary’s injury, you might reasonably conclude that it affected her:

a Writing a speech for a political campaign

b Following the logic of a persuasive argument

c Solving for x in a complex algebraic equation

d Recognizing human forms in a Picasso painting

8 Given the roles that the right hemisphere typically plays in language

comprehension, which one of the following tasks would rely most heavily on the right hemisphere?

a Hearing the rhyme in the words hypocrisy and democracy

b Writing precise definitions of abstract words such as hypocrisy and

9 Given what psychologists believe to be true about how information is typically

stored in the brain, how is the concept dog probably represented in your brain?

a As a single neuron located in the prefrontal cortex

b As a network of neurons spread across multiple brain regions

c As a cluster of interconnected neurons located in the left parietal lobe

d As a cluster of interconnected neurons located in one of the occipital lobes

10 Which one of the following best describes the growth of neurons during the prenatal period?

a An overabundance of neurons emerges early in prenatal development, but about half of the neurons die before birth

b Neurons continue to be generated at a rapid rate throughout the last six months of the prenatal period

c Neurons begin to develop in the fifth month of pregnancy, and they proliferate rapidly during the third trimester

d Neurons that will support basic physiological functioning appear in the first two months after conception; those that will be responsible for higher-level thinking processes don’t appear until two or three months before birth

11 In the human brain, a great deal of synaptic pruning occurs in early childhood

This pruning appears to be:

a The unfortunate result of insufficiently stimulating home environments

b An adaptive process that allows children to deal more efficiently with their environment

c Due to an imbalance of important nutrients, and especially to low levels of the B vitamins in many children’s diets

d Reflective of the fact that the forebrain is slowly taking over

responsibility for functions that have previously been regulated by the hindbrain and midbrain

12 As children grow older, many of their neurons begin to transmit messages more rapidly than they did in the early years of life, thanks to:

13 During the elementary and secondary school years, much of the brain’s

development occurs in regions of the brain that are largely responsible for

a thinking and reasoning

b generation of emotional responses

c muscular strength and coordination

d making discriminations among highly similar stimuli

14 John is an adolescent who makes impulsive decisions (e.g., ditching school) and engages in risky behavior (e.g., driving well over the speed limit) His behavior can best be explained by which of the following?

a Adolescents have limited concepts of consequences and punishment

b Adolescents’ brain stems are still not fully developed, and will not be until middle adulthood

c Adolescents’ pre-frontal cortices are still not fully developed and will not be until their late teens and early twenties

d During adolescence, synaptic pruning has stopped

15 According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most true regarding factors that influence brain development?

a Genetic factors have the strongest influence on brain development, particularly later in life

b Environmental factors and people’s experiences have the strongest influence on brain development in middle childhood

c Together, brain development is shaped by genetic and environmental factors throughout the life span

d Environmental factors are particularly influential in abnormal brain development

16 Three of the following statements are consistent with research findings about

factors that influence brain development Which statement has not been

c High levels of toxic substances (e.g., lead, pesticides) have their

greatest negative impact after puberty

d Opportunities to learn certain skills may lead to detectable differences in brain structures or patterns of brain activation

17 In which one of the following situations should we be most concerned about

missing a critical period in a person’s development?

a Rachel is born with a cataract in her left eye that is surgically removed when she is 8 years old

b Phoebe doesn’t learn how to write until she is 12 years old

c Although Ross knows how to count, he gets no formal instruction in mathematics until he is 15

d Joey has his first tennis lesson when he is 25

18 Which one of the following best exemplifies experience-expectant plasticity?

a Learning how to play the guitar

b Mastering one’s native language

c Understanding abstract ideas in philosophy

d Applying principles of psychology to real-world settings

19 Which one of the following best exemplifies experience-dependent plasticity?

a Hearing subtle differences in similar-sounding words

b Learning how to pronounce words like a native speaker

c Learning syntactical structures of one’s native language

d Learning how to read

20 Which one of the following research findings is most consistent with the

concept of core knowledge as described in the textbook?

a Children must have basic knowledge of numbers and counting before they can master arithmetic operations such as addition and

d Very young infants appear to have more knowledge of the physical world than they could have acquired from their own, limited experiences with objects

21 Which one of the following best describes mirror neurons?

a They are pairs of neurons that have identical functions on opposite sides of the cortex

b They are the primary reason why infants can recognize their own

reflections as early as 3 months of age

c They fire when a person either makes a particular response or observes someone else make that response

d They are the only kinds of neurons that are consistently found in all primate species

22 Which one of the following best describes psychologists’ current beliefs about the brain and learning?

a Learning involves changes in synapses and possibly also involves the growth of new neurons and astrocytes

b Large doses of certain vitamins promote brain growth and lead to more rapid learning

c Left-hemisphere-dominant individuals are, on average, more effective learners than right-hemisphere-dominant individuals

d The brains of rapid learners are about 20% larger than the brains of slower learners

23 Naomi wakes up several hours after a severe blow to her head has rendered her unconscious She can remember nothing about events leading up to the incident,

reflecting the importance of _ in learning and memory

a neurogenesis

b consolidation

c a critical period

d the corpus callosum

24 According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most warranted from research on brain development?

a To become truly skilled in such domains as art and music, children should begin systematic instruction in these domains before the age of five

b The ability to think abstractly depends on the development of many synaptic connections during the first five years of life

c Children probably won’t acquire the basic skills essential to succeed in the adult world (e.g., reading, writing, math) unless they begin

developing those skills in the early elementary grades at the latest

d Classroom experiences can significantly enhance people’s cognitive development throughout the elementary, secondary, and post-secondary school years

Essay Questions

1 The textbook describes five general research methods that scientists use to

determine how the brain functions In three short paragraphs, describe three of

them

2 Several teachers tell you that they are “teaching to students’ right brains” by spending a lot of time on painting, map interpretation, geometry, and other highly visual and/or spatial activities Critique their claim using what you have learned about how the human brain functions

3 Someone tries to convince you that parents should put their children in

enriching preschool environments by their second birthday at the latest How would you respond to this individual? In your response:

a State whether you agree or disagree with the person

b Defend your position given recent findings about brain development Include the following concepts in your discussion:

i synaptogenesis

ii synaptic pruning iii experience-expectant and experience-dependent plasticity

CHAPTER 3

BEHAVIORIST PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES Multiple Choice Questions

1 Which one of the following statements best describes the view of early

behaviorists about how learning can best be studied?

a Psychologists can determine how learning occurs only if they can identify its physiological basis

b Introspection—reporting what and how one is thinking—is likely to yield the most accurate results

c To study learning scientifically, researchers must confine their

investigations to animal research in a laboratory setting

d The study of learning will be more objective and scientific if only

observable events are considered

2 When behaviorists describe an organism as a “black box,” they mean that:

a Many stimuli have no noticeable effect on the organism

b Learning processes occurring within the organism cannot be studied

3 Which one of the following statements best reflects behaviorists’ notion of

tabula rasa (“blank slate”)?

a Organisms inherit few predispositions to behave in particular ways;

instead, the behaviors they exhibit are largely the result of environmental experiences

b Stimuli that occur after responses are made are usually more influential on

an organism’s learning that stimuli that occur before responses are made

c The things that organisms learn in a new situation largely override the things that they’ve learned in previous situations; as a result, newly learned behaviors often replace previously learned behaviors

d Learning is more a function of what the environment does to the organism than of what the organism does to the environment; in other words, the organism plays a relatively passive role in the learning process

4 Ivan Pavlov conducted a series of studies that led him to propose his theory of

classical conditioning In these studies, Pavlov observed how a dog learned to:

a Bark when meat was presented

b Bark when meat was taken away

c Wake up when an auditory stimulus (e.g., a bell) was presented

d Salivate to a simple stimulus such as a light or bell

5 Classical conditioning typically occurs when:

a A response is followed by two stimuli

b A response is followed by a single aversive stimulus

c Two stimuli are presented at about the same time

d Two responses occur (usually coincidentally) at about the same time

6 Which one of the following responses is most likely to be learned through

classical conditioning?

a Feeling anxious around horses

b Taking a walk on a nice day

c Doing homework

d Waving to a friend

7 When Julie’s father comes home from work he opens the front door and picks her up to give her a big hug Before long, Julie starts smiling whenever she hears her father turn his key to open the door In this situation, Julie’s smiling at the sound of her father’s key turning in the door is a(n) _; the hugging is a(n) _

a unconditioned stimulus; conditioned response

b unconditioned response; conditioned stimulus

c conditioned stimulus; unconditional response

d conditioned response; unconditional stimulus

8 After repeatedly being hugged by her father when he comes through the door, Julie begins to smile when she hears a key turning to open the door opening by any person Julie’s behavior can be explained by:

a Generalization

b extinguishing a conditioned response

c stimulus discrimination

d counterconditioning

10 At the dentist’s office, Teresa has a painful experience that leaves her tense and fearful The next time her mother brings her to the dentist’s office, Teresa begins

to get tense and anxious In this situation, the dentist and dentist’s office are _; Teresa’s fear of pain is a(n) _

a unconditioned stimuli; conditioned response

b unconditioned responses; conditioned stimulus

c conditioned stimuli; unconditioned response

d conditioned responses; unconditioned stimulus

11 After a painful experience at one dentist’s office, Teresa’s mother takes Teresa

to a different dentist, who takes great care to make her visits painless Teresa is anxious at first, but after a few visits, Teresa gradually becomes less resistant about going to the new dentist Teresa’s change in behavior can probably best be explained in terms of _ But then Teresa doesn’t go to see the dentist again until three years later On her first visit to the painless dentist after that time interval, she is anxious once again, even though she had not been anxious in her previous visits The return of this response after it had previously disappeared is known as _

a extinction; spontaneous recovery

b generalization; discriminative learning

c higher-order conditioning; discriminative learning

d generalization; higher-order conditioning

12 Jacob is suffering from a mild case of flu and, as a result, is feeling a bit

nauseous He decides that he needs to eat something to keep up his strength, so he gets out of bed, puts on a heavy sweater to keep himself warm, heats up a bowl of leftover chili, and settles down in an easy chair to watch a television game show while he eats A few days later, after Jacob has recovered from the flu, one of the stimuli in the situation just described elicits a feeling of nausea With the

phenomenon of associative bias in mind, choose the stimulus that is most likely to

elicit nausea

a The sweater

b The chili

c The easy chair

d The television game show

13 Paul is usually successful on the math problems his teacher assigns at school, although he occasionally fails on one or two problems In contrast, Peter’s

experiences with mathematics are almost always associated with frustration and failure Considering contemporary views of the roles of contiguity and

contingency in classical conditioning, who will acquire classically conditioned anxiety regarding mathematics?

a Both Paul and Peter will develop a considerable degree of mathematics anxiety

b Only Paul will develop math anxiety, because the relationship between math and failure is unpredictable

c Only Peter will develop math anxiety, because whenever math is

presented, failure always follows

d Neither Paul nor Peter will develop math anxiety, because neither situation reflects contingency of the CS and UCS

14 If students associate failure with punishment, and then associate playing sports

with failure, they may begin to fear playing sports through a process of:

a Cognitive factors, such as mental representations of stimuli and

predictions that organisms make, must often be considered in addition to observable stimuli and responses

b Despite Pavlov’s early findings to the contrary, higher-order conditioning and generalization seldom occur

c Classical conditioning typically occurs only in conjunction with operant conditioning; for example, conditioned stimuli elicit conditioned responses only when those responses are followed by reinforcement

d Classical conditioning occurs primarily in artificial laboratory conditions;

it rarely occurs in more naturalistic, real-life settings

16 David is addicted to a drug that increases his blood sugar level, temporarily giving him more energy David always takes this drug in the bathroom He finds that he becomes tired when he enters the bathroom and also that he needs more and more of the drug to maintain the same high energy level From the perspective

of classical conditioning, which one of the following is the most likely

explanation of David’s increasing addiction to the drug?

a Lowering blood sugar level to counteract the effect of the drug has become

a conditioned response to the “bathroom” stimulus

b David has learned to respond to some drugs but not to others through the combined processes of stimulus discrimination and higher-order

17 Extinction is one method of eliminating undesirable conditioned responses, but

there are several problems associated with its use Which one is not a problem

encountered in using extinction?

a Some responses extinguish slowly, if at all

b Extinguished responses may reappear through spontaneous recovery

c Extinction often occurs too quickly to be controlled

d Organisms tend to stay away from stimuli they have learned to fear, thus preventing their exposure to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

18 After being bitten by a neighbor’s dog, Kathy is now afraid of the puppy her family has just adopted Kathy’s father gives Kathy a hot fudge sundae; then, while she is happily eating it, he brings the puppy about fifteen feet from where she is sitting On each successive day, Kathy gets another ice cream treat, and her father brings the puppy a little closer than he did on the previous day Eventually Kathy is able to pet and enjoy the new puppy Kathy’s father is using a procedure known as:

a generalization

b stimulus discrimination

c extinction

d counterconditioning

19 Nick is extremely anxious whenever he takes a test From a classical

conditioning perspective, a teacher can best reduce his anxiety by:

a Giving him a few extremely difficult tests at first, and then gradually giving him easier ones

b Giving him a few easy tests while he is feeling relaxed

c Reinforcing him for each test question he answers correctly

d Reassuring him that he can do well if he tries hard

20 Which one of the following educational practices is most clearly derived from behaviorist principles?

a Having students make overt responses

b Teaching students how to apply information

c Asking students to generate questions about what they read

d Presenting information in a logical sequence that stresses interrelationships among idea

21 Thorndike’s original law of effect described the ways in which the learning of a

response:

a has an effect on other organisms

b has an effect on stimuli in the environment

c has an effect on other responses

d is affected by the consequences of that response

22 A child who was once spanked for running into a busy street no longer runs into the street This can best be explained by which one of the following?

a Pavlov’s concept of extinction

b Thorndike’s original law of effect

c Thorndike’s revised law of effect

d Skinner’s basic principle of operant conditioning

23 Mr Loosigian is worried about Jerri, a girl who is struggling in his seventh grade class He thinks about several different reasons why she might be having so much difficulty with her schoolwork Which one of the possible reasons that he

considers is consistent with a behaviorist perspective of learning?

a “Maybe she isn’t paying attention as much as she should be.”

b “Maybe I don’t praise her enough when she does something well.”

c “Maybe she has trouble understanding the things she reads.”

d “Maybe she has trouble remembering things from one day to the next.”

24 When Lily is presented with money after many different behaviors (e.g.,

cleaning her room, getting a good grade or eating her vegetables) she is more likely to perform each of those behaviors The fact that this single reinforcer (i.e., money) can increase many of Lily’s behaviors is explained by:

a Classical conditioning

b Instrumental conditioning

c Transituational generality

d Secondary reinforcement theory

25 Six-year-old Jack has recently learned to appreciate the value of money, so his father assigns him some simple housekeeping chores to be performed throughout the week He tells Jack that completion of these chores will earn him an allowance

of one dollar every Saturday Jack rarely completes his chores From an operant

conditioning perspective, which one of the following is most likely to be the

reason why Jack is not doing his chores?

a There is a delay in reinforcement

b Reinforcement is not contingent on the desired response

c Money is rarely an effective reinforcer for people

d The “reinforcer” is presented before the response

26 Mr Smart tells his students that they can do whatever they want for the first ten minutes of class but must then turn their attention to the day’s assignment The students are delighted with their ten minutes of free time but they don’t attend to

the assignment when it’s time to do so From an operant conditioning perspective,

what mistake has Mr Smart made?

a There is a delay in reinforcement

b He has used negative reinforcement instead of positive reinforcement

c Free time is not an effective reinforcer for the students

d The “reinforcer” is presented before the response

27 Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two learning paradigms within the behaviorist tradition A major difference between these two paradigms

c Classically conditioned responses are voluntary, whereas responses

learned through operant conditioning are elicited by specific stimuli

d Classically conditioned responses are elicited by specific stimuli, whereas responses learned through operant conditioning are voluntary

28 Which one of the following is a primary reinforcer?

a A cookie

b A good grade

c A thousand dollars

d A feeling of pride about a job well done

29 Good grades are reinforcing to some children but not to others Someone

explaining this fact from an early operant conditioning perspective would say that

good grades are most likely to be reinforcers to children who:

a Have never received a grade above C

b Come from middle-income or upper-income backgrounds

c Have previously associated those grades with primary reinforcers

d Have been told that good grades are important for getting a college

scholarship

30 Bill’s behaviors in Ms Kennedy’s class are really distracting to other students For example, he whispers to the boy beside him when Ms Kennedy is giving directions on how to do any assignment He flings paper clips at a girl across the room He makes strange grunting noises that a few classmates find amusing Ms Kennedy glares at him or admonishes him whenever he behaves in a distracting

way, yet his inappropriate behaviors are increasing rather than decreasing Which

one of the following interpretations of this situation best explains why Bill’s

behaviors are increasing?

a Ms Kennedy is positively reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors

b Ms Kennedy is negatively reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors

c Ms Kennedy is vicariously reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors

d Ms Kennedy is punishing him for the distracting behaviors

31 Which one of the following is the best example of a social reinforcer?

a Getting a new outfit you think is “cool”

b Being allowed to play basketball at a friend’s house after you finish your homework

c Being told that you did a good job

d Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

32 Which one of the following is the best example of intrinsic reinforcement?

a Getting a new outfit you think is “cool”

b Being allowed to play basketball at a friend’s house after you finish your homework

33 Feedback about one’s performance is most likely to be effective when it:

a Is given after a short delay (perhaps 30 minutes after the performance)

b Describes only the things that the person has done correctly

c Comes from a peer rather than from an authority figure

d Provides information about how to improve

34 Which one of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

a When Kevin does his homework, his teacher praises him profusely, to the point that it embarrasses him

b When Kathleen insults another student while waiting in line for lunch, her teacher moves her to the end of the line

c When Lucas complains about a classmate who is picking on him, his teacher allows him to come in from recess on bitterly cold days

d When Priscilla answers a teacher’s question incorrectly, Mike teases her unmercifully

35 David’s mother insists that he vacuum the living room carpet But when she sees how haphazardly he vacuums (he misses two-thirds of the carpet), she tells him, “Never mind, I’ll do it!” David’s escape of household chores:

a positively reinforced

b negatively reinforced

c punished

d an example of passive avoidance learning

36 Which one of the following best illustrates Skinner’s concept of superstitious

behavior?

a Alice is praised for her accurate bookkeeping at work After that, she continues to keep accurate books at work She also begins to be more careful about balancing her personal checkbook each month, even though she receives no reinforcement for doing so

b Bradley thinks his reinforcement for cleaning his apartment is the good feeling that a clean place gives him In reality, he cleans only when company is coming, and it is his company that makes him feel good

c Charlotte misinterprets a teacher’s praise as sarcasm and therefore as punishment rather than reinforcement

d David usually struggles with his geography exams, but he recently got high scores on two occasions when he wore a Denver Broncos sweatshirt to school He now wears his Broncos sweatshirt whenever a geography test is scheduled

37 Imagine that you want to improve a distractible child’s ability to sit still and listen in class Which one of the following procedures illustrates how you might

use shaping to do so?

a Explain the purpose of sitting quietly before reinforcement begins

b Reinforce the child for sitting still on some occasions, but not on others

c Reinforce the child for sitting still and listening for only a minute, then for progressively longer and longer periods of time

d Frequently change the specific consequence you use to reinforce sitting still-and-listening behavior (e.g., you might use candy a few times, then praise, then privileges, and so on)

38 A ski instructor is teaching a class of beginning skiers how to do a snowplow turn She first teaches her students to stand with the fronts of their skis together and the backs of their skis far apart She then has her students bend their knees slightly and lean forward in this “snowplow” position After the students can do these two things successfully, the instructor has them add more behaviors to the sequence: gliding across the side of a gentle slope in a snowplow, putting their body weight on the downhill ski, gradually turning downhill, and so on The instructor praises her students each time they successfully add a new movement to the sequence In behaviorist terminology, the procedure that the ski instructor is using can best be described as:

a the Premack principle

b chaining

c a differential schedule of reinforcement

d higher-level conditioning

Note: Questions 39 and 40 both refer to the same situation

39 Warren has earned himself a reputation for being the class clown His teacher,

Ms Washington, used to laugh at Warren’s funny remarks, but is now trying to discourage Warren’s disruptive behavior by ignoring his jokes In behaviorist terminology, Ms Washington is now trying to modify Warren’s joke-telling behavior through:

a stimulus discrimination

b extinction

c shaping

d negative reinforcement

40 Ms Washington tries to ignore Warren when he tells jokes in class But

sometimes Warren tells a joke so funny that Ms Washington laughs in spite of herself Rather than decreasing his joke-telling, Warren begins telling even more outrageous jokes Inadvertently, Ms Washington is modifying Warren’s joke-telling behavior through:

a stimulus discrimination

b extinction

c shaping

d negative reinforcement

41 In the basement of Marcy’s college dormitory is a Coke machine that dispenses

a can of Coke whenever someone firmly pounds the side of the machine Marcy is delighted when she discovers this fact, because she can now get Cokes from the machine without having to pay for them One morning a repairman fixes the machine The next time Marcy goes to get a soft drink from the machine, she finds that her usual pounding strategy doesn’t yield her the Coke she wants But rather than insert the required coins to purchase a drink, Marcy begins pounding the side

of the machine vigorously for several minutes In behaviorist terminology,

Marcy’s behavior at this point can best be described as:

a an extinction burst

b discrimination

c shaping

d a response reinforced by an activity reinforcer

42 Tiffany is a hyperactive child who rarely sits still for more than 30 seconds at a time Ms Garcia decides to use positive reinforcement to help Tiffany learn to sit quietly in her seat during class time Which one of the following approaches will bring about the fastest change in Tiffany’s behavior?

a a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement

b a variable interval schedule of reinforcement

c continuous reinforcement

d a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement

43 John and Bill have both learned that when they whine and complain, their teacher will hurry over to see what’s wrong John’s teacher gives him attention every time he complains However, Bill’s teacher gives him attention only on some of the occasions he complains Both teachers eventually realize that they are reinforcing the boys for inappropriate behavior and so both stop attending to the boys when they whine and complain From a behaviorist perspective, we can

predict that:

a Both boys will whine and complain even more than before

b Both boys will stop their whining and complaining almost immediately

c Bill’s complaining will decrease more rapidly than John’s

d John’s complaining will decrease more rapidly than Bill’s

44 At the beginning of the school year, Mr Webber is concerned that Frances rarely does her independent seatwork He begins praising Frances for each

seatwork assignment she completes, and by January she is completing her

assignments regularly To make sure that the behavior continues in the years to come, what would behaviorists tell Mr Webber to do now?

a Praise her more often than before

b Praise her for only some of her completed assignments

c Punish Frances when she doesn’t complete an assignment

d Switch from a social reinforcer to an activity reinforcer

45 George has learned that if he pesters his father about using the family Cadillac enough times, his father will eventually break down and give George the keys to the Cadillac George’s “pestering” behavior is apparently being reinforced on a _ schedule

a variable ratio

b variable interval

c fixed interval

d differential rate of low responding

46 Mr McDonald wants his students to ask him for help on their geometry

problems only after they have tried to solve the problems independently for at least five minutes Mr McDonald should reinforce students’ help-seeking

behavior on a _ schedule

a fixed ratio

b variable ratio

c differential rate of low responding

d differential rate of high responding

47 Lori has learned that when she wants to say something in class, she must raise her hand before doing so At home, however, she speaks without ever raising her hand ahead of time We can say that the classroom has become a(n) for Lori’s hand-raising behavior

a generalized stimulus

b antecedent stimulus

c positive stimulus

d negative reinforce

48 Sharon has learned that her language arts teacher answers her questions

willingly but that her biology teacher discourages questions Sharon therefore asks questions in language arts but not in biology In behaviorist terminology, Sharon is:

a on a differential rate of low responding schedule

b showing generalization

c on a fixed interval schedule

d under stimulus control

49 A teacher claps his hands together loudly three times as a way of reminding his students that they need to talk more quietly during their free time at the end of the day In behaviorist terminology, his strategy can best be described as:

setting event to encourage such cooperative behavior, she would:

a Praise her students when they cooperate with one another

b First give students a task in which they can’t work with one another

c Say “I like how Sally and John are helping one another today” loudly enough that other students can hear

d Provide instructional materials that students can use only by working together

51 Mark’s previous girlfriend always told him how handsome he looked whenever

he wore his green sweater Tonight Mark is going out with a new girlfriend and puts on the same green sweater In behaviorist terminology, Mark is:

a on a differential rate of low responding schedule

b showing generalization

c on a fixed interval schedule

d showing stimulus discrimination

52 A physics teacher wants her students to work on several difficult physics problems that involve calculating velocity, acceleration, or time using the formula

v = a  t The teacher first has her students work on a few easy problems

involving the formula She then presents the more difficult problems; when she does so, she finds that her students are reasonably persistent in working at the problems, and most of them eventually solve the problems correctly By using the easy problems to promote persistence in her students during the more difficult ones, the teacher is, in behaviorist terminology, using the concept of:

a Passive avoidance learning

b Active avoidance learning

c Punishment I

d Punishment II

55 Which one of the following statements best describes behaviorists’ two-step

theory of avoidance learning?

a Avoidance of the aversive stimulus is negatively reinforced by the

presence of the pre-aversive stimulus

b Remaining in the situation is punished by the aversive stimulus; avoiding

it is positively reinforced by the pre-aversive stimulus

c Fear of the pre-aversive stimulus is classically conditioned, and escape from that stimulus is negatively reinforced

d Escape responses occur prior to avoidance responses

56 An avoidance behavior of a previously aversive situation is particularly difficult

to extinguish because:

a It has typically been reinforced on a fixed ratio schedule

b It has typically been reinforced on a variable ratio schedule

c It has typically been reinforced on a variable interval schedule

d The learner has no opportunity to learn that the situation is no longer aversive

57 Which one of the following alternatives best describes instrumental

conditioning?

a Learning to use man-made tools in order to accomplish difficult tasks more easily

b Learning to behave in ways that either bring pleasure or reduce the

likelihood of aversive events

c Learning that certain stimuli in one’s environment often bring either physical or psychological pain

d Learning complex sequences of psychomotor behaviors (e.g., dribbling and then shooting a basketball)

58 Which one of the following is the best example of punishment as behaviorists

c Whenever Marvin has trouble sitting still, his teacher has him run up and down the hall three times to release pent-up energy

d After Nora spends a few minutes in the time-out room for hurting a

classmate’s feelings, she is more careful not to hurt her peers’ feelings in the future

59 Which one of the following accurately describes the difference between

negative reinforcement and punishment?

a Negative reinforcement is essentially the same as punishment, but without the negative connotations that punishment has

b Negative reinforcement increases the frequency of behavior, whereas punishment decreases it

c Negative reinforcement always decreases the frequency of behavior, whereas punishment often increases it

d Both consequences decrease behavior, but punishment is more likely to make students angry and defiant

60 DeeDee is upset that she has been taken off the basketball team because of a failing grade in her history class The consequence of DeeDee’s failure in history

61 Tammy is scolded for submitting a messy math homework paper, so she tries to

do her math problems more neatly after that The scolding Tammy received is an

62 Which one of the following statements best describes research findings

regarding the effectiveness of verbally reprimanding (e.g., scolding) children?

a Reprimands rarely reduce inappropriate behavior

b Reprimands are more effective when they’re brief and unemotional

c Reprimands are effective only when they embarrass children to some extent

d Severe reprimands are more effective than mild ones

63 Julie gets very upset when her mother will not let her help her bake cookies Julie yells at her mother and throws flour all over the kitchen Julie’s mother makes Julie clean up all of the flour and do all of the dishes Julie’s mother created

from baking the cookies Her mother’s punishment was a form of:

He also insists that, once she has stopped, she must wait at least eight seconds before proceeding The instructor’s strategy illustrates the use of _ as a way of bringing about behavior change

a An intermittent reinforcement schedule

a Putting Nadia in in-school suspension

b Giving Nadia extra classwork in school subjects she knows well

c Scolding Nadia in front of her peers about her inappropriate behavior

d Suspending Nadia from school

67 In Mr Marshall’s classroom, students who acquire 10 points in one day can have 20 minutes of free time at the end of the day Mr Marshall awards points to his students for good behavior and deducts points if they misbehave The

deduction of points for misbehavior is known as:

a time-out

b restitution

c response cost

d in-house suspension

68 Which one of the following is the major reason why assigning extra schoolwork

is not an appropriate punishment for classroom misbehavior?

a It gives students the message that classwork is an unpleasant task

b It decreases the likelihood that students will do their assignments

appropriately

c It asks students to perform tasks without the support they need to complete those tasks successfully

d It is negative reinforcement rather than punishment

69 Jimmy misbehaved in class and his teacher punished him by forcing him to skip recess Withholding recess is generally an ineffective form of punishment

because:

a teachers do not consider recess a pleasant stimulus

b many arguments arise during recess making it a negative situation for most children

c recess provides a break from academic activities, which improves

children’s concentration

d recess is too short of a time interval

70 Three of the following statements reflect contemporary perspectives of

instrumental conditioning and reinforcement Which one does not?

a Punishment has a more pronounced effect on behavior than reinforcement does

b Behavior can sometimes be better understood if we look at complex environmental conditions rather than at simple, specific stimuli

c Instrumental conditioning can more adequately be explained when we talk about mental processes as well as observable events

d Any single consequence may be more or less reinforcing depending on a learner’s particular motives at the time

71 A mother has been paying her daughter Melissa one dollar an hour to shovel snow off the driveway At the end of January, the mother raises the rate to two dollars an hour Based on research related to contrast effects, we can predict that Melissa will probably:

a Shovel half as much snow as she would have otherwise, and then she’ll quit

b Shovel the same amount of snow as she would have at a dollar-an-hour rate

c Shovel less snow than if the pay for shoveling snow had always been two dollars an hour

d Shovel more snow than if the pay for shoveling snow had always been two dollars an hour

Essay Questions

1 Behaviorist theories tend to share a number of common underlying assumptions

In five short paragraphs, describe five of these assumptions

2 On several occasions, Edward is yelled at by his soccer coach Before long,

Edward begins to shake whenever he drives to soccer practice

a Explain this situation in terms of classical conditioning, identifying the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR

b Edward soon shows signs of fearing other men in addition to his soccer coach, even though they have never yelled at him Identify and describe the classical conditioning process that accounts for Edward’s fear of men

c Explain how you might eliminate Edward’s fear of men through a process

of counterconditioning

3 Last week Gretel was accidentally hurt in her physical education class when a much larger student ran into her and knocked her to the floor Gretel is now afraid

to go to physical education Explain this situation in terms of classical

conditioning, identifying the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR

4 Shelby rarely interacts with her peers She is obviously quite lonely but apparently has no confidence in her ability to make friends Using a behaviorist perspective,

describe how you might help Shelby develop social skills through shaping In

your discussion, be sure to include:

a The specific behavior(s) you would shape

b A specific reinforcer you might use, and why you make the choice you do

c The sequence of steps you might take as you shape the desired behavior

5 Explain the difference between continuous reinforcement and intermittent

reinforcement When is each most useful?

6 You are giving tennis lessons to a beginning tennis player Describe how you would teach the proper tennis swing Specify:

a A reasonable end result toward which you would work

b A reinforcer you might use

c When you would use continuous reinforcement

d When you would use intermittent reinforcement

7 Distinguish among positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, Punishment I, and Punishment II Give an example of each

8 Classify each of the following situations as involving either classical conditioning

or operant conditioning In each case, defend your answer by analyzing the

situation within the context of the learning paradigm you have chosen

a A father reminds his son James to be quiet at the dinner table James stops talking, and his father smiles at him

b Ralph’s friend offers him an illegal drug Ralph takes the drug and finds that it makes him feel euphoric Ralph begins to buy the drug himself and takes it more and more frequently

c Linda is a bright, academically capable girl Once, when she was sick, she failed an important test Now she is very anxious whenever she takes a test

9 In each of the following situations, a person is learning through either

reinforcement or punishment Classify each situation as involving one of these four consequences: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, Punishment I,

or Punishment II Then explain why you chose the answer you did

a Because Danielle fails her math class, she is taken off the school dance squad

b Joe always does his homework assignments as soon as he gets them so he won’t have to worry about them anymore

c Lisa and Fran are giggling together in the back of the classroom Their teacher scowls at them They are embarrassed and shut up

d A teacher finds that by yelling at her students when they get too rowdy, they will settle down and be quiet for a while (Focus on what is happening

to the teacher.)

10 Stacey dislikes physical education class because her classmates tease her about her lack of strength and coordination One day Stacey unintentionally hits one of her

the class time Stacey becomes increasingly aggressive in class and so spends more and more time in the principal’s office Use one or more concepts and/or principles from behaviorism to explain why Stacey has become more (rather than less) aggressive

11 Avoidance responses are extremely difficult to eliminate Explain why this is so, and describe two different procedures that can effectively reduce or eliminate avoidance behavior

CHAPTER 4

APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORIST PRINCIPLES Multiple Choice Questions

1 B F Skinner has criticized traditional educational practices for:

a Failing to teach students to work for delayed reinforcement

b Using concrete reinforcers more often than social reinforcers

c Using intrinsic reinforcers more often than concrete reinforcers

d Relying heavily on artificial reinforcement for mastery of classroom topics

2 Three of the following common criticisms of using behaviorist approaches in

the classroom are valid ones Which one usually is not true about behaviorist

c Reinforcing a student simply for doing a task, without regard for the

quality of performance, can encourage the student to do it quickly rather than well

d When a student has cognitive deficits that interfere with performance, simply reinforcing desired behaviors will be insufficient to bring about important changes

3 In Mr Greene’s third-grade class, math problems are easy enough that students always solve them quickly and correctly From the textbook’s perspective, is this a good situation? Why or why not?

a Yes, this is the ideal situation for learning math: Although the students may not move as quickly through the school’s math curriculum as students

in other classes do, they will learn that math is an easy and enjoyable activity

b Yes, this is a good situation provided that Mr Greene also warns students

that the math curriculum will be more difficult for them once they reach high school

c This might be a good situation if students are solving problems in small, cooperative groups However, if they’re working on the problems individually, they need harder problems to help them discover whether they have a natural aptitude for math

d No If students never have any trouble with math problems, they won’t

encounter when they tackle more challenging problems at higher grade levels

4 Tracy enjoys reading mystery novels and reads at least two a week Her mother wants to encourage Tracy’s reading and so begins to pay her daughter one dollar for each completed mystery novel Considering research regarding the extrinsic reinforcement of intrinsically reinforcing activities, we would expect Tracy

eventually to:

a Double her rate of reading mystery novels

b Triple her rate of reading mystery novels

c Lower her rate of reading mystery novels

d Stop reading mystery novels altogether

5 Matthew knows his teacher will give him credit for each assignment he

completes on time, without regard for the accuracy of what he does As a result, Matthew often completes his work quickly, sloppily, and sometimes incorrectly This situation illustrates which one of the following concerns regarding the use of behaviorist techniques in the classroom?

a Reinforcement is a form of bribery

b Reinforcement of some behaviors may impede optimal learning

c Even very mild punishment adversely affects his self-esteem

d Applied behavior analysis ignores the cognitive factors that affect learning

6 Teachers and other practitioners must be very careful in their use of punishment

as a means of changing behavior Three of the following are potential

disadvantages in using punishment Which statement about punishment is false?

a Punished behaviors typically decrease slowly, if at all

b Punishment can in some instances lead to increased aggression

c Harsh psychological punishment can adversely affect emotional being

well-d Punishment in the classroom can make students fearful of school and/or their teacher

7 Mr and Mrs Mercado don’t allow their daughter Maggie to chew gum at home and have punished her severely on the few occasions they have found her with gum in her mouth Now Maggie rarely chews gum at home but chews it almost constantly at school, where she is not punished for doing so Maggie’s different behaviors at home and at school illustrate an effect of punishment known as:

a emotional arousal

b reversal

c behavioral contrast

d restitution

8 Mrs Berk gives extra credit to each of his students who pick up 5 pieces of trash in the classroom before the bell rings at the end of the day Despite the fact that most of the students pick up 5 pieces of trash before the end of the day, some students never participate in the cleanup Which of the following statements explains why some students do not participate in the cleanup at the end of the day

a The classroom context is a context in which only some children are

reinforced

b One reinforcer does not reinforce behavior for every learner

c Some students will never produce socially desirable behaviors

d When a group of students are reinforced together, the reinforced behavior

is acquired more slowly than if the students are reinforced individually

9 If you were to apply the concept of terminal behavior in teaching a lesson,

which one of these things would you do?

a Identify the things students should be able to do at the end of the lesson

b Identify the sequence in which you should teach various parts of the

lesson

c Reward students who successfully complete the lesson

d Make sure all students have mastered the prerequisite skills on which the lesson depends

10 Ms Delahanty has several students who are chronic misbehavers She meets individually with each student, and together the teacher and student agree to a plan for improving the student’s behavior and a suitable reinforcement for appropriate behavior change Ms Delahanty is using:

a a contingency contract

b Keller’s personalized system of instruction

c a token economy

d a group contingency

11 An essential element of a contingency contract in the classroom is that:

a Behaviors are reinforced at least once a day

b Every student receives the same reinforcer

c Both teacher and student agree upon the desired behavior and its

consequence

d Every student has a contract concerning the same behavior

12 Ms Hernandez is concerned about Brian, a student in her high school

chemistry class who rarely interacts with other students Ms Hernandez decides to smile at Brian on those occasions when she happens to notice him talking with another student Yet after three weeks she sees little change in his behavior Based

on this information, which one of the following is definitely wrong with Ms

Hernandez’s approach?

a Brian has little to gain by changing his behavior

b Brian is receiving intermittent rather than continuous reinforcement

c Social interaction is not an intrinsically reinforcing activity

d A smile is not an effective reinforcer

13 In Marcia’s first tennis lesson, her instructor Keith is trying to teach her the correct way to swing a tennis racket Keith praises Marcia every time she hits the tennis ball over the net and into the “in bounds” area of the opponent’s side of the court using the correct body position Marcia shows little improvement during the one-hour lesson From a behaviorist perspective, what mistake is Keith probably making in teaching Marcia to play tennis?

a He fails to realize that Marcia has little to gain by changing her behavior

b He is using intermittent rather than continuous reinforcement

c He should shape the behavior rather than expect immediate mastery

d Praise is rarely an effective reinforcer

14 Healthier eating habits make people feel better and give them more energy over

the long run Yet many people do not improve their eating habits, especially if

healthful foods are difficult and time-consuming to prepare Three of the

following are possible explanations for the lack of improvement (i.e., behavior change) in people’s eating habits Judging from what you have learned about

instrumental conditioning, choose the alternative that is not a likely explanation

a Extrinsic reinforcers are usually more effective than intrinsic reinforcers

b Eating junk food also has its reinforcers

c From a cost-benefit perspective, change is not worthwhile

d Reinforcement (in the form of feeling healthier) is delayed

15 Which one of the following examples best illustrates the concept of baseline as

behaviorists use the term?

a After Louisa notices the attention she gets from boys on days she wears tight clothes, she often wears tight sweaters

b Justin talks in class all the time, even though his teacher and classmates do nothing to encourage him

c Dimitri is afraid of the school swimming pool after he almost drowns in it during a swimming lesson