Olympia fulvia morata the complete writings of an italian heretic the other voice in early modern europe 2003

English] The complete writings of an Italian heretic / edited and translated by Holt N.. E .Embedded in the philosophical and medical theories of the ancient Greekswere perceptions of th

O F A N I T A L I A N H E R E T I C

Dialogue on the Infinity of Love

Edited and translated by Rinaldina Russell and Bruce

Merry

C A S S A N D R A F E D E L E

Letters and Orations

Edited and translated by Diana Robin

V E R O N I C A F R A N C O

Poems and Selected Letters

Edited and translated by Ann Rosalind Jones and

The Nobility and Excellence of Women, and

the Defects and Vices of Men

Edited and translated by Anne Dunhill with Letizia

Translation by Vivien Bosley

S I S T E R B A R T O L O M E A R I C C O B O N I

Life and Death in a Venetian Convent: The Chronicle and Necrology of Corpus Domini, 1395–1436

Edited and translated by Daniel Bornstein

M A R ´I A D E S A N J O S ´E S A L A Z A R

Book for the Hour of Recreation Introduction and Notes by Alison Weber Translation by Amanda Powell

A N N A M A R I A VA N S C H U R M A N

“Whether a Christian Woman Should Be Educated” and Other Writings from Her Intellectual Circle

Edited and translated by Joyce L Irwin

L U C R E Z I A T O R N A B U O N I D E ’ M E D I C I

Sacred Narratives Edited and translated by Jane Tylus

Holt N Parkeris Fellow of the American Academy in Rome and associate professor

of classics at the University of Cincinnati He has published widely in theareas of ancient gender and sexuality and the Greek and Latin authors

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London

© 2003 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved Published 2003 Printed in the United States of America

12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 1 2 3 4 5

ISBN : 0-226-53668-8 (cloth)

ISBN : 0-226-53669-6 (paper) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data

Morata, Olympia Fulvia, 1526–1555.

[Works English]

The complete writings of an Italian heretic / edited and translated by Holt N Parker.

p cm.—(The other voice in early modern Europe)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Works translated from the Latin.

ISBN 0-226-53668-8 (hard : alk paper)— ISBN 0-226-53669-6 (pbk : alk paper)

1 Morata, Olympia Fulvia, 1526–1555 2 Humanists—Italy—Biography 3 Women intellectuals—Italy—Biography 4 Reformation—Biography I Title: Complete writings of an Italian heretic II Parker, Holt N III Title IV series.

DG540.8.M7 M67 2003

䡬 ⬁ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of

the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence

of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48–1992.

—Isa 51:1–2

II Writings about Olympia Morata or in Honor of Her

Letters after the Death of Olympia Morata 1 9 5

Poems in Honor of Olympia Morata Written during Her Lifetime 2 0 8

Epitaphs by Learned Men 2 1 4

Research for this book began during a Fellowship at the American emy in Rome I wish to thank the American Academy and the NationalEndowment for the Humanities Further support was provided by generousgrants from the Semple Fund of the University of Cincinnati.

Acad-My greatest thanks are due to the superb librarians of the John MillerBurnam Classical Library, Jean Wellington and Michael Braunlin Their pa-tience and helpfulness in getting obscure volumes and microfilms was inex-haustible and invaluable

I am grateful to Albert Rabil, editor of “ The Other Voice in Early ern Europe,” and Sandra Hazel, of the University of Chicago Press, whohave done Herculean labors in bringing this book to print Thanks also toBrian Sowers for help with proofreading and indexing

Mod-The edition of Morata’s works by Doctor Professor Rainer Kössling andGertrude Weiss-Stählin (1990) has been a model of presentation I am alsoindebted to Doctor Professor Kössling for having sent me a copy of theextremely rare text of letter 61

Finally, my thanks to Barbara Burrell: “Is [illae] eruditionem singularem,moresque castissimos admiratus, eam (quae vicissim nihil in homine praeteringenii dotes admiretur) uxorem delegit, sibique pulchro connubio cop-ulavit.”

i x

to women are on the public agenda: equal pay, child care, domestic abuse,breast cancer research, and curricular revision with an eye to the inclusion

of women

These recent achievements have their origins in things women (andsome male supporters) said for the first time about six hundred years ago.Theirs is the “other voice,” in contradistinction to the “first voice,” the voice

of the educated men who created Western culture Coincident with a generalreshaping of European culture in the period 1300–1700 (called the Renais-sance or early modern period), questions of female equality and opportunitywere raised that still resound and are still unresolved

The other voice emerged against the backdrop of a year history of the derogation of women rooted in the civilizations related

three-thousand-to Western culture: Hebrew, Greek, Roman, and Christian Negative tudes toward women inherited from these traditions pervaded the intellec-tual, medical, legal, religious, and social systems that developed during theEuropean Middle Ages

atti-The following pages describe the traditional, overwhelmingly maleviews of women’s nature inherited by early modern Europeans and the newtradition that the “other voice” called into being to begin to challenge reign-ing assumptions This review should serve as a framework for understandingthe texts published in the series “The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe.”Introductions specific to each text and author follow this essay in all the

T R A D I T I O N A L V I E W S O F W O M E N , 5 0 0 B C E – 1 5 0 0 C E

Embedded in the philosophical and medical theories of the ancient Greekswere perceptions of the female as inferior to the male in both mind and body.Similarly, the structure of civil legislation inherited from the ancient Romanswas biased against women, and the views on women developed by Christianthinkers out of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian New Testament werenegative and disabling Literary works composed in the vernacular of ordi-nary people, and widely recited or read, conveyed these negative assump-tions The social networks within which most women lived—those of thefamily and the institutions of the Roman Catholic Church—were shaped bythis negative tradition and sharply limited the areas in which women mightact in and upon the world

G R E E K P H I L O S O P H Y A N D F E M A L E N AT U R E Greek biology assumedthat women were inferior to men and defined them as merely childbearersand housekeepers This view was authoritatively expressed in the works ofthe philosopher Aristotle

Aristotle thought in dualities He considered action superior to inaction,form (the inner design or structure of any object) superior to matter, comple-tion to incompletion, possession to deprivation In each of these dualities,

he associated the male principle with the superior quality and the femalewith the inferior “The male principle in nature,” he argued, “is associatedwith active, formative and perfected characteristics, while the female is pas-sive, material and deprived, desiring the male in order to become complete.”1

Men are always identified with virile qualities, such as judgment, courage,and stamina, and women with their opposites—irrationality, cowardice, andweakness

The masculine principle was considered superior even in the womb.The man’s semen, Aristotle believed, created the form of a new human crea-ture, while the female body contributed only matter (The existence of theovum, and with it the other facts of human embryology, was not establisheduntil the seventeenth century.) Although the later Greek physician Galenbelieved there was a female component in generation, contributed by “fe-male semen,” the followers of both Aristotle and Galen saw the male role inhuman generation as more active and more important

1 Aristotle, Physics 1.9.192a20–24, in The Complete Works of Aristotle, ed Jonathan Barnes, rev.

Oxford trans., 2 vols (Princeton, 1984), 1:328.

In the Aristotelian view, the male principle sought always to reproduceitself The creation of a female was always a mistake, therefore, resultingfrom an imperfect act of generation Every female born was considered a

“defective” or “mutilated” male (as Aristotle’s terminology has variously beentranslated), a “monstrosity” of nature.2For Greek theorists, the biology ofmales and females was the key to their psychology The female was softerand more docile, more apt to be despondent, querulous, and deceitful Beingincomplete, moreover, she craved sexual fulfillment in intercourse with amale The male was intellectual, active, and in control of his passions

These psychological polarities derived from the theory that the universeconsisted of four elements (earth, fire, air, and water), expressed in humanbodies as four “humors” (black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm) con-sidered respectively dry, hot, damp, and cold and corresponding to mentalstates (“melancholic,” “choleric,” “sanguine,” “phlegmatic”) In this scheme,the male, sharing the principles of earth and fire, was dry and hot; the female,sharing the principles of air and water, was cold and damp

Female psychology was further affected by her dominant organ, the

uterus (womb), hystera in Greek The passions generated by the womb made

women lustful, deceitful, talkative, irrational, indeed—when these affectswere in excess—”hysterical.”

Aristotle’s biology also had social and political consequences If the maleprinciple was superior and the female inferior, then in the household, as inthe state, men should rule and women must be subordinate That hierarchydid not rule out the companionship of husband and wife, whose cooperationwas necessary for the welfare of children and the preservation of property.Such mutuality supported male preeminence

Aristotle’s teacher Plato suggested a different possibility: that men andwomen might possess the same virtues The setting for this proposal is theimaginary and ideal Republic that Plato sketches in a dialogue of that name.Here, for a privileged elite capable of leading wisely, all distinctions of classand wealth dissolve, as, consequently, do those of gender Without house-holds or property, as Plato constructs his ideal society, there is no need forthe subordination of women Women may therefore be educated to the samelevel as men to assume leadership Plato’s Republic remained imaginary, how-ever In real societies, the subordination of women remained the norm andthe prescription

The views of women inherited from the Greek philosophical tion became the basis for medieval thought In the thirteenth century,

tradi-2 Aristotle, Generation of Animals tradi-2.3.737a27–28, in The Complete Works, 1:1144.

the supreme Scholastic philosopher Thomas Aquinas, among others, stillechoed Aristotle’s views of human reproduction, of male and female person-alities, and of the preeminent male role in the social hierarchy.

R O M A N L AW A N D T H E F E M A L E C O N D I T I O N Roman law, like Greekphilosophy, underlay medieval thought and shaped medieval society Theancient belief that adult property-owning men should administer householdsand make decisions affecting the community at large is the very fulcrum ofRoman law

About 450 B.C.E., during Rome’s republican era, the community’s tomary law was recorded (legendarily) on twelve tablets erected in the city’scentral forum It was later elaborated by professional jurists, whose activityincreased in the imperial era, when much new legislation was passed, es-pecially on issues affecting family and inheritance This growing, changing

cus-body of laws was eventually codified in the Corpus of Civil Law under the

di-rection of the emperor Justinian, generations after the empire ceased to be

ruled from Rome That Corpus, read and commented on by medieval scholars

from the eleventh century on, inspired the legal systems of most of the citiesand kingdoms of Europe

Laws regarding dowries, divorce, and inheritance pertain primarily towomen Since those laws aimed to maintain and preserve property, thewomen concerned were those from the property-owning minority Theirsubordination to male family members points to the even greater sub-ordination of lower-class and slave women, about whom the laws speaklittle

In the early republic, the paterfamilias, or “father of the family,” possessed patria potestas, “paternal power.” The term pater, “father,” in both these cases

does not necessarily mean biological father but denotes the head of a hold The father was the person who owned the household’s property and,

house-indeed, its human members The paterfamilias had absolute power—including

the power, rarely exercised, of life or death—over his wife, his children, andhis slaves, as much as his cattle

Male children could be “emancipated,” an act that granted legal omy and the right to own property Those over fourteen could be eman-cipated by a special grant from the father or automatically by their father’sdeath But females could never be emancipated; instead, they passed fromthe authority of their father to that of a husband or, if widowed or orphanedwhile still unmarried, to a guardian or tutor

auton-Marriage in its traditional form placed the woman under her husband’s

authority, or manus He could divorce her on grounds of adultery, drinking

wine, or stealing from the household, but she could not divorce him Shecould neither possess property in her own right nor bequeath any to herchildren upon her death When her husband died, the household propertypassed not to her but to his male heirs And when her father died, she had

no claim to any family inheritance, which was directed to her brothers ormore remote male relatives The effect of these laws was to exclude womenfrom civil society, itself based on property ownership

In the later republican and imperial periods, these rules were cantly modified Women rarely married according to the traditional form.The practice of “free” marriage allowed a woman to remain under her father’sauthority, to possess property given her by her father (most frequently the

signifi-“dowry,” recoverable from the husband’s household on his death), and to herit from her father She could also bequeath property to her own childrenand divorce her husband, just as he could divorce her

in-Despite this greater freedom, women still suffered enormous disabilityunder Roman law Heirs could belong only to the father’s side, never themother’s Moreover, although she could bequeath her property to her chil-dren, she could not establish a line of succession in doing so A woman was

“the beginning and end of her own family,” said the jurist Ulpian Moreover,women could play no public role They could not hold public office, repre-sent anyone in a legal case, or even witness a will Women had only a privateexistence and no public personality

The dowry system, the guardian, women’s limited ability to transmitwealth, and total political disability are all features of Roman law adopted bythe medieval communities of western Europe, although modified according

to local customary laws

C H R I S T I A N D O C T R I N E A N D W O M E N ’ S P L A C E The Hebrew Bible andthe Christian New Testament authorized later writers to limit women to therealm of the family and to burden them with the guilt of original sin Thepassages most fruitful for this purpose were the creation narratives in Genesisand sentences from the Epistles defining women’s role within the Christianfamily and community

Each of the first two chapters of Genesis contains a creation narrative

In the first “God created man in his own image, in the image of God hecreated him; male and female he created them” (Gen 1:27) In the second,God created Eve from Adam’s rib (2:21–23) Christian theologians reliedprincipally on Genesis 2 for their understanding of the relation betweenman and woman, interpreting the creation of Eve from Adam as proof of hersubordination to him

The creation story in Genesis 2 leads to that of the temptations in esis 3: of Eve by the wily serpent and of Adam by Eve As read by Christiantheologians from Tertullian to Thomas Aquinas, the narrative made Eve re-sponsible for the Fall and its consequences She instigated the act; she de-ceived her husband; she suffered the greater punishment Her disobediencemade it necessary for Jesus to be incarnated and to die on the cross From thepulpit, moralists and preachers for centuries conveyed to women the guiltthat they bore for original sin.

Gen-The Epistles offered advice to early Christians on building ties of the faithful Among the matters to be regulated was the place ofwomen Paul offered views favorable to women in Gal 3:28: “There is nei-ther Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male norfemale; for you are all one in Christ Jesus.” Paul also referred to women as hiscoworkers and placed them on a par with himself and his male coworkers(Phil 4:2–3; Rom 16:1–3; 1 Cor 16:19) Elsewhere Paul limited women’spossibilities: “But I want you to understand that the head of every man isChrist, the head of a woman is her husband, and the head of Christ is God”(1 Cor 11:3)

communi-Biblical passages by later writers (though attributed to Paul) enjoinedwomen to forgo jewels, expensive clothes, and elaborate coiffures; and theyforbade women to “teach or have authority over men,” telling them to “learn

in silence with all submissiveness” as is proper for one responsible for sin,consoling them, however, with the thought that they will be saved throughchildbearing (1 Tim 2:9–15) Other texts among the later Epistles definedwomen as the weaker sex and emphasized their subordination to their hus-bands (1 Pet 3:7; Col 3:18; Eph 5:22–23)

These passages from the New Testament became the arsenal employed

by theologians of the early church to transmit negative attitudes towardwomen to medieval Christian culture—above all, Tertullian (“On the Ap-

parel of Women”), Jerome (Against Jovinian), and Augustine (The Literal Meaning

of Genesis).

T H E I M A G E O F W O M E N I N M E D I E VA L L I T E R AT U R E The cal, legal, and religious traditions born in antiquity formed the basis of themedieval intellectual synthesis wrought by trained thinkers, mostly clerics,writing in Latin and based largely in universities The vernacular literarytradition that developed alongside the learned tradition also spoke aboutfemale nature and women’s roles Medieval stories, poems, and epics alsoportrayed women negatively—as lustful and deceitful—while praising good

philosophi-housekeepers and loyal wives as replicas of the Virgin Mary or the femalesaints and martyrs.

There is an exception in the movement of “courtly love” that evolved insouthern France from the twelfth century Courtly love was the erotic lovebetween a nobleman and noblewoman, the latter usually superior in socialrank It was always adulterous From the conventions of courtly love derivemodern Western notions of romantic love The tradition has had an impactdisproportionate to its size, for it affected only a tiny elite, and very fewwomen The exaltation of the female lover probably does not reflect a higherevaluation of women or a step toward their sexual liberation More likely itgives expression to the social and sexual tensions besetting the knightly class

at a specific historical juncture

The literary fashion of courtly love was on the wane by the thirteenth

century, when the widely read Romance of the Rose was composed in French by

two authors of significantly different dispositions Guillaume de Lorris posed the initial four thousand verses about 1235, and Jean de Meun addedabout seventeen thousand verses—more than four times the original—about1265

com-The fragment composed by Guillaume de Lorris stands squarely in thetradition of courtly love Here the poet, in a dream, is admitted into a walledgarden where he finds a magic fountain in which a rosebush is reflected

He longs to pick one rose, but the thorns prevent his doing so, even as he

is wounded by arrows from the god of love, whose commands he agrees

to obey The rest of this part of the poem recounts the poet’s unsuccessfulefforts to pluck the rose

The longer part of the Romance by Jean de Meun also describes a dream.

But here allegorical characters give long didactic speeches, providing a socialsatire on a variety of themes, some pertaining to women Love is an anxiousand tormented state, the poem explains: women are greedy and manipula-tive, marriage is miserable, beautiful women are lustful, ugly ones cease toplease, and a chaste woman is as rare as a black swan

Shortly after Jean de Meun completed The Romance of the Rose, Mathéolus penned his Lamentations, a long Latin diatribe against marriage translated into French about a century later The Lamentations sum up medieval attitudes

toward women and provoked the important response by Christine de Pizan

in her Book of the City of Ladies.

In 1355 Giovanni Boccaccio wrote Il Corbaccio, another antifeminist

manifesto, though ironically by an author whose other works pioneerednew directions in Renaissance thought The former husband of his lover

appears to Boccaccio, condemning his unmoderated lust and detailing thedefects of women Boccaccio concedes at the end “how much men naturallysurpass women in nobility” and is cured of his desires.3

W O M E N ’ S R O L E S : T H E F A M I LY The negative perceptions of womenexpressed in the intellectual tradition are also implicit in the actual roles thatwomen played in European society Assigned to subordinate positions in thehousehold and the church, they were barred from significant participation

in public life

Medieval European households, like those in antiquity and in Western civilizations, were headed by males It was the male serf (or peas-ant), feudal lord, town merchant, or citizen who was polled or taxed orsucceeded to an inheritance or had any acknowledged public role, althoughhis wife or widow could stand as a temporary surrogate From about 1100,the position of property-holding males was further enhanced: inheritancewas confined to the male, or agnate, line—with depressing consequencesfor women

non-A wife never fully belonged to her husband’s family, nor was she adaughter to her father’s family She left her father’s house young to marrywhomever her parents chose Her dowry was managed by her husband, and

at her death it normally passed to her children by him

A married woman’s life was occupied nearly constantly with cycles ofpregnancy, childbearing, and lactation Women bore children through allthe years of their fertility, and many died in childbirth They were also re-sponsible for raising young children up to six or seven In the propertiedclasses that responsibility was shared, since it was common for a wet nurse

to take over breast-feeding, and servants performed other chores

Women trained their daughters in the household duties appropriate totheir status, nearly always tasks associated with textiles: spinning, weaving,sewing, embroidering Their sons were sent out of the house as apprentices

or students, or their training was assumed by fathers in later childhood andadolescence On the death of her husband, a woman’s children became theresponsibility of his family She generally did not take “his” children withher to a new marriage or back to her father’s house, except sometimes in theartisan classes

Women also worked Rural peasants performed farm chores, merchantwives often practiced their husbands’ trades, the unmarried daughters of the

3 Giovanni Boccaccio, The Corbaccio, or The Labyrinth of Love, trans and ed Anthony K Cassell,

rev ed (Binghamton, N.Y., 1993), 71.

urban poor worked as servants or prostitutes All wives produced or bellished textiles and did the housekeeping, while wealthy ones managedservants These labors were unpaid or poorly paid but often contributedsubstantially to family wealth.

em-W O M E N ’ S R O L E S : T H E C H U R C H Membership in a household,

wheth-er a fathwheth-er’s or a husband’s, meant for women a lifelong subordination to ers In western Europe, the Roman Catholic Church offered an alternative

oth-to the career of wife and mother A woman could enter a convent, parallel

in function to the monasteries for men that evolved in the early Christiancenturies

In the convent, a woman pledged herself to a celibate life, lived ing to strict community rules, and worshiped daily Often the convent of-fered training in Latin, allowing some women to become considerable schol-ars and authors as well as scribes, artists, and musicians For women whochose the conventual life, the benefits could be enormous, but for numerousothers placed in convents by paternal choice, the life could be restrictiveand burdensome

accord-The conventual life declined as an alternative for women as the modernage approached Reformed monastic institutions resisted responsibility forrelated female orders The church increasingly restricted female institutionallife by insisting on closer male supervision

Women often sought other options Some joined the communities

of laywomen that sprang up spontaneously in the thirteenth century inthe urban zones of western Europe, especially in Flanders and Italy Somejoined the heretical movements that flourished in late medieval Christen-dom, whose anticlerical and often antifamily positions particularly appealed

to women In these communities, some women were acclaimed as “holywomen” or “saints,” whereas others often were condemned as frauds orheretics

In all, though the options offered to women by the church were times less than satisfactory, they were sometimes richly rewarding After

some-1520 the convent remained an option only in Roman Catholic territories.Protestantism engendered an ideal of marriage as a heroic endeavor andappeared to place husband and wife on a more equal footing Sermons andtreatises, however, still called for female subordination and obedience

T H E O T H E R V O I C E , 1 3 0 0 – 1 7 0 0

When the modern era opened, European culture was so firmly structured by

a framework of negative attitudes toward women that to dismantle it was amonumental labor The process began as part of a larger cultural movementthat entailed the critical reexamination of ideas inherited from the ancientand medieval past The humanists launched that critical reexamination

T H E H U M A N I S T F O U N D AT I O N Originating in Italy in the fourteenthcentury, humanism quickly became the dominant intellectual movement inEurope Spreading in the sixteenth century from Italy to the rest of Europe,

it fueled the literary, scientific, and philosophical movements of the era andlaid the basis for the eighteenth-century Enlightenment

Humanists regarded the Scholastic philosophy of medieval universities

as out of touch with the realities of urban life They found in the ical discourse of classical Rome a language adapted to civic life and publicspeech They learned to read, speak, and write classical Latin and, eventually,classical Greek They founded schools to teach others to do so, establish-ing the pattern for elementary and secondary education for the next threehundred years

rhetor-In the service of complex government bureaucracies, humanists ployed their skills to write eloquent letters, deliver public orations, and for-mulate public policy They developed new scripts for copying manuscriptsand used the new printing press to disseminate texts, for which they createdmethods of critical editing

em-Humanism was a movement led by males who accepted the evaluation

of women in ancient texts and generally shared the misogynist perceptions

of their culture (Female humanists, as we will see, did not.) Yet humanismalso opened the door to a reevaluation of the nature and capacity of women

By calling authors, texts, and ideas into question, it made possible the damental rereading of the whole intellectual tradition that was required inorder to free women from cultural prejudice and social subordination

fun-A D I F F E R E N T C I T Y The other voice first appeared when, after so manycenturies, the accumulation of misogynist concepts evoked a response from

a capable female defender: Christine de Pizan (1365–1431) Introducing her

Book of the City of Ladies (1405), she described how she was affected by ing Mathéolus’s Lamentations: “Just the sight of this book made me wonder

read-how it happened that so many different men are so inclined to expressboth in speaking and in their treatises and writings so many wicked insults

about women and their behavior.”4 These statements impelled her to test herself “and the entire feminine sex, as though we were monstrosities innature.”5

de-The rest of de-The Book of the City of Ladies presents a justification of the female

sex and a vision of an ideal community of women A pioneer, she has receivedthe message of female inferiority and rejected it From the fourteenth to theseventeenth century, a huge body of literature accumulated that responded

to the dominant tradition

The result was a literary explosion consisting of works by both menand women, in Latin and in the vernaculars: works enumerating the achieve-ments of notable women; works rebutting the main accusations made againstwomen; works arguing for the equal education of men and women; worksdefining and redefining women’s proper role in the family, at court, in public;works describing women’s lives and experiences Recent monographs andarticles have begun to hint at the great range of this movement, involvingprobably several thousand titles The protofeminism of these “other voices”constitutes a significant fraction of the literary product of the early mod-ern era

T H E C AT A L O G S About 1365 the same Boccaccio whose Corbaccio hearses the usual charges against female nature wrote another work, Concern- ing Famous Women A humanist treatise drawing on classical texts, it praised

re-106 notable women, ninety-eight of them from pagan Greek and Roman tiquity, one (Eve) from the Bible, and seven from the medieval religious andcultural tradition; his book helped make all readers aware of a sex normallycondemned or forgotten Boccaccio’s outlook nevertheless was unfriendly

an-to women, for it singled out for praise those women who possessed the ditional virtues of chastity, silence, and obedience Women who were ac-tive in the public realm—for example, rulers and warriors—were depicted

tra-as usually being ltra-ascivious and tra-as suffering terrible punishments for ing the masculine sphere Women were his subject, but Boccaccio’s standardremained male

enter-Christine de Pizan’s Book of the City of Ladies contains a second catalog, one

responding specifically to Boccaccio’s Whereas Boccaccio portrays femalevirtue as exceptional, she depicts it as universal Many women in history

4 Christine de Pizan, The Book of the City of Ladies, trans Earl Jeffrey Richards, foreword by

Marina Warner (New York, 1982), 1.1.1, pp 3–4.

5 Ibid., 1.1.1–2, p 5.

were leaders, or remained chaste despite the lascivious approaches of men,

or were visionaries and brave martyrs

The work of Boccaccio inspired a series of catalogs of illustrious women

of the biblical, classical, Christian, and local pasts, among them Filippo da

Bergamo’s Of Illustrious Women, Pierre de Brantôme’s Lives of Illustrious Women, Pierre Le Moyne’s Gallerie of Heroic Women, and Pietro Paolo de Ribera’s Im- mortal Triumphs and Heroic Enterprises of 845 Women Whatever their embedded

prejudices, these works drove home to the public the possibility of femaleexcellence

T H E D E B AT E At the same time, many questions remained: Could awoman be virtuous? Could she perform noteworthy deeds? Was she even,strictly speaking, of the same human species as men? These questions weredebated over four centuries, in French, German, Italian, Spanish, and En-glish, by authors male and female, among Catholics, Protestants, and Jews,

in ponderous volumes and breezy pamphlets The whole literary genre has

been called the querelle des femmes, the “woman question.”

The opening volley of this battle occurred in the first years of the teenth century, in a literary debate sparked by Christine de Pizan She ex-

fif-changed letters critical of Jean de Meun’s contribution to The Romance of the Rose with two French royal secretaries, Jean de Montreuil and Gontier Col.

When the matter became public, Jean Gerson, one of Europe’s leading ologians, supported de Pizan’s arguments against de Meun, for the momentsilencing the opposition

the-The debate resurfaced repeatedly over the next two hundred years the-The Triumph of Women (1438) by Juan Rodríguez de la Camara (or Juan Rodríguez

del Padron) struck a new note by presenting arguments for the superiority

of women to men The Champion of Women (1440–42) by Martin Le Franc dresses once again the negative views of women presented in The Romance of the Rose and offers counterevidence of female virtue and achievement.

ad-A cameo of the debate on women is included in The Courtier, one of the

most widely read books of the era, published by the Italian Baldassare tiglione in 1528 and immediately translated into other European vernaculars

Cas-The Courtier depicts a series of evenings at the court of the duke of Urbino

in which many men and some women of the highest social stratum amusethemselves by discussing a range of literary and social issues The “womanquestion” is a pervasive theme throughout, and the third of its four books isdevoted entirely to that issue

In a verbal duel, Gasparo Pallavicino and Giuliano de’ Medici presentthe main claims of the two traditions Gasparo argues the innate inferiority

of women and their inclination to vice Only in bearing children do they

profit the world Giuliano counters that women share the same spiritual and

mental capacities as men and may excel in wisdom and action Men and

women are of the same essence: just as no stone can be more perfectly a

stone than another, so no human being can be more perfectly human than

others, whether male or female It was an astonishing assertion, boldly made

to an audience as large as all Europe

T H E T R E AT I S E S Humanism provided the materials for a positive

coun-terconcept to the misogyny embedded in Scholastic philosophy and law and

inherited from the Greek, Roman, and Christian pasts A series of humanist

treatises on marriage and family, on education and deportment, and on the

nature of women helped construct these new perspectives

The works by Francesco Barbaro and Leon Battista Alberti—On

Mar-riage (1415) and On the Family (1434–37)—far from defending female

equal-ity, reasserted women’s responsibility for rearing children and managing the

housekeeping while being obedient, chaste, and silent Nevertheless, they

served the cause of reexamining the issue of women’s nature by placing

do-mestic issues at the center of scholarly concern and reopening the pertinent

classical texts In addition, Barbaro emphasized the companionate nature of

marriage and the importance of a wife’s spiritual and mental qualities for the

well-being of the family

These themes reappear in later humanist works on marriage and the

education of women by Juan Luis Vives and Erasmus Both were moderately

sympathetic to the condition of women without reaching beyond the usual

masculine prescriptions for female behavior

An outlook more favorable to women characterizes the nearly unknown

work In Praise of Women (ca 1487) by the Italian humanist Bartolommeo

Gog-gio In addition to providing a catalog of illustrious women, Goggio argued

that male and female are the same in essence, but that women (reworking the

Adam and Eve narrative from quite a new angle) are actually superior In the

same vein, the Italian humanist Maria Equicola asserted the spiritual equality

of men and women in On Women (1501) In 1525 Galeazzo Flavio Capra (or

Capella) published his work On the Excellence and Dignity of Women This

hu-manist tradition of treatises defending the worthiness of women culminates

in the work of Henricus Cornelius Agrippa On the Nobility and Preeminence of the

Female Sex No work by a male humanist more succinctly or explicitly presents

the case for female dignity

T H E W I T C H B O O K S While humanists grappled with the issues ing to women and family, other learned men turned their attention to whatthey perceived as a very great problem: witches Witch-hunting manuals,explorations of the witch phenomenon, and even defenses of witches arenot at first glance pertinent to the tradition of the other voice But they dorelate in this way: most accused witches were women The hostility aroused

pertain-by supposed witch activity is comparable to the hostility aroused pertain-by women.The evil deeds the victims of the hunt were charged with were exaggerations

of the vices to which, many believed, all women were prone

The connection between the witch accusation and the hatred of women

is explicit in the notorious witch-hunting manual The Hammer of Witches (1486)

by two Dominican inquisitors, Heinrich Krämer and Jacob Sprenger Herethe inconstancy, deceitfulness, and lustfulness traditionally associated withwomen are depicted in exaggerated form as the core features of witch behav-ior These traits inclined women to make a bargain with the devil—sealed

by sexual intercourse—by which they acquired unholy powers Such bizarreclaims, far from being rejected by rational men, were broadcast by intellec-tuals The German Ulrich Molitur, the Frenchman Nicolas Rémy, and theItalian Stefano Guazzo all coolly informed the public of sinister orgies andmidnight pacts with the devil The celebrated French jurist, historian, andpolitical philosopher Jean Bodin argued that because women were especiallyprone to diabolism, regular legal procedures could properly be suspended inorder to try those accused of this “exceptional crime.”

A few experts such as the physician Johann Weyer, a student of pa’s, raised their voices in protest In 1563 he explained the witch phe-nomenon thus, without discarding belief in diabolism: the devil deludedfoolish old women afflicted by melancholia, causing them to believe theyhad magical powers Weyer’s rational skepticism, which had good credibility

Agrip-in the community of the learned, worked to revise the conventional views

of women and witchcraft

W O M E N ’ S W O R K S To the many categories of works produced on thequestion of women’s worth must be added nearly all works written bywomen A woman writing was in herself a statement of women’s claim todignity

Only a few women wrote anything before the dawn of the modern era,for three reasons First, they rarely received the education that would en-able them to write Second, they were not admitted to the public roles—

as administrator, bureaucrat, lawyer or notary, or university professor—inwhich they might gain knowledge of the kinds of things the literate public

thought worth writing about Third, the culture imposed silence on women,considering speaking out a form of unchastity Given these conditions, it

is remarkable that any women wrote Those who did before the fourteenthcentury were almost always nuns or religious women whose isolation madetheir pronouncements more acceptable

From the fourteenth century on, the volume of women’s writings rose.Women continued to write devotional literature, although not always ascloistered nuns They also wrote diaries, often intended as keepsakes fortheir children; books of advice to their sons and daughters; letters to familymembers and friends; and family memoirs, in a few cases elaborate enough

to be considered histories

A few women wrote works directly concerning the “woman question,”and some of these, such as the humanists Isotta Nogarola, Cassandra Fedele,Laura Cereta, and Olympia Morata, were highly trained A few were profes-sional writers, living by the income of their pens; the very first among themwas Christine de Pizan, noteworthy in this context as in so many others In

addition to The Book of the City of Ladies and her critiques of The Romance of the Rose, she wrote The Treasure of the City of Ladies (a guide to social decorum for

women), an advice book for her son, much courtly verse, and a full-scalehistory of the reign of King Charles V of France

W O M E N P AT R O N S Women who did not themselves write but aged others to do so boosted the development of an alternative tradition.Highly placed women patrons supported authors, artists, musicians, poets,and learned men Such patrons, drawn mostly from the Italian elites and thecourts of northern Europe, figure disproportionately as the dedicatees of theimportant works of early feminism

encour-For a start, it might be noted that the catalogs of Boccaccio and Alvaro

de Luna were dedicated to the Florentine noblewoman Andrea Acciaiuoliand to Doña María, first wife of King Juan II of Castile, while the Frenchtranslation of Boccaccio’s work was commissioned by Anne of Brittany, wife

of King Charles VIII of France The humanist treatises of Goggio, Equicola,Vives, and Agrippa were dedicated, respectively, to Eleanora of Aragon, wife

of Ercole I d’Este, duke of Ferrara; to Margherita Cantelma of Mantua; toCatherine of Aragon, wife of King Henry VIII of England; and to Margaret,duchess of Austria and regent of the Netherlands As late as 1696, Mary

Astell’s Serious Proposal to the Ladies, for the Advancement of Their True and Greatest Interest was dedicated to Princess Anne of Denmark.

These authors presumed that their efforts would be welcome to femalepatrons, or they may have written at the bidding of those patrons Silent

themselves, perhaps even unresponsive, these loftily placed women helpedshape the tradition of the other voice.

T H E I S S U E S The literary forms and patterns in which the tradition ofthe other voice presented itself have now been sketched It remains to high-light the major issues around which this tradition crystallizes In brief, thereare four problems to which our authors return again and again, in plays andcatalogs, in verse and letters, in treatises and dialogues, in every language:the problem of chastity, the problem of power, the problem of speech, andthe problem of knowledge Of these the greatest, preconditioning the oth-ers, is the problem of chastity

T H E P R O B L E M O F C H A S T I T Y In traditional European culture, as in those

of antiquity and others around the globe, chastity was perceived as woman’squintessential virtue—in contrast to courage, or generosity, or leadership,

or rationality, seen as virtues characteristic of men Opponents of womencharged them with insatiable lust Women themselves and their defenders—without disputing the validity of the standard—responded that women werecapable of chastity

The requirement of chastity kept women at home, silenced them, lated them, left them in ignorance It was the source of all other impedi-ments Why was it so important to the society of men, of whom chastitywas not required, and who more often than not considered it their right toviolate the chastity of any woman they encountered?

iso-Female chastity ensured the continuity of the male-headed household

If a man’s wife was not chaste, he could not be sure of the legitimacy of hisoffspring If they were not his and they acquired his property, it was not hishousehold, but some other man’s, that had endured If his daughter was notchaste, she could not be transferred to another man’s household as his wife,and he was dishonored

The whole system of the integrity of the household and the transmission

of property was bound up in female chastity Such a requirement pertainedonly to property-owning classes, of course Poor women could not expect

to maintain their chastity, least of all if they were in contact with high-statusmen to whom all women but those of their own household were prey

In Catholic Europe, the requirement of chastity was further buttressed

by moral and religious imperatives Original sin was inextricably linked withthe sexual act Virginity was seen as heroic virtue, far more impressive than,say, the avoidance of idleness or greed Monasticism, the cultural institutionthat dominated medieval Europe for centuries, was grounded in the renun-ciation of the flesh The Catholic reform of the eleventh century imposed

a similar standard on all the clergy and a heightened awareness of sexual

requirements on all the laity Although men were asked to be chaste, female

unchastity was much worse: it led to the devil, as Eve had led mankind to sin

To such requirements, women and their defenders protested their

in-nocence Furthermore, following the example of holy women who had

es-caped the requirements of family and sought the religious life, some women

began to conceive of female communities as alternatives both to family and

to the cloister Christine de Pizan’s city of ladies was such a community

Moderata Fonte and Mary Astell envisioned others The luxurious salons of

the French précieuses of the seventeenth century, or the comfortable English

drawing rooms of the next, may have been born of the same impulse Here

women not only might escape, if briefly, the subordinate position that life

in the family entailed but might also make claims to power, exercise their

capacity for speech, and display their knowledge

T H E P R O B L E M O F P O W E R Women were excluded from power: the whole

cultural tradition insisted on it Only men were citizens, only men bore arms,

only men could be chiefs or lords or kings There were exceptions that did

not disprove the rule, when wives or widows or mothers took the place of

men, awaiting their return or the maturation of a male heir A woman who

attempted to rule in her own right was perceived as an anomaly, a monster,

at once a deformed woman and an insufficient male, sexually confused and

consequently unsafe

The association of such images with women who held or sought power

explains some otherwise odd features of early modern culture Queen

Eliz-abeth I of England, one of the few women to hold full regal authority in

European history, played with such male/female images—positive ones, of

course—in representing herself to her subjects She was a prince, and manly,

even though she was female She was also (she claimed) virginal, a

condi-tion absolutely essential if she was to avoid the attacks of her opponents

Catherine de’ Medici, who ruled France as widow and regent for her sons,

also adopted such imagery in defining her position She chose as one

sym-bol the figure of Artemisia, an androgynous ancient warrior-heroine who

combined a female persona with masculine powers

Power in a woman, without such sexual imagery, seems to have been

indigestible by the culture A rare note was struck by the Englishman Sir

Thomas Elyot in his Defence of Good Women (1540), justifying both women’s

participation in civic life and their prowess in arms The old tune was sung by

the Scots reformer John Knox in his First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous

Regiment of Women (1558); for him rule by women, defects in nature, was a

hideous contradiction in terms

The confused sexuality of the imagery of female potency was not served for rulers Any woman who excelled was likely to be called an Ama-zon, recalling the self-mutilated warrior women of antiquity who repudiatedall men, gave up their sons, and raised only their daughters She was oftensaid to have “exceeded her sex” or to have possessed “masculine virtue”—asthe very fact of conspicuous excellence conferred masculinity even on thefemale subject The catalogs of notable women often showed those femaleheroes dressed in armor, armed to the teeth, like men Amazonian hero-

re-ines romp through the epics of the age—Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso (1532) and Spenser’s Faerie Queene (1590–1609) Excellence in a woman was perceived as

a claim for power, and power was reserved for the masculine realm A womanwho possessed either one was masculinized and lost title to her own femaleidentity

T H E P R O B L E M O F S P E E C H Just as power had a sexual dimension when itwas claimed by women, so did speech A good woman spoke little Excessivespeech was an indication of unchastity By speech, women seduced men Evehad lured Adam into sin by her speech Accused witches were commonlyaccused of having spoken abusively, or irrationally, or simply too much Asenlightened a figure as Francesco Barbaro insisted on silence in a woman,which he linked to her perfect unanimity with her husband’s will and herunblemished virtue (her chastity) Another Italian humanist, Leonardo Bruni,

in advising a noblewoman on her studies, barred her not from speech butfrom public speaking That was reserved for men

Related to the problem of speech was that of costume—another, ifsilent, form of self-expression Assigned the task of pleasing men as theirprimary occupation, elite women often tended toward elaborate costume,hairdressing, and the use of cosmetics Clergy and secular moralists alikecondemned these practices The appropriate function of costume and adorn-ment was to announce the status of a woman’s husband or father Any furtherindulgence in adornment was akin to unchastity

T H E P R O B L E M O F K N O W L E D G E When the Italian noblewoman IsottaNogarola had begun to attain a reputation as a humanist, she was accused

of incest—a telling instance of the association of learning in women withunchastity That chilling association inclined any woman who was educated

to deny that she was or to make exaggerated claims of heroic chastity

If educated women were pursued with suspicions of sexual misconduct,women seeking an education faced an even more daunting obstacle: the as-sumption that women were by nature incapable of learning, that reasoningwas a particularly masculine ability Just as they proclaimed their chastity,women and their defenders insisted on their capacity for learning The major

work by a male writer on female education—that by Juan Luis Vives, On the

Education of a Christian Woman (1523)—granted female capacity for

intellec-tion but still argued that a woman’s whole educaintellec-tion was to be shaped around

the requirement of chastity and a future within the household Female

writ-ers of the following generations—Marie de Gournay in France, Anna Maria

van Schurman in Holland, Mary Astell in England—began to envision other

possibilities

The pioneers of female education were the Italian women humanists

who managed to attain a literacy in Latin and a knowledge of classical and

Christian literature equivalent to that of prominent men Their works

implic-itly and explicimplic-itly raise questions about women’s social roles, defining

prob-lems that beset women attempting to break out of the cultural limits that had

bound them Like Christine de Pizan, who achieved an advanced education

through her father’s tutoring and her own devices, their bold questioning

makes clear the importance of training Only when women were educated

to the same standard as male leaders would they be able to raise that other

voice and insist on their dignity as human beings morally, intellectually, and

legally equal to men

T H E O T H E R V O I C E The other voice, a voice of protest, was mostly

female, but it was also male It spoke in the vernaculars and in Latin, in

treatises and dialogues, in plays and poetry, in letters and diaries, and in

pamphlets It battered at the wall of prejudice that encircled women and

raised a banner announcing its claims The female was equal (or even

supe-rior) to the male in essential nature—moral, spiritual, intellectual Women

were capable of higher education, of holding positions of power and

in-fluence in the public realm, and of speaking and writing persuasively The

last bastion of masculine supremacy, centered on the notions of a woman’s

primary domestic responsibility and the requirement of female chastity, was

not as yet assaulted—although visions of productive female communities as

alternatives to the family indicated an awareness of the problem

During the period 1300–1700, the other voice remained only a voice,

and one only dimly heard It did not result—yet—in an alteration of social

patterns Indeed, to this day they have not entirely been altered Yet the call

for justice issued as long as six centuries ago by those writing in the tradition

of the other voice must be recognized as the source and origin of the mature

feminist tradition and of the realignment of social institutions accomplished

in the modern age

We thank the volume editors in this series, who responded with many

suggestions to an earlier draft of this introduction, making it a

collabora-tive enterprise Many of their suggestions and criticisms have resulted in

revisions of this introduction, though we remain responsible for the finalproduct.

P R O J E C T E D T I T L E S I N T H E S E R I E S

Isabella Andreini, Mirtilla, edited and translated by Laura Stortoni

Tullia d’Aragona, Complete Poems and Letters, edited and translated by Julia Hairston Tullia d’Aragona, The Wretch, Otherwise Known as Guerrino, edited and translated by Julia

Hairston and John McLucas

Giuseppa Eleonora Barbapiccola and Diamante Medaglia Faini, The Education of Women,

edited and translated by Rebecca Messbarger

Francesco Barbaro et al., On Marriage and the Family, edited and translated by Margaret

L King

Laura Battiferra, Selected Poetry, Prose, and Letters, edited and translated by Victoria

Kirkham

Giulia Bigolina, Urania, edited and translated by Valeria Finucci

Francesco Buoninsegni and Arcangela Tarabotti, Menippean Satire: “Against Feminine travagance” and “Antisatire,” edited and translated by Elissa Weaver

Ex-Elisabetta Caminer Turra, Writings on and about Women, edited and translated by

Cather-ine Sama

Maddalena Campiglia, Flori, edited and translated by Virginia Cox with Lisa Sampson Rosalba Carriera, Letters, Diaries, and Art, edited and translated by Shearer West Madame du Chatelet, Selected Works, edited by Judith Zinsser

Gabrielle de Coignard, Spiritual Sonnets, edited and translated by Melanie E Gregg Vittoria Colonna, Sonnets for Michelangelo, edited and translated by Abigail Brundin Vittoria Colonna, Chiara Matraini, and Lucrezia Marinella, Marian Writings, edited

and translated by Susan Haskins

Marie Dentière, Epistles, edited and translated by Mary B McKinley

Marie-Catherine Desjardins (Madame de Villedieu), Memoirs of the Life of Henriette-Sylvie

de Molière, edited and translated by Donna Kuizenga

Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia, Correspondence with Descartes, edited and translated by

Lisa Shapiro

Isabella d’Este, Selected Letters, edited and translated by Deanna Shemek

Fairy-Tales by Seventeenth-Century French Women Writers, edited and translated by Lewis

Seifert and Domna C Stanton

Moderata Fonte, Floridoro, edited and translated by Valeria Finucci

Moderata Fonte and Lucrezia Marinella, Religious Narratives, edited and translated by

Virginia Cox

Francisca de los Apostoles, Visions on Trial: The Inquisitional Trial of Francisca de los Apostoles,

edited and translated by Gillian T W Ahlgren

Catharina Regina von Greiffenberg, Meditations on the Life of Christ, edited and translated

Louise Labé, Complete Works, edited and translated by Annie Finch and Deborah Baker

Madame de Maintenon, Lectures and Dramatic Dialogues, edited and translated by John

Chiara Matraini, Selected Poetry and Prose, edited and translated by Elaine MacLachlan

Isotta Nogarola, Selected Letters, edited and translated by Margaret L King and Diana

Alessandro Piccolomini, Rethinking Marriage in Sixteenth-Century Italy, edited and

trans-lated by Letizia Panizza

Christine de Pizan et al., Debate over the “Romance of the Rose,” edited and translated by

Tom Conley with Elisabeth Hodges

Christine de Pizan, Life of Charles V, edited and translated by Charity Cannon Willard

Christine de Pizan, The Long Road of Learning, edited and translated by Andrea

Tarnowski

Madeleine and Catherine des Roches, Selected Letters, Dialogues, and Poems, edited and

translated by Anne Larsen

Oliva Sabuco, The New Philosophy: True Medicine, edited and translated by Gianna

Po-mata

Margherita Sarrocchi, La Scanderbeide, edited and translated by Rinaldina Russell

Madeleine de Scudéry, Orations and Rhetorical Dialogues, edited and translated by Jane

Donawerth with Julie Strongson

Madeleine de Scudéry, The “Histoire de Sapho,” edited and translated by Karen Newman

Justine Siegemund, The Court Midwife of the Electorate of Brandenburg (1690), edited and

translated by Lynne Tatlock

Gabrielle Suchon, “On Philosophy” and “On Morality,” edited and translated by Domna

Stanton with Rebecca Wilkin

Sara Copio Sullam, Sara Copio Sullam: Jewish Poet and Intellectual in Early Seventeenth-Century

Venice, edited and translated by Don Harrán

Arcangela Tarabotti, Convent Life as Inferno: A Report, introduction and notes by

Fran-cesca Medioli, translated by Letizia Panizza

Arcangela Tarabotti, Paternal Tyranny, edited and translated by Letizia Panizza

Laura Terracina, Works, edited and translated by Michael Sherberg

Katharina Schütz Zell, Selected Writings, edited and translated by Elsie McKee

A B B R E V I A T I O N S

ADB Allgemeine deutsche Biographie Hrsg durch die Historische

Commission bei der Koniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften

1875–1912 Reprint, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1967–1971

BBK Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon Edited by Friedrich

Wilhelm Bautz Hamm: Bautz, 1970—

CMH Cambridge Modern History Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

DBF Dictionnaire de biographie francaise Paris: Letouzey et Ane, 1933—.

DNB The Dictionary of National Biography London: Oxford University

Press, 1882—

NDB Neue deutsche Biographie Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1953—.

NCMH The New Cambridge Modern History Edited by G R Elton 2d ed.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990—

x x x i i i

( 1 5 2 6 / 2 7 – 5 5 )

Disse allor madonna Margherita Gonzaga: «Parmi che voi narriate troppo brevemente queste opere virtuose fatte da donne; ché se ben questi nostri nemici l’hanno udite e lette, mostrano non saperle e vorriano che se ne perdesse la memoria: ma se fate che noi altre le intendiamo, almen ce ne faremo onore».

[Then the lady Margherita Gonzaga said, “In my opinion, you tell these virtuous deeds done by women much too quickly; for our enemies, although they’ve heard of them and read them, pretend that they don’t know about them and would like the memory

of them to be lost But if you let us women hear them, then at least we can do them honor.”]

——Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier, 3.23

T H E V O I C E O F O N E C R Y I N G I N T H E W I L D E R N E S S

She was raised in a court of unmatched splendor She was the childhoodcompanion of nobility A brilliant scholar, she gave public lectures onCicero, wrote commentaries on Homer, and composed poems, dialogues,and orations in both Latin and Greek She was one of the most sophisticatedand flexible Latin stylists of her age

She was also a Protestant in papal lands, a profound student of the Bible,who underwent a crisis of faith to emerge stronger Thrown into disfavor

at court, she married for love and love of learning In search of religiousfreedom, she and her husband went over the Alps to Germany There shecommunicated with leading Reformation theologians, continued her studies,wrestled with the mysteries of predestination and the Eucharist, and wroteGreek poems that won praise across Europe She was a vivid eyewitness tothe horrors of the wars of religion She suffered siege and bombardment atSchweinfurt, making a perilous escape to Heidelberg, where she continued

to write and teach She spoke with singular authority within the church 1

But the disease contracted during her terrible adventures killed her beforeher thirtieth birthday By that time most of her works had been destroyed.Those that remained were gathered by an old family friend as a memorial tothe genius he had loved as a daughter After her death she was attacked as a

“Calvinist Amazon,” but other women scholars viewed her as a light shining

——Caelius Secundus Curio, “Dedication to Isabella of Bresengna,” 1558

Olympia Morata first stepped onto the stage of history at the age of fourteen

It was a literal stage, set in what her friend and biographer, Caelius SecundusCurio, called “the private Academy of the Queen of Ferrara.” At Renée deFrance’s secluded villa, which she called Il Consolando, some time betweenApril and October of 1541, before a select audience of French, German, and

Italian heretics, Morata lectured in Latin on Cicero’s Stoic Paradoxes.1

We know little of Morata’s life before her own letters begin to tell thestory, but we can see something of the background to her life and thought

by examining the two most important influences during her formative years:her father, Fulvio Pellegrino Morato, and the besieged and heterodox court

in which she was raised

F U LV I O P E L L E G R I N O M O R AT O ( C 1 4 8 3 – 1 5 4 8 ) I cannot here give asummary of the Protestant Reformation or even a sketch of the birth-strangled progress of “evangelism” in Italy.2Yet the life of Pellegrino Moretto

1 “Dedication to Isbella Bresegna” (1558): “in privata Reginae Ferrariensis Academia.” This is doubtless Renée’s country retreat near Argenta, twenty-five miles south of Ferrara, which the duke had given her in July 1540 It was the center for most of Renée’s clandestine activities

in aid of the Protestants, according to the testimony of an Inquisition spy: Rodocanachi 1896 [1970], 153–54; Blaisdell 1969, 200–201; Caponetto 1999, 25.

2 The best introductions to the period are by Miccoli 1974, 975–1075 (esp 1013–71);

Canti-mori in NCMH 2:288–312; and Cameron 1992 The best general work in English on the Italian

Reformation is Caponetto 1999; Brown 1933 and (to a lesser extent) Church 1932 remain useful The complex idea of “evangelism” is discussed more fully below.

is almost exemplary in showing how the ideas of the Reform spread in Italy.3

He was originally from Mantua, and in keeping with humanist practice heLatinized his name to Fulvius Peregrinus Moratus.4A talented teacher withconsiderable fame as a poet,5he was exiled from Mantua for unknown rea-sons, and as early as 1517 he had made his way to the Este court in Ferrara

to seek aid from Duke Alfonso I for his return.6He seems instead to haveremained, and in 1522 was employed by the duke’s cousin Sigismondo Inthe same year he was appointed by the duke himself to oversee the education

of his two youngest sons, Ippolito d’Este, later to become cardinal (1509–72), and Francesco, prince of Massa (1516–78).7While in service at Ferrara

he contributed not only to classical studies but also to the philological study

of Italian His Rimario di tutte le cadentie di Dante e Petrarca (1528) was the first

study and dictionary of rhyme in Italian

At Ferrara Morato married a certain Lucrezia, and late in 1526 or early

1527, the first of their children, Olympia, was born.8In that same year, hededicated an explication of the Our Father and the Hail Mary to the nunTeofila Gozi of S Gabriello in Ferrara, possibly Lucrezia’s sister.9In this heattacked

3 For Morato, see principally Capori 1875; Puttin 1974; Olivieri 1992, 300–46; briefly, Caretti

1940, 50 n 1.

4 He made the change as early as 1526 (Olivieri 1992, 317 n 128) Calcagnini (1544, 189) in

an undated letter teases him about it and makes it appear that the “metamorphosis” happened while Morato was at Venice.

5 For the social status of such schoolteachers, see Seidel Menchi 1987, 122–42 For his poetry see, for example, Calcagnini 1544, 124, and the letter of Pietro Bembo praising Morato’s poetry

as “facetum et elegans” (the letter thanks Morato for a gift of letters and versiculi, which Morato

sent as a way of asking admission to Bembo’s friendship: Bembo 1729, 4:230: Liber VI, prid id.

Sex., 1534) I have been unable to locate a copy of Morato’s Carmina Quaedam Latina (Venice,

1533).

6 Puttin 1974, 113, with documentation.

7 Ibid., 114 See documents 1 and 2 in the present text (Giraldus, On the Poets of Our Time and

Caelius Secundus Curio to Sixtus Betulius); Bonnet 1856, 24; Kössling and Weiss-Stählin 1990, 10; Flood and Shaw 1997, 101.

8 The marriage may have occurred in 1525, the year in which he acquired some property: Puttin, 1974, 114 Olympia was born after 26 October 1526; see letters 72, 73, and Note on Chronology.

9 Barotti [1792–93] 1970, 2:165; Caretti 1940, 51 n 1; Puttin 1974, 122 and 125 n 40 Moretto refers to her as “Cognata anzi Sirochia soa amatissima” (1st ed., Ferrara: Francesco Rosso da Valenza, 1526 I have not been able to locate a copy) Two other works were published

in a 1540 edition of short works by Luther and Amsdorf circulating under the less alarming name

of Erasmus: La dichiaratione di i dieci commandamenti dil credo e dil pater noster con una breve Annotatione dil

vivere Christiano per Erasmo Rotedamo, utile e necessaria a caiscuno fedele Christiano The frontispiece lists

an Opera nuova dilla dichiaratione dil nome di Giesù mirabile (A new work on the explanation of the wonderful name of Jesus) and Da mihi bibere dilla Samaritana (The Samaritan woman’s “give me to

a piece of mud covered in a monk’s hood I’m talking about BrotherMartin Luther with his muck10and mud In our time he has so en-crusted our faith that almost the whole thing is transformed And out

of the multitude of ecclesiastics there has not appeared up till noweven one who has completely taken up the challenge of controvertinghim.11

This seems an orthodox enough work, but Morato was already following

in the footsteps of such forerunners of the Reformation as Savonarola, Picodella Mirandola, Erasmus, and even Luther himself, all of whom had writtenexpositions on the Lord’s Prayer for a vernacular audience.12

However, when Morata was five, her father took her and her familyaway from Ferrara for six years (1532–39).13 The reason is unclear, but

it seems to have been the result of professional jealousy rather than gious persecution.14His friend, the scholar and astronomer Celio Calcagnini(1479–1541), spoke of various secret enemies and proclaimed Morato’s de-parture a great loss; the youth of the city were dissatisfied with all the otherprivate teachers.15

reli-To the great delight of the local humanists, Morato opened a school in

Vicenza in April 1532, where he gave public lectures on Cicero’s Stoic doxes and Horace’s Art of Poetry He also spent time in Venice and Cesena.16

Para-While in exile he wrote further works: On the Significance of the Colors (1535),

an allegorical handbook, as well as his book of Latin poems (1533).17But by

drink” [John 4:10]) by Peregrino Moretto Mantoano e Ferrarese This exists as a unique copy

in Florence: the part containing Morato’s works was damaged in the 1966 flood Seidel Menchi

1987, 83, 377–78 n 44; 1993, 86 n 44; Olivieri 1992, 304–5.

10 luto, punning on Luther.

11 Text trans from Prosperi 1990, 267 (also at Puttin 1974, 123).

12 Olivieri 1992, 304–5.

13 Calcagnini 1544, 199, for the date of return; Olivieri 1967, 55 n 5.

14 Contra the impression given by Kutter 1955, 35 (very speculative) and Blaisdell 1969, 178 (citing also Church 1932, 65, who offers no evidence) Baruffaldi (cited from Tiraboschi 1822,

12 [= VII, pt 3]:1746 n 1) and Nolten (1775, 16–17) go no further than jealousy as a reason.

15 Calcagnini is the only source (rightly Puttin 1974, 115–16): Calcagnini 1544, 156–58; Nolten 1775, 15–16 speak of “your innocence, or (to call it the worst name) the lightness of your fault, and certainly provoked by many injuries.”

16 Calcagnini 1544, 189 (Venice); 104 (Cesena).

17 Del Significato de’ Colori His Italian works went through numerous editions Also a lost De

Socrate (Calcagnini 1544, 168–69, 179) Olivieri (1992) is perhaps overeager to squeeze

reli-gious significance out of these works and other rather straightforward encomiastic poems of the period See also Puttin 1974, 120–23, on Morato’s works.

this time it is clear that his religious beliefs were changing or had changed.Near the end of 1532, Morato met Bartolomeo Testa, who had been a fol-lower of the Swiss reformer Zwingli since 1529, and talked with him aboutbaptism and the Mass He lectured to his students on the ideas of Eras-mus, Melanchthon, Zwingli, and Luther.18These pupils included Alessan-dro Trissino and his cousin Giulio Trissino; Alessandro, Niccolò, and MarcoThiene; and Count Carlos de Seso, all of whom were or would becomeprominent Protestants.19During this period he met Caelius Secundus Cu-rio, who would remain a lifelong friend to him and his daughter (see below).Morato was in trouble with the Council of Ten in Venice in 1536,20and by

1539 he was lecturing publicly on Calvin’s Institutes of Christian Religion.21Only

a year before, the cardinals themselves had warned of the danger that suchItalian teachers posed to the orthodoxy of youth.22

Morato also seems to have had some sort of mystical experience, thoughthe one-sided nature of the correspondence does not allow us to learn spe-cific details Calcagnini replied rather cryptically to letters of Morato (dated

13 February 1538, when Morata was 11):

I congratulate you that you have found a way, as your letter to me bearswitness, that will carry you to that highest and perpetual happiness

It was in fact, I see, easy for you to do First because you have alwaysenrolled your name from the heart, not for deception, under the ban-ner of Christian philosophy And you’ve given proof of this in the way

in which you have educated your family and your students with the

18 Olivieri 1992, 303, 307–8 Cf the letter (text at Morsolin 1878, 410; also Puttin 1974, 201)

of 29 May 1538 from the poet and dramatist Giangiorgio Trissino to his son Giulio complaining

of Morato’s infecting the young man with Lutheran doctrines; there is a similar letter dated 10 March 1542 (Puttin 1974, 204).

19 Cignoni 1982–84; Olivieri 1992, 307–8; Caponetto 1999, 199–203 Calcagnini (1544, 158) mentions Trissino.

20 Church (1932, 65) believed the case concerned heresy, but Puttin (1974, 199–200) rightly stresses that we cannot be sure Savi (1815, 121–22 [non vidi; cited in Puttin 1974, 199]) cites the document of 10 May 1536.

21 Olivieri 1992, 317 The second edition of the Institutio Christianae Religionis appeared in that

year The first edition had been published in 1536.

22 In the Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia (Kidd 1911, 315): “There is great and pernicious abuse

in the public schools, especially in Italy, in which many professors of philosophy are teaching impiety In fact, the most impious disputations occur even in church, and even if they were pious, divine matters are treated quite irreverently openly before the common people.” A sloppy sentence, which Morata would have despised For a similar and widespread attitude, however,

cf Calcagnini, below On the spread of the ideas of Luther and Erasmus by these schoolmasters, see Seidel Menchi 1987, 122–42; 1993, 139–68; Bacchelli 1998, 337.