Difficulties in giving feedback by the fourthyear students of English during their teaching practicum at high schools

ABSTRACT As one of the first attempts to investigate giving feedback skills among fourth-year students during their practicum at college levels, the paper aims at exploring teacher- trai

My sincere thanks go to all teacher- trainees and students in Viet Tri high school and Viet Tri Industrial high school whose endless enthusiasm has helped me to carry out surveys, which are very useful for my thesis

I am really in indebted to my beloved family and my friends who have encouraged me, given me useful suggestions, lent me materials and always help me to stay on my toes and complete the thesis

Although the study has been done with all my attempts, my limitations of ability and knowledge may cause mistakes in the thesis Therefore, I am looking forward to receiving the sincere comments from all of you!

Viet Tri, May 2015

Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen

ABSTRACT

As one of the first attempts to investigate giving feedback skills among fourth-year students during their practicum at college levels, the paper aims at exploring teacher- trainees' perception of effective feedbacks and the level of effectiveness with respect to time, speech modification and techniques To fulfill this primary aim, both qualitative and quantitative methods with three research instruments including observations and questionnaires were adopted The participants of the study were 8 fourth-year students of K10 English pedagogical university and teachers of Faculty of Foreign Language, Hung Vuong University The most significant finding of the research was that the language for instructions was the most problematic issue among the teacher-trainees Other difficulties included time and techniques for giving feedbacks

as well as checking students’ understanding The paper, therefore, would serve as a good reference for both pre-service and in-service teachers who desire to have a closer look at this issue or to improve their giving feedback skills

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i

ABSTRACT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF FIGURES v

PART A: INTRODUCTION 1

1 Rationale of the study 1

2 Previous studies 3

2.1 In the world 3

2.2 In Viet Nam 4

3 Aims of the study 6

4 Research questions 6

5 Research methods 7

6 Scope of the study 7

7 The significance of the research 7

8 Design of study 8

PART B: CONTENT 10

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 10

1.1 Classroom management 10

1.2 Feedback 13

1.3 Practicum 30

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY 33

2.1 Subject of the study 33

2.2 Research setting and participant 33

2.3 Research methods 34

2.4 Data collection instruments 35

2.5 Research procedure 38

CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 40

3.1 Results from the questionnaire 40

3.2 Result from the observation 45

3.3 Data discussion 46

CHAPTER 4: SUGGESSTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 50

4.1 Suggestions 50

4.2 Implications 52

PART C: CONCLUSION 54

1 Conclusion 54

2 Contributions of the study 55

3 Limitations of the study 56

4 Suggestions for further studies 57

PART D: REFERENCES 59

APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE 62

APPENDIX 2: OBSERVATION SHEET 66

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1- The importance of giving feedback as perceived by teacher- trainees Figure 3.2- The difficulty level of giving feedback

Figure 3.3- Teacher-trainees’ ratings of usefulness of feedback

Figure 3.4- Necessity for the use of full sentence when giving feedback Figure 3.5- The level of difficulties in giving feedback

PART A: INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale of the study

Nowadays, English has become a world language rather than the language

of only English speaking countries such as the UK and the US because the number of the people who use English as a means of communication exceeds much more than the number of the people who speak it as their mother tongue English is used as a common foreign language to contact the people in other countries, and thousands of people belonging to various professional groups are going abroad Therefore, human being is appreciating the role of English

English has been considered to be the most necessary subject for students

in all levels of education systems It has been used for Final Examination to evaluate students’ level of knowledge Thus, the demand of learning English

is gradually increasing To meet the need of the society, education is required

to be improved, how to final the most effective method in teaching English has become a big concern now

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) as evaluated by Nunan (1991) has put the emphasis on learning to communicate through the interaction between the teacher and students and among students themselves in the target language Students are required to create and develop the habit of getting involved in the lesson The language classroom now has become more learner-centered Besides, Harmer (2001:56), when discussing learner-centered teaching, has put forward that teaching should make “the learners’ needs and experience central to the educational process.” In other words, the teacher no longer keeps the center position in class Instead, students are encouraged to actively take part in the lesson by interacting with the teacher

who gives the feedback to help students to understand the lesson fastest and most accurately

School-based practicum feedback is considered a highly important, influential and central component in helping teacher-trainees learn to teach and teacher education programmers (Soares & Soares, 2002 & Simpson, 2006 cited in Al Sohbani, 2012) Practicum is viewed as critical to the development

of teacher-trainees because it is their first hands-on experience with teaching (Al Sohbani, 2012:196) Effective practicum offers teacher-trainees an opportunity to get both oral and written feedback from their mentors Moreover, practicum feedback should allow dialogue between students and their mentors and promote their thinking and reflection skills and consolidate their pedagogical skills Effective practicum feedback should focus on the task and the associated learning outcomes and inform the teacher-trainees whether they are on the right track Therefore, giving feedback is one of the most important responsibilities of a teacher-trainee during their teaching practicum

Despite their importance, giving feedback during the teaching practicum has scarcely been researched so far, especially in the context of Vietnam In Viet Nam there have not been any studies focusing on teacher-trainees, who are learning to become teacher’s and needed to practice necessary techniques and skills of teachers Therefore, the researcher wanted to fill these gaps by expanding the scale of the present research to the teacher-trainees in their teaching practicum at university level The study was entitled “Difficulties in giving feedback by the fourth-year students of English during their teaching practicum at high schools”

2 Previous studies

2.1 In the world

Many studies have been made and become valuable to understand thoroughly about this problem One of them is “How to Give Effective Feedback to Your Students” by Susan M (2008) He studies so that giving students good feedback on all their schoolwork is one of the toughest challenges every teacher faces But here at last is a guide that helps us always know how to give the right feedback for all kinds of assignments, in every grade level and subject area Susan M Brookhart covers every possible aspect

of the topic, including: What kinds of feedback work best in specific content areas? When and how often to give feedback? Learn how to build a foolproof feedback plan so that your feedback always helps students understand where they are in their learning and what to do next, gives students the feeling that they have got control over their own learning, creates a classroom environment where students see constructive criticism as a good thing and understand that learning can’t occur without practice

Another study is “Providing Effective Feedback to EFL teacher-trainees”

by Holi & Hamed (2013) This study also aims to offer practical ideas that would empower both teacher-trainees and supervisors in improving the practice of giving and receiving feedback in practicum The findings indicated that teacher-trainees and their mentors perceived their feedback practices on practicum positively; however, the teacher-trainees believed that both types of feedback are important to them but they are in favor of written feedback more than oral one The study offered some pedagogical implications and recommendations with regard to feedback on practicum

The practice of English of language teaching by Jeremy Harmer (2001)

is an invaluable source of ideas for language teaching All of these

contemporary issues are reflected in this study, which also looks at a range of familiar topics, from motivation to the roles of the teacher, from classroom management to feedback and correction This study is aimed at practicing teachers and those studying on in-service training program and postgraduate courses In that, it differs significantly from its sister volume, how to teach English, which is designed specifically for those wanting a gentler introduction to the science and art of teaching English

2.2 In Viet Nam

The issue of giving feedback in language classroom was examined in graduation paper for Bachelor of Art in English Language Teaching conducted by Huynh Minh Hien (2008) The study titled “the Impact of Online Peer Feedback on EFL Learners’ Motivation in Writing and Writing Performance: A Case Study at Can Tho University” In this paper, he presented the results of his study on the impact of using online peer feedback

in writing classes The study aims to find out the impact of online peer feedback on learners’ motivation in learning to write in English and their writing performance, the correlation between motivation in learning to write and writing performance, and the students’ attitude towards this kind of collaborative learning The study tested the role of the online peer feedback plays in developing students' writing abilities and increasing their motivation

in writing in English

Another study is “Giving and checking instructions skill among year students during their practicum” by Đinh Thi Ha Phuong (2011) According to this study, the research paper is aimed to examine teacher-trainees’ perceptions of giving and checking instructions skills Moreover, the study is also to find out the common techniques of giving and checking instructions used by 4th year students in their practicum Afterwards, the

fourth-effectiveness of these strategies is also examined so that it can figure out the possible difficulties that teacher- trainees may encounter when giving instructions in class, and pave the ways to improve their ability of giving and checking instructions

Conducted in 2010, the study of Nguyen Thi Thanh Huong aimed at finding out the difficulties in classroom management during their six-week practicum The critical role of classroom management in teaching and learning, the difficulties of teachers in general and the novice in particular in applying appropriate managerial strategies and the shortage of research in the issue have driven the researcher to conduct a study on “4th Year Students’ Classroom Management Skills during Their Teaching Practicum at the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education (FELTE), University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University (ULIS-VNU): Difficulties, Causes and Solutions” First, the researcher conducted with a view to finding out the difficulties fourth year students at FELTE, ULIS-VNU have in managing classroom as perceived by them during their teaching practicum at the FELTE, ED, ULIS-VNU Then, the researcher expects to identify the types of classroom management problems they confront during their teaching practicum Causes of and solutions to such problems as perceived by the students themselves and as suggested by their supervising teachers are also what the researcher aims at

Despite the fact that giving feedback has always been a primary concern for teachers in general and beginning teachers in particular, the systematic study of effective giving feedback is a relatively recent issue in the field of language research Furthermore, there has been little attention paid to the difficulties of giving feedback problems encountered by teacher trainees and

no previous research on the issue among teacher trainees who have their teaching practicum at the college degree is carried out

All in all, this is the first time the study “Difficulties in giving feedback by the fourth-year students of English during their teaching practicum at high schools” is carried out at Hung Vuong University Apart from the other studies, it focuses on giving feedback during the teaching practicum This study also aims to offer practical ideas that would empower both teacher-trainees and supervisors in improving the practice of giving and receiving feedback in practicum

3 Aims of the study

The overall aim of this study was to explore how the fourth-year students (the teacher-trainees) gave feedback during their practicum To achieve this overall aim successfully, firstly, the researcher wanted to find out the teacher trainees perceptions of the necessity of giving feedback in teaching because what teachers believe and think serves as the basis for their classroom behavior and activities (Borg, 2003:81-82) Secondly, the study aimed to investigate the common giving feedback that these teacher-trainees employed

in their lessons during their practicum Next, the study hoped to find out the effectiveness of these techniques as perceived by the teacher-trainees After that, the researcher expected to figure out the difficulties of giving feedback that these teacher-trainees encountered Suggested solutions to such problems

as reported by the teacher-trainees themselves were also what the researcher aimed at

4 Research questions

The aims of the study could be summarized into the four following research questions:

1 What are the teacher- trainees’ perceptions of feedback in teaching?

2 How do teacher-trainees give feedback in their practicum?

3 What difficulties of giving feedback do the teacher-trainees face with in their teaching during the practicum?

4 What are the solutions to their problems?

6 Scope of the study

In classroom management which composes of various components of classroom management skills such as managing time and space, managing students’ attention and engagement and giving instructions but also many others In fact, giving feedback is considered to be one of the most important sub-skill of classroom management which decides the success of a lesson Hence, the researcher only studies one of them that is feedback

7 The significance of the research

Feedback during the practicum is of utmost importance for trainees to help them to develop their pedagogical and teaching skills The

teacher-study helps the researcher, teacher-trainees improve skills of giving feedback and its effectiveness in teaching to find out the best ways to make their students interested in the lesson

8 Design of study

Conducting this research, the researcher expected to identify the trainees’ perceptions of the necessity of feedback in language teaching and the most common giving feedback teacher-trainees tended to employ in their lessons during the teaching practicum Evaluation of the effectiveness of these techniques as perceived by both the teacher-trainees the difficulties the teacher-trainees encountered when using these techniques as well as solutions

teacher-to such problems in this research Once completed, the research is hoped teacher-to serve as a reference for those who want to have a clearer view of what happens during the teaching practicum in general and of the use of giving feedback in particular Moreover, the findings could help the teacher-trainees improve their feedback giving as well as classroom management when they become real teachers after graduation

The study consists of three parts and references:

Part A Introduction

Part A presents the overview of the study including the rationale for the research, aims of the study, research question, and methodology of the study, scope of the study, the significance of the research as well as the design of the study

Part B: Content

Part B is sub-divided into four chapters:

Chapter 1: Literature review

Provides the theoretical background of the study, including discussions of the key concepts and related studies

Chapter 2: Methodology

Describes the research setting, participants, and instruments of data collection as well as the procedure employed to carry out data analysis

Chapter 3: Findings and discussion

Presents and discusses the results that the researcher found out from the collected data according to the four research questions This chapter contains four smaller parts, equivalent to give answers to the four research questions Specially, the last parts will research about the difficulties of giving feedback Besides, the chapter focuses on analyzes the results of giving feedback in teaching and learning

Chapter 4: Suggestions and implications

This chapter focuses on giving some suggestions to improve difficulties for teacher- trainees during their teaching practicum at high school And then,

it gives implications for teacher-trainees and students in using feedback

Part C: Conclusion

Part C summarizes the major findings recorded during the making of the thesis, presents the limitation of the study, and provides some suggestions for further

PART B: CONTENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter embraces two main sections including key concepts and related studies In the former section, definitions as well as distinctive features

of giving feedback are examined These include practicum, classroom management, giving feedback The latter part, on the other hand, gives a brief overview of previous studies related to researching on giving feedback and giving feedback in practicum

1.1 Classroom management

1.1.1 Definition

Although the fundamental importance of classroom management in teaching and learning has been universally recognized, it is still a relatively recent phenomenon in language classroom research As explained by Evertson and Weinstein (2006), part of the reason lies in the fact that the term classroom management has acquired “considerable surplus meaning” Different experts hold different views about the issue

Under the light of psychological principles, Bagley (1907) interpreted classroom management as a means of “slowly transforming the child from a little savage into a creature of law and order, fit for the life of civilized society” (as cited in Emerson & Weinstein, 2006:19) His assumption was based on the belief that school serves as preparation for democratic citizenship so management principles should not be restricted to short-term efficiency only but be considered in terms of the ultimate goal of education This viewpoint is further supported by Brown (1952) as he emphasized Christian values of school as preparation for a civilized life Classroom management studies of the 1950s and 1960s were also noted by Withal and

Lewis (1963, as cited in Emerson & Weinstein, 2006:25) to be under the influence of educational psychology that emphasizes teacher characteristics and instructional methods; of the mental health movement that focuses on causes of anxiety or other hindrances to motivation; and of social psychology that revolves around leadership style, social climate, decision-making processes and pattern of participation In other words, management in this sense was quite generic and moralistic

On the other hand, the term classroom management is described as the task

of maintaining order, of ensuring that classroom lessons run smoothly despite disruptive behaviors by students For instance, as pointed out by McCaslin and Good (1998), classroom management is often considered a means of managing students’ behaviors - getting them to respond quickly to teacher demands, needs, and goals (as cited in Emerson & Weinstein, 2006:4) Similarly, in The New Teacher’s Companion: Practical Wisdom for Succeeding in the Classroom (2009), Cunningham argued that teachers cannot teach and few students can learn if all students are not aware of the rules for behaviors that apply to them Teaching and learning will be thriving if clear expectations and consequences that address and eliminate problems are established from the outset Nonetheless, “classroom management is a multifaceted endeavor that is far more complex than establishing rules, rewards, and penalties to control students’ behavior” (Emerson & Weinstein, 2006:5)

1.1.2 The importance of classroom management

According to Emerson and Weinstein (2006:4) classroom management initially plays two important roles which are “to establish hand sustain an orderly environment so that students can engage in meaningful academic learning” and “to enhance student social and moral growth.” Emerson and

Weinstein (2006) also categorize classroom management into five sub-skills which are:

- Develop caring, supportive relationships with and among students

- Organize and implement instruction in ways that optimize students access to learning

- Use group management methods that encourage student engagement with academic tasks

- Promote the development of student social skills and self-regulation

- Use appropriate interventions to assist students who have behavior problems According to McLeod, Fisher and Hoover (2003, cited in Nguyen, 2010), classroom management involves planning the curriculum, organizing routine procedures, gathering resources, arranging the environment to maximize efficiency, monitoring students’ behavior, and anticipating, preventing and handling problems arising Although aspects of classroom management may vary according to different ways of categorizing, most of the researchers all agree upon three key elements of classroom management including:

- Managing time and classroom space

- Managing students’ behavior

- Managing instructional strategies

1.1.3 Components of classroom management

Under the light of this perception, Nguyen & Luong (2010) proposed a framework to evaluate the effectiveness of classroom management which composes of various components of classroom management skills:

- Managing time

- Managing classroom space

- Giving and checking instructions

As mentioned by Clivechung (n.d.), a series of classroom research studies

by Kounin and his colleagues (1970) identified the key concepts that contribute to effective management of which the central attention was put on instructions affecting the flow of activities According to Plevin (n.d.), effective classroom management means that teachers have to get students to follow their instructions

Therefore, feedback given to students is a crucial tool of classroom management In fact, giving feedback was considered the most important sub-skills of classroom management which decided the success of a lesson

1.2 Feedback

1.2.1 Definition

Before investigating different aspects of the issue, it is crucial to explain the term feedback Feedback was defined by Ur (1996, as cited in Vo, 2009:20) as “information that given to the learner about his or her performance of a learning task, usually with the objective of improving the performance”

Giving feedback is one of the most fundamental responsibilities of a teacher Formative feedback gives information to teachers and students about how students are doing compared to the learning goals If done well, feedback can exert profound influence on the students (Brookhart, 2008), the power of which lies in its addressing both cognitive and motivational factors at the same time The cognitive factor is good feedback providing students with information of where they are in their learning and what to do next Once students understand what they are required to do and why, they have the feeling of being in control over their learning, which is meant by the motivational factor

Research on feedback revealed that quality feedback, whether spoken or written, helped learners to confirm the intended learning outcome of the learning and motivate them to move on and enables them to assess their own learning and performance and lets them to identify their next step (Black & William, 1998, cited in White, 2007:301) Feedback was currently seen as the heart of assessment for learning and teaching (Smith, 2010) Mentor feedback

on practicum was viewed as the one which a trainer critiques a student teacher’s lesson with positive and negative evaluation, and provides advice and suggestions for future use (Copland, 2011:3832) Moreover, feedback enabled teacher- trainees to know their strengths and weaknesses by engaging

in a dialogue with their mentors or supervisors and it should be dialogic between mentors and teacher- trainees rather than didactic or imposed one (Timperley, 2007, cited in Smith, 2010: 38) Feedback and teaching practice are considered to be a central component in teacher- trainees (Copland, 2009:466) Concrete feedback would help the teacher- trainees to ‘‘visualize their evolving style, clarify what they need to work on, and concretize their own vision of good teaching’’ (Feiman-Nemser, 2001: 23 cited in Moody,

2009: 163) White (2007) claimed that constructive practicum feedback could highlight for teacher-trainees the things that were important to focus on and directs their learning towards further critical learning

In assessment, the learner is simply informed how well or badly she/he has performed English percentage grade on an exam would be one example; or the responses “No” to an attempted answer to a question in class; or a comment such as “Fair” at the end of a written assignment

In correction, some specific information is provided on the aspects of the learners’ performance: through explanation, or a provision of better or other alternatives, or through elicitation of these from the learner Note that in principle, correction can and should include information on what the learner did right, as well as wrong, and why

1.2.3 Benefits of using feedback

Giving feedback is one of the most important responsibility of a teacher

By giving feedback, you can help your students evaluate their success and progress Feedback can take a number of forms: giving praise and encouragement, correcting, setting regular tests etc Research on feedback reveals that quality feedback, whether spoken or written, helps learners to confirm the intended learning outcome of the learning and motivate them to move on and enables them to assess their own learning and performance and lets them identify their next step (Black & William, 1998, cited in White,

2007, 301) Feedback is currently seen as the heart of assessment for learning and teaching (Smith, 2010) Mentor feedback on practicum is viewed as the one which a trainer critiques a student teacher’s lesson with positive and negative evaluation, and provides advice and suggestions for future use (Copland, 2011: 3832) Moreover, feedback enables teacher- trainees to know their strengths and weaknesses by engaging in a dialogue with their mentors

or supervisors and it should be dialogic between mentors and teacher- trainees rather than didactic or imposed one (Timperley, 2007, cited in Smith, 2010:38) Feedback and teaching practice are considered to be a central component in teacher- trainees (Copland, 2009: 466) Concrete feedback would help the teacher- trainees to ‘‘visualize their evolving style, clarify what they need to work on, and concretize their own vision of good teaching’’ (Feiman-Nemser, 2001: 23 cited in Moody, 2009: 163) White (2007) claimed that constructive practicum feedback could highlight for teacher-trainees the things that are important to focus on and directs their learning towards further critical learning

The type and extent of feedback and its timing depends on a variety of factors:

- Individual student: Different student respond to different types of feedback Unconfident students may need more coaxing and encouragement, whereas students who are more self-confident and perhaps have an external exam to pass usually appreciate more direct correction from the teacher

- The culture you are teaching in and the expected roles of the teacher

- The stage of the lesson and the type of activity For example, structured

or controlled activities require a different type of feedback from guided

or freer activities Written activities require a different type of feedback from oral activities

- The stage in the course

Feedback on school practicum is of utmost importance for teacher- trainees to help them to develop their pedagogical and teaching skills The aim of feedback is to bring about self- awareness and improvement Everyone thrives on genuine praise and encouragement When giving feedback on oral

or written work, always be on the lookout for positive points to comment upon Try to find areas of improvement in individual students’ work and also comment on progress made by the class as a whole- work successfully completed and achievements made The ways teacher gives positive feedback can include the informal praise on individual achievement privately or in front

of the class

1.2.4 How to give effective feedback

According to Harmer (2006), “feedback encompasses not only correcting students but also offering them an assessment of how well they have done” Therefore, to give effective feedback, teacher need to have two main distinguishable components: correction and assessment

a Correction

To give effective feedback, Brookhart (2008) said that teachers should take into consideration the issues of what to correct, how to correct, who to correct, how much to correct and when to correct

 What to correct

The first question teachers should ask themselves about the issue is what

to correct Brookhart (2008) believed that the content of the teacher’s feedback should involve choices about focus, comparison and valence

Regarding the choice of focus, four levels of feedback is distinguished by Hattie & Timperley (2007, as cited in Brookhart, 2008:20-21): feedback about the task, feedback about the processing of the task, feedback about self-regulation and feedback about the self as a person Feedback about the task refers to information about errors - whether something is correct or not, about the depth or quality of the work that is based on certain criteria One example

is “the thesis statement in writing as well as in speaking should tell the listeners your opinion about the issue, whether you approve of it or not” Feedback about the process of the task includes information about how they approached the task, information about the comparison between what they did with how they did and information about possible alternative strategies as well For instance, the teacher may comment on a student’s piece of writing like “Refutation is one way to emphasize your point What else could you do

to make convincing arguments?” Meanwhile, self-regulation feedback draws connections between students’ work and their intentional efforts, “it is good

of you to have interactions with the audience while presenting” for example Whereas, feedback about the self as a person includes personal comments from the teachers Generally, it is not a good idea to use this type of feedback since it does not contain information that can be used for further learning

Choosing the content of the teacher’s feedback also involves the choice of comparison Brookhart (2008:22-23) listed out three types of feedback comparison, namely criterion-referencing, self-referencing and norm-referencing Criterion-referencing feedback is feedback comparing the students to a learning target, which helps students decide what their next learning goal is For example, “Your voice is very soothing, yet lacks emphasis” implies that you should have stress on certain syllables and words Self-referencing feedback, meanwhile, gives information about the process or methods the students use This type of feedback is particularly necessary for struggling students who need to realize that they make progress Whereas, norm-referencing compares the performance of one student to that of others, which is not strongly recommended since it may create negative competition among the students

Moreover, feedback should be positive Being “positive” does not mean being diplomatically happy or only saying good things about the students’ performance Being positive means demonstrating how good a student’ work

is compared to the criteria and how the strong points of the student’s performance show his/ her ability Being positive means pointing out where further improvements are needed and suggestions for correction In other words, good feedback is not only about the good point of the students’ performance but the area that needs to be improved as well Brookhart (2008) listed out the following table:

Table 1.1 - Feedback Content (Brookhart, 2008)

Feedback content

1 Focus

- On the work itself

- On the process the student used to do the work

- On the student’s self-regulation

- On the student personally

2.Comparison

-To criteria for good work (criterion-referencing) -To other students (norm-referencing)

-To students’ past performance (self-referencing)

3 Valence -Comments on the good points -Comments on the points that need further

improvement

 How to correct

Several researchers and authors have suggested various techniques for correcting errors in general and spoken ones in particular One of them is Nguyen et al (2003:21-23) with the seven techniques for oral feedback They are: finger correction, question mark, alternatives, blackboard prompt, student-to-student correction, modeling, and delayed correction Teachers may base on the specific learning goals and types of learning activity to choose the most appropriate one

 Who to correct

Concerning the question of who to correct, Gower et al (2008) asserted that in many cases, the student is able to correct the mistakes by himself or herself, either completely unprompted or under the assistance of the teacher and the peers As a result, not only the teacher but also the students participate

in the feedback session which is dominant by self-correction, student-student correction

• Self-correction

Teachers are recommended to let the students correct themselves first In order to do this, students will have to learn to become articulate and critical as well as to learn how to monitor themselves Sometimes, they need the assistance of the teacher and the peers to be more aware of the problem and how to deal with it

• Peer correction

When the students do not know how to correct themselves, teachers should not immediately provide feedback but let other students be involved in the session (Gower et al, 2008:167)

This strategy makes the learning more cooperative, reduces the student’s dependence on the teacher, increases the amount of time students listen to each other and creates chances for good students to help others

• Teacher correction

If neither self-correction nor peer correction proves to be effective, then the teacher should give his/her own comments on the performance No matter how the teacher has done the correction, it is essential that he/she should ask the student who made the mistake to say the correct version The teacher can

do this with gesture or say something like “Ok, again The whole thing.”

 How much to correct

Probably the hardest decision to make about feedback is the amount to deliver Bookhart (2008) emphasized that judging the right amount of feedback to provide entails considerations on the following simultaneously:

• The topic in general and the learning targets in particular For example, if the students are learning about non-verbal communication in presentation then comments on how the students make eye contact or hold their hands should be more emphasized than those on ideas or pronunciation

• Typical developmental learning progressions for those topics or targets This requires the teacher to dig deep into his/her knowledge of the topic (what else should they know?) and his/her teaching experience with the topic (what typically comes next?)

• The individual students For instance, for some students, correction and feedback on one point would suffice whereas others can handle more

It is also noteworthy that teachers pay attention to the phenomenon of overcorrection Gower et al (1995) explained that over-correction is when the more the teacher tries to correct something, the worse the student gets It is not effective for the teacher to fix everything they see or to try to make everything perfect in one go Instead, it is worth spending time correcting some items only then moving on to others on the next section Correction of major errors that most students make is best considered since it could be done quickly and students will be more interested in receiving comments related to them For real learning, what makes difference is a usable amount of information that gives students a clear understanding of what to do next on the points they see they need to work on Therefore, teachers may consider employing the Goldilocks principle of “Not too much, not too little, but just right” (Bookhart, 2008:13)

 When to correct

The general principal of gauging the timing of feedback proposed by Bookhart (2008) is to put yourself in the position of the students To be more

specific, feedback needs to come when students are still mindful of the lesson

It needs to come when the students are still thinking of the learning goal as a learning goal - something they still need to work on, not something they already did Particularly, it needs to come when they still have some reasons

to work on the learning target Teachers should consider these things to choose the most appropriate time to deliver their feedback so that students can benefit and learn most

In short, in order to give effective feedback, teachers should take into consideration the issues of what to correct, how to correct, who to correct, how much to correct and when to correct

b Assessment

 What is assessment

Assessment is the most popular way to get information about student’s level in the class, and their learning process, in addition, it gives students feedback about themselves and their weakness area (Bookhart, 2008)

According to Bookhart (2008), to discuss how to conduct assessment in language teaching, the researchers will mainly talk about the following: assessment purposes, assessment methods, assessment criteria, assessment principles

 Assessment purposes

Assessment purpose means to discover what the learners know and can do

at a certain stage of the learning process Before teacher look at assessment in detail, let us discuss why assessment is necessary A close study on the assessment purposes will make it clear that all the people involved in education have some reasons to consider assessment necessary They are administrators, teachers, parents and students

- Administrators: Administrators provide money and personnel for education They need to know whether the programmers they have planned are working well

- Teachers: Teachers put the administrators’ plans into practice In the continuum of learning, teachers need to know what has been done and what needs to be done next; what the pupils already know or can do and what they do not know or cannot do yet

- Parents: Nobody is more anxious than parents to know how their children are doing in school Unable to watch their kids in the class, parents value the feedback about their children’s performance from the teachers and the school

- Students: Finally, students need to know what they have accomplished,

be aware of what they need to work on text, and build up their confidence and satisfaction from what they have achieved

Thus, it should be noted that both positive and negative assessment should

be made available to the learner, as honestly as possible

 Assessment methods

To assess accurately and to give feedback on what the students are accomplishing and where they are on the learning continuum, teachers need to gather as much information as possible before making decisions about the students Besides, the information teachers gather should be accurate and reliable There are many other ways to gather information, such as teacher’s assessment, continuous assessment, students’ self-assessment, and portfolios Teacher’s assessment: Research shows that the teacher’s knowledge of children and their strengths and weaknesses is more accurate and sound than

testing Very often, the teacher’s subjective estimate of the learners’ overall performance or achievement can be quite accurate and fair The teacher can get information by observing the students in class and by looking at their work

Continuous assessment: The final grade given to the student is not his or her mark on the final exam paper It can also include the grades that the teacher has given for students’ performance or participation in the class activities It could also be a written report rather than just a grade

Self-assessment: The students themselves are given the chance to evaluate their own performance, using clear criteria and weighing systems agreed on beforehand Students are able to make quite accurate of their own achievements

Portfolios: Portfolios are collections of assignments and projects that students have done over a long period of time These materials are usually put

in a file kept by the students or the teacher The portfolios provide the basis for evaluation

Criteria-referenced assessment: Criteria-referenced language assessment

is based on a fixed standard or a set criterion A school or severe schools in a district may have their standard or set criterion for whatever purposes they

might have A fixed standard is usually the ultimate goal which the students are expected to achieve at the end of the course

Norm-referenced assessment: Norm-referenced assessment is designed to measure how the performance of a particular student or group of students compares with the performance of another student or group of students whose scores are given as the norm A student’s achievement is therefore interpreted with reference to the achievement of other students or groups of students, rather than to an agreed criterion

Individual-referenced assessment: Individual-referenced assessment is based on how well the learner is performing relative to his or her own precious performances, or relative to an estimate of his or her individual ability

 Assessment principles

The heterogeneity of assessment methods and assessment criteria does not mean assessment has no principles to follow On the contrary, some vital principles have to be observed if effective assessment is to be made Generally speaking, assessment should:

- assess authentic use of language in reading, writing, speaking, and listening;

- assess literacy and language in a variety of contexts;

- assess the environment, the instruction, and the students;

- assess processes as well as products;

- analyze patterns of errors in language and literacy;

- be based on normal developmental patterns a behavior in language and literacy acquisition;

- clarify and use standards when assessing reading, writing, and content knowledge;

- involve students and parents, or mainstream teacher, in the assessment process;

It is ideal if assessors can follow all these principles But in reality, it is very difficult to achieve this First of all, “assess authentic use of language” is extremely difficult, though desirable According to this principle, to assess a learner’s oral skills, it is best to see how he or she performs in a real communication situation

In this part, we started with the discussion about assessment purposes We believe that assessment is to find out what students already know and can do rather than what they do not know and cannot do However, at the present time, assessment (test in particular) is often conducted to find out the students’ weaknesses, which damages the students’ motivation and confidence in language learning Assessment can be done in many ways Varying assessment methods according to assessment purposes and contexts helps to make assessment fairer and more reliable Whatever methods or formats are used, assessment must always follow a set of principles which guarantee assessment validity and reliability

1.2.5 Feature of effective feedback

and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process” Without sufficient motivation, even individuals with the most remarkable abilities cannot accomplish long-term goals, and neither are appropriate curricula and good teaching enough to ensure students achievement Whereas, high motivation can make up for considerable deficiencies both in one’s language aptitude and learning conditions

b Easy to understand

When giving feedback be as specific as possible and use examples as this helps the student to understand the feedback teachers are giving them For example you informed the nursing team in handover that Mr Smith had developed a grade 1 pressure ulcer However you did not document this in his nursing records

c Timely and regularly

The feedback needs to be timely, given soon after the event for which the student was being assessed eg if they were observed taking a manual blood pressure Feedback needs to be given to the student in time to enable the student to have time to progress eg if the student has a 6 week placement they should be given feedback after 3 weeks to allow them time to progress

d Illuminating the students strengths and weaknesses

Giving feedback to the student about their strengths is likely to increase the student’s confidence, motivation and enthusiasm for learning and will help them to continue to learn and to further develop their strengths Some students have difficulties reaching the required level Giving regular feedback and developing action plans to develop the student’s skills and knowledge ensures the student is appropriately supported and that a fair process of assessment is carried out Student nurses have identified that they find feedback useful Glover (2000) carried out a small research project

investigating nursing students’ perceptions and use of feedback in the clinical area The nursing students within this study identified that being given feedback increased their confidence and self esteem, increased their skills and knowledge, enhanced their learning and enabled them to identify where they needed more practice However students do not always find it easy to obtain feedback Gray and Smith (2000) and Cahil (1996) carried out studies exploring student nurses’ experiences of mentorshi: Both these studies found that students had difficulty in gaining constructive feedback from mentors The feedback needs to be given at the correct level and related to the criteria or skills being assessed It needs to focus both on giving strengths but also areas where the student needs to improve their skills Consider this statement by Bayley et al 2008):

‘the skill of the effective mentor is to find the balance between support and challenge and the best feedback is high on both support and challenge’

(Bayley et al,2008)

In order to make progress the student needs to feel supported by receiving information about their strengths and challenged by receiving information about areas for development This is not always an easy balance to find Do you think you are getting the balance right between supporting and challenging in your own practice with students at present? How easy do you find this?

e Encourage students to take action to improve their skills and knowledge

The teacher- trainees have a central role in the feedback process The teacher- trainees will only be able to respond to the feedback and take action

if they are engaged in the process, understand the feedback and know what steps they need to take to improve their skills and knowledge

1.3 Practicum

1.3.1 Definition

Practicum is a crucial stage in any teacher training programs since it provides teacher- trainees with an opportunity to gain first-hand experience in working with a particular group of students Acknowledging this importance, researchers have conducted numerous studies on the issue However, most of the studies revolve around the effects of teaching practicum on the teacher- trainees’ teaching efficacy, the cooperation between teacher- trainees and their mentors or the evaluation of the practicum (Abdullah, 2003; Lind, 2005;

Hu, 2006; Yilmaz & Cavas, 2008)

1.3.2 Importance of practicum

Discussing the process of professional education and training, Wallace (1991) highlighted the importance of practicum in developing any professional expertise including teachers’ education In his book titled Training Foreign Language Teachers, Wallace proposes three major models

of professional education namely the craft model, the applied science model and the reflective model However, practicum is always considered the central element for every teacher- trainees program regardless which model is applied When defining the term Teaching practice, Gower, Phillips and Walkers (1995:6) wrote:

“A teaching practice (TP) session can range from informal practice

of a particular technique, perhaps with other trainees acting as students, to a formally assessed lesson Teaching practice can take place in an English speaking country or in a country where first language is not English The trainees can be native or non-native

speakers of English and the classes may be monolingual or multilingual.”

(Gower, Phillips and Walkers, 1995)

Teaching, like many other skills, needs to be practiced The critical role of teaching practicum, in particular, has been widely accepted by many researchers and educators (Wallace, 1991; Yilmaz & Cavas, 2007; Lind, 2001) According to Purdy and Gibson (2008 as cited in Ong, 2009), by offering exposure to practical classroom experiences, teaching practicum plays an important role in education which is similar to “internship or field attachment” in other professions

Discussing the issue, Ishihara (2005) highlighted that teaching practicum

is often “a required core course” in any language teacher training programs Although in different teacher training institutions the duration of the teaching practicum may vary, the practicum usually takes place during the last semester before graduation Prior to the teaching practicum, teacher- trainees are expected to be well equipped with theory of teaching methodology Moreover, they also acquire certain teaching experience through some kinds

of training activities including microteaching, “a training context in which a teaching situation has been reduced in scope and/or simplified in some systematic way” which aims at familiarizing teacher-trainees with teaching job (Wallace, 1991:92)

In the teaching practicum, teacher- trainees are assigned to a supervising teacher and required to observe and teach in language class for a certain number of hours (Ishihara, 2005) He also pointed out that teaching practicum

is of great importance since it is “the central or the sole course that assures extensive sense-making opportunities in actual teaching context.” This view is