An investigation into language learning strategy use among male and female students at earnst thaimann high school a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts in TESOL

Both male and female learners were found to employ certain types of language learning strategies to a certain degree to support their learning but there were discrepancies in the choice

STATEMENT OF THE AUTHORSHIP

I certify that this thesis, entitled “An investigation into language learning strategy use among students at Ernst Thalmann high school”, is my own work

Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma

No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis

This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution

Ho Chi Minh City, 2018

Van Thanh Minh Trung

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Since the success and final outcome of this research required great guidance and assistance, it is my honor and luckiness to receive great assistance and support from a lot of people

First of all, I would like to express my gratefulness to my supervisor, Dr Nguyen Thuy Nga, head of faculty of foreign languages of Ho Chi Minh City Open University, who has helped and supported me a lot Thanks to her useful advice and whole-hearted feedback on each of my draft, finally I have completed my research

Secondly, I would like to thank English teachers of Ernst Thalmann high school who has given feedbacks on my questionnaire translation versions, grade-ten students of Ernst Thalmann high school who contributed to the completion of data collection In addition,

I also express my special appreciation to my principal and vice-principles who have created the most convenient conditions for me to accomplish the research paper

Last but not least, I express my eternal gratitude to my grandparents, parents, brothers, sisters and close friends for their profound emotions towards me

In conclusion, I will always treasure all of you in my heart

ABSTRACT

In the context of Vietnam to date, there has been a dearth of research studies about language learning strategies and the relationship between the two genders in the use of language learning strategies at high schools In an attempt to removing that scarcity from the context of Vietnam in general and the place where the researcher works in particular, this research was done to investigate the frequency of language learning strategies among male and female students at Ernst Thalmann high school in Ho Chi Minh city The present research also aimed at finding out whether there were significant differences between the two genders in the use of language learning strategies

Data in this research were gathered by two main instruments including a questionnaire and an open-ended interview A sample of 212 students (106 males and 106 females) out of the total population of 457 students participated Ten students representing these

212 students continued to be invited for the interviews

The results indicated that the participants were strategy users at medium level with the most frequent use of Memory strategies and the least of Affective strategies No significant difference was found between male and female subjects in this research both

in overall strategy use as well as in the specific categories of strategies, implying that gender, in this research, did not have a significant impact on the students’ choice or frequency of use in general or for any particular strategy category

Finally, from the results of this research, theoretical and practical implications were suggested in addition to limitations and recommendations for future research

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Statement of authorship i

Acknowledgements ii

Abstract iii

Table of contents iv

List of Figures vii

List of Tables viii

List of Abbreviations ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the research 1

1.2 Statement of problem and personal motivation 3

1.3 Aims and research questions 5

1.4 Hypotheses and research model 6

1.4.1 Hypotheses 6

1.4.2 Research model 6

1.5 Significance of the research 7

1.6 Structure of the thesis 8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 10

2.1 Concept of language learning strategies 10

2.1.1 Background of language learning strategies 10

2.1.2 Definition of language learning strategies 11

2.1.3 Classifications of language learning strategies 14

2.2 Language learning strategy use and gender 19

2.2.1 Overview of frequency of language learning strategy use and the effects of gender on language learning strategy use 19

2.2.2 Research into frequency of language learning strategy use and the effects of gender on language learning strategy use 20

2.3 Research gap 27

2.4 Theoretical framework for the current research 28

2.5 Summary 30

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 31

3.1 Research design 31

3.2 Research site 32

3.3 Participants 33

3.4 Data collection instruments 35

3.4.1 Questionnaire 36

3.4.2 Semi-structured interview 44

3.5 Data collection procedures 46

3.6 Data analysis 48

3.7 Summary 49

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 50

4.1 The results from questionnaires 50

4.1.1 Results pertaining to students’ overall language learning strategy use 51

4.1.2 Results pertaining to each language learning strategy category use 53

4.1.3 Results pertaining to the significant difference between genders in the use of language learning strategies 55

4.2 The results from interviews 59

4.3 Summary 68

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS 69

5.1 Research question 1: To what extent do grade ten students at Ernst Thalmann high school use language learning strategies to support their learning? 69

5.2 Research question 2: What types of language learning strategies do the students report using frequently? 71

5.3 Research question 3: Is there a statistically significant gender difference in the use of

students’ language learning strategies? 78

5.4 Summary 81

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS 83

6.1 Conclusion 83

6.2 Contributions and implications 87

6.2.1 Contributions 87

6.2.2 Theoretical and practical implications 87

6.3 Limitations and recommendations for future research 90

REFERENCES 92

APPENDICES 98

APPENDIX 1A 98

APPENDIX 1B 103

APPENDIX 2A 107

APPENDIX 2B 109

APPENDIX 3A 111

APPENDIX 3B 115

APPENDIX 4A 119

APPENDIX 4B 122

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Research model 7

Figure 2.1: Diagram of Oxford’s Strategy Classification System 17

Figure 2.2: The theoretical framework for the current research 29

Figure 6.1: The model proposed for the key results in the current research 86

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: A summary of research into frequency of language learning strategies and

the effects of gender on language learning strategies 25

Table 3.1: The published table of Sample size in Glenn (1992) (cited in Singh & Masuku, 2014) 34

Table 3.2: Clusters of the Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire and the quantity of items 37

Table 3.3: Clusters, numbered items and sample items of language learning strategies in the new version of the SILL 39

Table 3.4: Sample questions in the interview 46

Table 4.1 Features of the participants 51

Table 4.2: Overall mean score of the students’ language learning strategy use 51

Table 4.3: Oxford (1990, p.300) SILL strategy choice Score Interpretation 52

Table 4.4: Mean scores of six language learning strategy categories 53

Table 4.5: Results of Paired Samples Test 54

Table 4.6: Overall mean score of the students’ overall language learning strategy use by genders 55

Table 4.7: Correlation between the two genders in the use of overall language learning strategies 56

Table 4.8: Mean scores of each of strategy category use between according to the two genders 57

Table 4.9: Correlation between the two genders in the use of each language learning strategy categories 58

Table 4.10 Main content of the themes in the interview 60

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Df: Degree of freedom

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

ESL: English as a Second Language

SILL: the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning

SPSS: Statistics Package for the Social Sciences

T : t value

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter serves as an introduction to the research The first sections describe the background of the research, the statement of problem and personal motivation underlying the research Next, aims, research questions, hypotheses and research model are presented Then, the third section briefly discusses the significance of the research Finally, the chapter ends with outlining structure of the thesis

1.1 Background of the research

The last few decades have witnessed an unhurried but noteworthy change in the field of language education from a teacher-centered teaching style to a learner-centered one, leading to less stress on teachers and teaching but more emphasis on learners and learning (Weimer, 2002) In the past, the conventional teaching style emphasized the role of the teacher and neglected the importance of the learner himself In present-day Vietnamese teaching context, the teacher-centeredness still dominates in the teaching of English in Vietnam (Tran, 2013; Nguyen, 2016) Specifically, teachers have long been authoritative figures who are responsible for looking after and taking control over the classroom and the whole learning process

as well With such a teaching and learning approach, students have almost no control over their own learning and tend to be passive in their learning For this reason, students in a traditional classroom, needless to say, become passive and dependent learners, or just recipients of teachers’ knowledge

Nevertheless, in our ever changing world, according to Rogers (1983) (cited in Richards & Renandya, 2002), no knowledge is secure and it is the process of seeking knowledge that gives a basis for security Hence, it is impossible for instructors to teach learners all knowledge nor to guide learners in every area of learning due to time constraint In such a circumstance, learners need to be able to

learn on their own so as to get the skills and knowledge they desire Therefore, the ultimate goal of teaching is not only to teach learners “what to learn” but also to teach learners “how to learn” As Weinstein & Mayer (1986) concern, a good language teacher teaches learners the way to learn, to remember, to think, and to motivate themselves As a result, the most favorite teaching methodology now is the learner-centered, a style of instruction in which learners are an active agent in the learning process That is to say, learners are no longer passive in their learning; instead, they play a significant and dominant role in their own process of learning They are expected to engage actively in learning activities as well as to learn independently Teachers, therefore, are not in the role of a knowledge provider, but

a facilitator of learning to instruct and to guide their learners how to learn well In other words, in today’s language classroom, learners are expected to take charge of their own learning and teachers and teachers are expected to help learners become more effective and independent learners

However, to enable learners to engage in the target language more effectively and independently from teachers, thus, become more autonomous and proficient learners, they need being equipped with the tools for undertaking their learning and

to learn independently and effectively on their own According to Rubin (1987), if language learning strategies are in proper use, learners’ language achievements will

be rewarding, especially with both the improvement of overall proficiency and specific skills and that the extent to which learners succeed in their learning depends greatly on the degree of strategies learners employ In fact, research in the field has shown that language learning strategy use significantly correlates with language achievements (Green & Oxford, 1995; Liu, 2004) Moreover, it is also suggested that the employment of language learning strategies can foster autonomous learning (e.g., Oxford, 1990; Rubin, 1987) Oxford (1990, p 1) also maintains that language learning strategies are “especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing

communicative competence” In this regard, it is obvious that language learning strategies are essential for learners of language since they are not only efficient tools

of learning helping learners to make their language competence as good as it can be but also indispensable ones promoting learners to be language learners of independence, effectiveness and active involvement in the management of their own learning

It should also be marked that every individual employs language learning strategies differently; and the question raises as to what makes up the differences It has been found that there have been a number of factors found in the researches such as gender, age, styles of learning, levels of proficiency, classes of tasks, beliefs and attitudes, etc that have far-reaching effects on the employment of language learning strategies (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Green & Oxford, 1995; Kaylani, 1996; Shmais, 2003; Tercanlioglu, 2004; Aslan, 2009; Salahshour et al., 2012; Heejin, 2012; Kayaoglu, 2012, Tam, 2013; FatemehZarei, 2013; Chayata & Sutthirak,

2014, Saeed, 2016, etc.) Among these variables, gender emerges as an important factor affecting language strategy use, with males and females appearing to obtain different learning styles and ways of approaching their goals in learning; thus, may result in differences in strategy use In this regard, it seems to be extremely important for language teachers to identify language learning strategies employed

by males and females and understand the relationship between gender differences and language strategy use in order to play an active and significant role in guiding and enhancing their learners’ work Then, not only can the teachers address appropriate and effective learning strategies to suit the learning needs of both genders but they can also incorporate language learning strategies into teaching to achieve best results

1.2 Statement of problem and personal motivation

In the context of Vietnam in general and at Ernst Thalmann high school where I work in particular, many learners of English have been expressing their concerns

about whether they can gain the expected English language level of proficiency while they tend to invest more time and effort on maths, physics, chemistry and Vietnamese for a better outcome in university entrance examination Therefore, to achieve best results in learning a language with less and less time spending or to become more and more effective and independent learners is a big challenge to all

of the learners

Being aware of the benefits of language learning strategies, therefore, it is worth examining the use of language learning strategies and the correlation between gender differences in the use of language learning strategies Such a research was needed by language teachers at Ernst Thalmann high school context so that teachers can develop more effective styles of teaching and appropriate language learning strategies that are compatible with the styles of learning as well as the requirements

of their learners From that, it can provide useful values to improve the real situation

What is more, being interested in this topic, I have read many reports on the use of language learning strategies and the effects of gender on the use of language learning strategies From my knowledge that I have gained, in terms of gender differences in the use of language learning strategies, the correlation was somewhat inconclusive In particular, a few studies reported no discrepancies in language strategy use between males and females (Shmais, 2003; Chayata &Sutthirak, 2014; Saeed, 2016) However, most studies in this area emphasized a significant correlation between gender and language strategy use Both male and female learners were found to employ certain types of language learning strategies to a certain degree to support their learning but there were discrepancies in the choice and frequency of strategy use among learners due to gender differences According

to a few studies, males are likely to be more active strategy users than females (Tercanlioglu, 2004; FatemehZarei, 2013) However, a greater number of researches demonstrated that female learners were greater strategy users than their male

counterparts Females excelled males not only in the use of specific strategies but also in overall strategy use (Aslan, 2009; Salahshour et al., 2012; Heejin, 2012; Kayaoglu, 2012; Tam, 2013)

Understanding the vital role of language learning strategies including the frequency

of learners’ language strategy use, what types of language learning strategies the learners report frequently as well as the possible mutual influence between language strategy and gender ceaselessly motivates me to do this research Based on the idea that “an understanding and awareness of learning strategies on the part of teachers

as well as students may provide valuable insights into the process of language learning” (Fleming & Walls, 1998, p 14), this research is hoped to contribute to removing the scarcity of research on language learning strategies in the context of Vietnam, assist teachers in Vietnam in general and at Ersnt Thalmann high school

in particular to have appropriate adjustments to students’ awareness of language learning strategies and most importantly promote students’ language learning achievement

1.3 Aims and research questions

The current research aimed at identifying the language learning strategies grade ten students at Ernst Thalmann high school perceived themselves as employing to support their learning In addition to determining the use of language learning strategies, a more strenuous endeavor was fulfilled to explore the mutual influence between gender and the use of language learning strategies More specifically, in order to accomplish the aims, the research paper attempts to consider the subsequent questions

1 To what extent do grade ten students at Ernst Thalmann high school use language learning strategies to support their learning?

2 What types of language learning strategies do the students report using frequently?

3 Is there a statistically significant gender difference in the use of language learning strategies?

1.4 Hypotheses and research model

Figure 1.1 Research model



As synthesized in the research model, all of the components relating to the current research were shown in a clear way In this research, the researcher used the classification system of language learning strategies by Oxford (1990) From the research model, it could be seen that gender in the model is an independent variable while language learning strategies is a dependent one Therefore, the researcher also presented the possible relationship between two variables Such variables defined apparently would be a framework for later methodology of the research What is more, the participants’ perceptions were believed to have some certain effects on the use of participants’ strategies and the relationship between gender and the use of strategies

1.5 Significance of the research

Language learning strategies are supposed to play a crucial role in language learning since not only do language learning strategies facilitate learning but also accelerate it Hence, this research probably proves significant and beneficial to both teachers and learners of language in the following ways

Male

GENDER

Female

LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Memory strategise

Compensation strategies

Social

Affective strategies

Metacognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies

Students’ perceptions

As for teachers, the results of the current research is hoped to help Ernst Thalmann high school teachers to identify some language learning strategies that the grade-ten students used Later on, the teachers can regulate their teaching and simultaneously facilitate high school students’ effective language learning by some appropriate language learning strategies In addition, the results about the significant differences in the use of language learning strategies between male and female students also helps the teachers know clearly that whether male or female students should be taught much more language learning strategies or given equal opportunities

As for learners, the current research gives them chances to be more mindful of language learning strategies This thing might enable them become more conscious and more self-directed in their learning process

1.6 Structure of the thesis

The research report is comprised of six chapters, (1) Introduction, (2) Literature review, (3) Research methodology, (4) Results, (5) Discussions and (6) Conclusions

Chapter One serves as an overall introduction to the research backgrounds It includes background of the research, statement of the problem, the researcher’s personal motivation, the research questions, hypotheses and the research model, the significance and structure of the thesis

Chapter Two reviews the literature concerning language learning strategies What is more, this chapter holds an in-depth discussion of summary of main ideas from research on the frequency in the use of language learning strategies, the correlation between language strategy use and gender differences and the research gap

Chapter Three aims to supply the research methodologies adopted in this research

In particular, this chapter provides a complete detail of the research design, the

research site, the participants, the instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis

Chapter Four presents the information of the results of the data analysis obtained from the research instruments

Chapter Five provides a discussion of the research results to find out the answers to three research questions in chapter One

Chapter Six points to the conclusions relevant to the research followed by contributions, implications, limitations and recommendations for further research

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In order to offer an operationally working definition of learning strategies for this study, the chapter initiates with various views on language learning strategies Next, the chapter continues to present classifications of learning strategies It then summarizes factors acknowledged to influence the use of language learning strategies Finally, language learning strategy use and gender and the literature pertinent to these two variables are revealed

2.1 Concept of language learning strategies

2.1.1 Background of language learning strategies

Over the past few decades, there has been a gradual but significant shift in the field

of language education In fact, experts in the field noted if language learners are given the same learning environment, the same learning material, they still vary greatly in the speed with which they learn the language, with some learners acquiring the language more quickly and effectively than others (Ellis, 1997) This raises a question as to what makes up the differences among learners and why some were rewarding learners irrespective of classroom instructions or teaching methodologies while others were not Being aware of the nature of this difference among learners, experts in the field of language education; for example, Stern

(1975) and Rubin (1975) started research on What can we learn from good learners? and What good learners can teach us? Their research ended up forming a

new concept of language learning strategies Ever since then, the term “language learning strategy” has become popular and then it has been the main issue of research in the field of language teaching

In recent years, there has been a wide variety of activities of the study of language learning strategies Many researches in this area have found that there is a mutual

influence between language learning strategies and achievement as well as proficiency in L2 learning (Oxford & Nykios, 1989; Ellis, 1994; Green & Oxford, 1995; Ok, 2003; Liu, 2004) Additionally, all learners of language, whether conscious or unconscious, certainly adopt types of language learning strategies to some degree, but the use of language learning strategies vary amidst individual learners due to factors such as their proficiency level, motivation, background of culture, gender, attitudes, belief, types of tasks age and styles of learning (Oxford,

1990)

Regardless of the truth that the term “language learning strategy” has received major concerns among the scholars in the field, the term has been labeled a very broad and relatively diffuse concept In fact, there is no standard definition of language learning strategies because different researchers hold different opinions and focus on different aspects of language learning strategies, resulting in a wide range of controversies on the definitions of language learning strategies

2.1.2 Definition of language learning strategies

According to Rubin (1987, p 23), one of the first researchers in the area, language learning strategies are broadly defined as “strategies which contribute the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affects learning directly” Later, O’Malley and Chamot (1990, p 1) offers another definition of language learning strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” In line with O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990) view, Cohen (1998, p 4) sees language learning strategies as “those processes which are consciously selected by learners and which may result in action taken to enhance the learning or use of a second or foreign language, through storage, recall and application of information about the language” In an agreement with the above-mentioned definitions that language learning strategies are lines of thoughts, ways of behaving or particular actions learners use to progress their learning, Oxford’s language learning strategy

definition has been the most comprehensive as she expands and defines them as

“specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (Oxford, 1990, p 8) From her opinion, not only are language learning strategies a vital tool for active, self-directed engagement in language learning but also for personal satisfaction Hence, it is particular actions, ways of behaving, or techniques that learners use to make learning more meaningful, effective, enjoyable, and independent that are learning strategies for second language learning Nevertheless, this definition still contains some of argumentative issues

The first issue is that it is unclear to tell if language learning strategies are to be regarded as behavioral (and, therefore, observable) or as mental (and, thus, unobservable), or as both Based on Oxford’s definition, language learning strategies are “specific actions” performed by the learner which can be observed, e.g note-taking, highlighting and summarizing; therefore, they are behavioral While Oxford (1990) considers language learning strategies are observable, O’Malley and Chamot (1990, p 1) see language learning strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviors used to help the learner comprehend, learn, or retain new information” In this case, language learning strategies appear to be both behavioral and mental since the former involves the mental process which happens in the mind

of learners i.e memorizing new input and retrieving information; therefore, cannot

be observed through learners’ behaviors, whereas the latter is observable

The second issue is that if language learning strategies have direct or indirect influence over the L2 development While Rubin (1987) regards the effect of language learning strategies as a direct one, Ellis (1994) argues that the effect of language learning strategies, for the most part, is an indirect one Metacognitive strategies, for example, have the function of execution which allows learners to regulate their language learning via planning, monitoring and assessment, therefore, contribute to learning indirectly Nevertheless, according to Ellis (1994) there are

still strategies that give a direct effect on learning For instance, learners store and retrieve message in an effective way thanks to memory strategies They, therefore, make direct contributions to learning

Third, if language learning strategies are conscious and intentional or subconscious still causes a few debates From Chamot’s aspect (1987, p 6), language learning strategies are “… deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information” As a result, language learning strategies can be considered as conscious and intentional Likewise, Ellis (1994) and Cohen (1998) also regard language learning strategies as conscious actions utilized intentionally by learners to make the learning process easier More specifically, language learning strategies are defined as “conscious or

at least potentially conscious actions which learners employ intentionally” (Ellis, 1994) or “learning processes which are consciously selected by learners” (Cohen,

1998, p 4) Nevertheless, according to Oxford (1990), language learning strategies are conscious actions, but after using them for a time, they become automatic or unconscious

Last but not least, what motivates the exploitation of language learning strategies still remains controversial Although it is generally agreed that language learning strategies are employed to “facilitate the language learning” (O’Malley & Chamot,

1990, p 1) and “contribute to the development of the language system” (Rubin,

1987, p 23), Oxford (1989) argues that the use of language learning strategies can have an affective purpose, i.e to make learning become more enjoyable

Generally speaking, in second language acquisition circle, there is no standard definition of exactly what strategies are because there have been different perspectives of language learning strategies According to Ellis (2008), Oxford’s language learning strategy definition has been the most comprehensive regardless of various definitions of the term “language learning strategy” However, on the basis

of the aforementioned literature review and the reseacher’s knowledge from the

specific context of the language teaching and learning, language learning strategies for the current research were defined as behavioural and mental processes; conscious and intentional actions that have both direct and indirect influence over the process of the learning and use of language

2.1.3 Classifications of language learning strategies

In the past decades, a great number of many experts in language like Rubin (1987), O’Malley & Chamot (1990), Stern (1992), and Cohen (1998) have categorized language learning strategies because they hold different views about concepts of strategies (Oxford, 1990) Despite the fact that a wide range of criteria is established

to classify language learning strategies, all of them are more or less identical or much unchangeable Nonetheless, among the existing classifications raised by a wide variety of the researchers, the categorization of language learning strategies supplied by Oxford (1990) has been used and cited widely and extensively

With the regard to their effects on language learning, there are two major classes in Oxford (1990)’s division of language learning strategies which include direct and indirect ones Direct ones are those making direct contributions to learning development, whereas indirect ones relate to strategies that give a support of the learning of a language indirectly Direct and indirect classes are further subdivided into six groups including Memory strategies, Cognitive strategies, Compensation strategies, Metacognitive strategies, Affective strategies and Social strategies Oxford defines Memory strategies, Cognitive strategies, Compensation strategies as direct ones that “directly involve the target language” and “require mental processing of the language” (Oxford, 1990, p 37) while Metacognitive strategies, Affective strategies and Social strategies are considered as indirect ones which

“support and manage language learning without directly involving the target language” (Oxford, 1990, p 135)

Memory strategies is the first group of direct ones They are employed for putting

information into memory and retrieving it In other words, they “have a highly specific function: assisting students store and retrieve new information” (Oxford,

1990, p 379) The special thing for these strategies is that they assist learners to link items of the second language or concepts together, however, do not essentially gain profound comprehension Memory- related strategies consist of four subclasses (see figure 2.1)

The second group of direct strategies are Cognitive strategies They were

considered as the essential strategies for learning a language and the popular ones frequently employed by the learners in the studies because of the fact that they

“involve manipulation and transformation of the language” (Oxford & Crookall,

1989, p 404) To be more specific, they are mental strategies which refer to four subclasses (see figure 2.1)

Compensation strategies is the third group of direct strategies They involve two

subclasses (see figure 2.1) Regardless of information gaps, compensation ones permit learners to comprehend or make the new language via the two subclasses In short, Compensation strategies were regarded as automatic fillers in the language learning process (Oxford, 1990)

In addition to direct strategies, there are also indirect ones including Metacognitive

strategies, Affective strategies and Social strategies

Metacognitive strategies are defined as “behaviors used for centering, arranging,

planning, and evaluating one’s learning” (Oxford, 1990, p 135) In this sense, it is

clear that they are very vital for the effective and autonomous learning of language

learning as they supply executive control over the learning process by allowing learners to center, plan and arrange their learning in an effective way These strategies are sub-categorized into three groups (see figure 2.1)

Affective strategies are considered as “techniques like self-reinforcement and

positive self-talk which help learners gain better control over their emotions, attitudes, and motivations related to the language learning” (Oxford & Crookall,

1989, p 404) For this reason, these emotion- related strategies may bear impacts on the language learning process in a more productive way They are further divided into three subcategories (see figure 2.1)

Social strategies are regarded as significant elements contributing to the success in

language learning process because the learners can work and cooperate with each other in order to comprehend the target language and culture According to Oxford (1990), language is a type of social behaviors Therefore, there is impossibility to separate language from social activities and the learners are required to take part in social activities What is more, these strategies also help raise learners’ awareness about the importance of learning from the other people They are made up of three subclasses (see figure 2.1)

Direct Strategies

Memory

Strategies

A Creating mental Linkages

B Applying images and sounds

3 Using key words

4 Representing sounds in memory

1 Structured reviewing

1 Using physical response or sensation

2 Using mechanical techniques

Cognitive

Strategies

A Practicing

B Receiving and sending messages

C Analyzing and Reasoning

D Creating structure for input and output

1 Getting the idea quickly

2 Using resources for receiving and sending messages

B Overcoming limitations in totally speaking and writing

1 Using linguistic clues

2 Using other clues

1 Switching to the mother tongue

2 Getting help

3 Using mime or gesture

4 Avoiding communication partially

5 Selecting the topic

6 Adjusting or approximating the message

Metacognitive

strategies

A Centering your learning

B Arranging and planning your learning

C Evaluating your learning

1 Overviewing and linking with already known material

3 Setting goals and objectives

4 Identifying the purpose of learning language task (purposeful

listening/reading/speaking/writing)

5 Planning for a language task

6 Seeking practice opportunities

1 Making Positive statements

2 Taking risks wisely

3 Rewarding yourself

1 Listening to your body

2 Using a checklist

3 Writing a language learning diary

4 Discussing your feelings with someone else

Social

strategies

A Asking verification Questions

B Cooperating with others

C Empathizing with others

1 Asking for clarification

2 Asking for correction

1 Cooperating with others

2 Cooperating with proficient users of the new language

1 Developing cultural

2.2 Language learning strategy use and gender

2.2.1 Overview of frequency of language learning strategy use and the effects of the gender on language learning strategy use

Ever since first introduced into the area of language education, the term “language learning strategies” has been a recurring theme in the study of second language

acquisition over the last few decades Numerous researchers have devoted their attention and dedication to research into the exploitation of language learning strategies Generally, it has been found that learners have had a considerable variety

in not only the overall selection or frequency as well as the particular types of language learning strategies which they employ (O’Malley et al., 1985; Ehrman,

1990) This is blamed for multiplicity of external factors (including situational factors, i.e the language learners are learnt, the environment where the learning

activities occurs, the types of activities which learners are asked to perform, and

social factors, i.e gender, ethnicity) and internal factors such as proficiency,

aptitude, age, motivation, learning style, personality types, etc Among these, gender has been found to have impacts on language strategy use

Research studies that have addressed the issue of gender and language strategy use are quite enormous Therefore, it is not surprising that researchers have arrived at different conclusions Some research found no statistically gender discrepancies in the use of language learning strategies (Shmais, 2003; Chayata & Sutthirak, 2014; Saeed, 2016) while others reported that gender differences positively correlated with language learning strategy use on sizable scales (Heejin, 2012; Kayaoglu, 2012; Tam, 2013; FatemehZarei, 2013) However, there is research which resulted that language learning strategies were correlated with gender in only some individual strategies, but no relationship with other strategies (Tercanlioglu, 2004; Aslan, 2009; Salahshour et al., 2012) From what mentioned above, it could come to

a conclusion that the mutual influence between gender and language learning strategy use was somewhat unclear and inconclusive These indicate that there is

still a gap in understanding the relationship between males and females in the use of language learning strategies

2.2.2 Research into frequency of language learning strategies and the effects of gender on language learning strategy use

In search of level of language strategy use and gender contributing to differences in strategy use, Aslan (2009) conducted small scale research to examine strategic behaviors of 257 students including 153 males and 104 females who attended Atilim University English Preparatory School in Turkey by means of the SILL (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning) questionnaire The researcher found that all the students made use of language learning strategies at a medium frequency and Memory strategies and Metacognitive strategies were employed most In addition, gender resulted in significant differences in strategy use, with female students employing significantly more language learning strategies than male ones, especially in the use of Memory strategies, Metacognitive strategies and Social strategies The result that females were greater language learning strategy users than their male counterparts was confirmed by Salahshour’s et al., (2012); Heejin’s

(2012); Kayaoglu’s (2012) and Tam’s (2013) research

With reference to the situation in Turkey, Kayaoglu (2012) carried out a survey among 115 science students (Male = 60; Female = 55) The students were enrolling

in the preparatory program of intensive English at the department of Foreign Languages in Karadeniz Technical Unversity in Trabzon with a desire to discover the level of students’ strategy use and shed light on whether there exist gender differences in strategy use The results were found from this research that the students employed language learning strategies at a medium level with the most used Memory strategies Moreover, the results also revealed that the students did engage in strategic learning behaviors What is more, the results emphasized a significant mutual influence between gender and strategy use, having indicated that the employment of language learning strategies by females was more frequent than

by males Females, overall, reported surpassing males in the use of five out of the six strategy categories, with significant differences being found in the use of Memory strategies, Compensation strategies, Cognitive strategies, Metacognitive strategies and Social strategies

An exact similar situation emerged from Heejin’s (2012) research in relation to students in Thailand The result showed that the mean for overall strategy use is at the upper medium level, that is to say, the students in this research were upper medium users Also, the participants in Heejin’s (2012) research employed Social strategies and Metacognitive strategies frequently Additionally, evidence from Heejin’s (2012) research indicated a significant distinction between the two genders

in terms of strategy use To be more specific, in Heejin’s SILL-based research on the employment of language learning strategies of 179 students studying Korean as

a Foreign Language program in the academic year 2012 at Mattayon Wat Makutkasat, female students were found to be superior strategy users compared to male subjects in both the overall strategy use and in the employment of Memory strategies, Cognitive strategies, Compensation strategies, Metacognitive strategies and Social strategies

In the same year, Salahshour et al (2012) reported a similar experience, providing more evidence that language learning strategies were used at a medium level by Iranian high school and females were more active in using strategies Data with respect to the EFL learning strategy use among a group of a sample of 65 male and female students by means of the SILL self-report questionnaire concerning the variable “gender” indicated that male and female students reported different patterns of strategy use, in favor of females as greater strategy users However, significant differences between males and females regarding strategy use in this research were found only in the use of Cognitive strategies The result of Salahshour et al’s research appeared both compatible and incompatible with previous studies in this field It was consistent with those studies revealing that

males and females differed in the use of foreign language learning strategies, with females making use of some of the strategies more frequently, i.e the results by Aslan (2009), Kayaoglu (2012) and Heejin (2012) But the different patterns of strategy use in this research were quite inconsistent with the others The researcher suggested that this may be due to female learners’ high degree of awareness of their needs, resulting in looking for more favorable circumstances to involve in the target language analysis and practice

More recently, also being interested in establishing the connection between strategy use and gender, Tam (2013) studied a sample of 50 male and female first year university students from the Polytechnic University in Hong Kong by means of the SILL self-report questionnaire The results revealed that the students were on average upper medium language strategy users and Compensation strategies were employed most frequently while Affective strategies were used least In addition, females engaged in more strategic behaviors than males were once confirmed by Tam (2013) The results indicated that there was a significant overall difference between males and females in the use of language learning strategies More specifically, five out of six strategy categories including Memory strategies, Compensation strategies, Cognitive strategies, Metacognitive strategies and Social strategies were found to strongly correlate with gender differences, with females being more frequent strategy users

Despite the fact that most ESL strategy use studies involving gender seem to indicate that significant gender differences in strategy use almost occur in a single direction, showing females as greater strategy users than males, Tercanlioglu (2004) discovered that males were higher strategy users than their counterparts Aiming to explore the relationship between gender and the choice and frequency of strategy use, Tercanlioglu (2004) studied a small sample of 184 university students of English (Male = 44, Female = 140) in a Turkish university The data obtained from the SILL questionnaire revealed that participants made use of language learning

strategies at a medium level with the most frequently used Metacognitive strategies and the least employed Affective strategies Besides, male participants surpassed females in both the overall strategy use and in the use of Cognitive strategies and Metacognitive strategies The result of this research was inconsistent with those following researches in which females dominated males in the level of strategy use (Aslan, 2009; Salahshour et al., 2012; Heejin, 2012; Kayaoglu, 2012; Tam, 2013) Tercanlioglu (2004) explained that males dominated females in Turkish society; therefore, female students were likely to have smaller self-pride in reporting the language learning strategies they employed The researcher also claimed that cultural background of second language learners and the educational settings where they study the language influenced the selection of their language learning strategies This original result was reaffirmed by FatemehZarei’s (2013) research With an attempt to investigate the types and frequency of language learning strategies used by 50 Iranian university students, including 15 males and 35 males, majoring in English translating in relation to their gender by using the SILL, the researcher found that the use of Iranian university students’ language learning strategies was almost moderate and Metacognitive strategies were used most frequently Furthermore, the researcher also revealed that male students claimed to

be greater user of all strategy categories, except for Social strategies which both males and females reported equal frequencies The results of this research further affirmed what Green & Oxford (1995, p 291) had observed that “ gender difference trends in strategy use are quite pronounced within and across cultures’’ However, it should also be noted that some other researches reported no impacts of gender on the use of language learning strategies and the use of language learning strategies at a medium level Examining language learning strategy use and gender

as two variables in the use of 99 male and female students at An-Najah National University in Palestine, the results from Shmais (2003) demonstrated that An-Najah English majors had language strategy use generally at a medium level, especially

Metacognitive strategies were ranked highest while Compensation strategies ranked lowest Shmais (2003) also reported that gender did not result in significant discrepancies in the use of any individual strategies Instead, the researcher suggested that learners’ level had stronger effect on the use of language learning strategies than gender According to Shmais (2003), the more proficient learners were, the more knowledgeable they were of the learning process and of the language learning strategies employed to achieve their goals Chayata & Sutthirak (2014) also found similar results about the use of language learning strategies at a medium level, the highest-ranked Metacognitive strategies and the effect of gender

on language strategy use For the effect of gender on language learning strategy use, the analysis of data with respect to strategy choices of 150 Thai first year university students at the faculty of Information and Communication Technology by means of the SILL questionnaire showed no discrepancies between the two genders in the use

of language learning strategies Males and females reported having similar language learning strategies and they both sometimes employed the strategies to support their learning process As the researcher explained, no discrepancy about strategies in both males and females could be attributed to the system of culture and the system

of education in which students had very restricted opportunities to be exposed to language learning strategies, especially in large classes And another possible explanation for this could be due to age factor as it has been considered as a related one which results in various language learning strategies as well as gender (Moyer, 2004) The researcher concluded that that the strategy use of ESL learners were likely to be influenced by factors other than gender differences Most recently, Saeed (2016) also found the frequency of the use of language learning strategies at a Saudi college and the connection between gender and language learning strategy use Saeed (2016) discovered that EFL Saudi college students used language learning strategies at a medium level and Metacognitive strategies were dominated most Moreover, Saeed (2016) also failed to find a positive connection between genders and language strategy use In particular, with a major aim to discover the

connection between language strategy use and perceptual learning styles, gender, academic major and proficiency level, Saeed (2016) conducted a large scale survey among 667 EFL Saudi college students (440 male and 227 females) participating in the preparatory English program at Yanbu English Language Institute (YELI), having found that the students used language learning strategies at a medium level, Metacognitive strategies were used frequently and there were no significant discrepancies between males and females regarding the use of language learning strategies Saeed (2016) suggested this may result from the effects of other variables such as background of culture and environment of language learning, ethnicity, etc Saudi EFL male and female students shared the same cultural background and almost the same language learning setting in which they were exposed to the same textbooks and teaching methods This could possibly minimize any potential discrepancies in the use of language strategies among male and female Saudi learners

Below is a summary of research into frequency of language learning strategies and the effects of gender on language learning strategies

Table 2.1 A summary of research into frequency of language learning strategies and the effects of gender on language learning strategies

1 The use of strategies at a medium level

2 Memory and metacognitive strategies were employed most compared to the other strategy groups

3 There were significant differences

Kayaoglu

( 2012)

Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon

115 science students

1 The use of strategies at a medium level

2 Memory strategies were employed most out of the six strategy groups

3 There were significant differences Heejin

(2012)

Thailand 179

university students

1 The use of strategies at a medium level

2 Social and Metacognitive strategies were employed most compared to the other strategy groups

3 There were significant differences Salahshour et

al (2012)

school students

1 The use of strategies at a medium level

2 Metacognitive strategies were employed most out of the six strategy groups

3 There were significant differences Tam (2013) Hong Kong 50 university

3 There were significant differences

Tercanlioglu

(2004)

university students of English

1 The use of strategies at a medium level

2 Metacognitive strategies were employed most out of the six strategy groups

3 There were significant differences

3 There were significant differences

3 There were no significant differences

1 The use of strategies at a medium level

2 Metacognitive strategies were employed most out of the six strategy groups

3 There were no significant differences

3 There were no significant differences

2.3 Research gap

In the field of language education, the concepts of language learning strategies have been formed with the initial research attempts since 1975 However, according to Grenfell & Erler (2007), the research field of language learning strategies is still quite immature This thing could be attributed to the enormous scope of the language learning strategy field In other words, this field relates to not only the learning process of learners but also the correlation between the learning and the teaching or between the learning and learning/learner factors Therefore, according these two experts, over the past few decades, experts in the field of language education have been meeting with big challenges Especially, when the learning environment changes and language learning is being assisted by technology, learners easily get access to the internet and approach the teaching staff In such a new learning environment, learners experiment with the use of new strategies Therefore, it is necessary to explore the use of language learning strategies thoroughly with the new learning environment

In addition, as revealed in the literature review, there have been a number of factors influencing the use of language learning strategies Especially, the relationship between the use of language learning strategies and gender has not been concluded solidly, which have made many conflicts in results among researchers in the field Therefore, it is necessary to find out that whether gender has influence on the use of language learning strategies or not

In relation to the methodology used in the investigation into language learning strategy use among students, the majority of research studies used qualitative or quantitative approaches instead of using a combination of two approaches According to Nguyen (2013), language learning strategies contain a lot of complex issues inside Therefore, it is highly recommended that the researcher use a mixed methods approach to explore language learning strategies among students

Furthermore, in the context of Vietnamese teaching and learning, there is an amazing dearth of research studies about language learning strategies regardless of the growing activities in the field of language learning strategies in the world As a matter of fact, according to Nguyen (2013), there is a scarcity of publications about various aspects of language learning strategies in the teaching and learning setting

of Vietnam, which proves that research studies about language learning strategies in Vietnam is just in the premature phase It is obvious that this is a gap of knowledge

of language learning strategies in the specific context or a lack of care of Vietnamese researchers about this issue

Therefore, from the reality of the specific context, an investigation into language learning strategies used by students can help teachers establish scientific grounds in the teaching and learning of strategies with all efforts to establish an appropriate connection between the teaching and the learning of strategies From that, students will not feel frustrated or demotivated in the learning processs

2.4 Theoretical framework for the current research

The theoretical framework for this research has been built and developed from Oxford’s (1990) theoretical framework There have existed a lot of definitions and

classifications about language learning strategies, but according to Ellis (2008), definitions and classifications by Oxford’s (1990) has been the most comprehensive

in spite of other ones Moreover, until now, many researches have used definitions, classifications and research instruments built by Oxford (1990), showing that the theoretical framework by Oxford (1990) is clear, comprehensive, applicable, reliable and valid

The components and the results of the researchers mentioned in the review of literature established the theoretical framework, which could be summarized in figure 2.2 as follows:

Figure 2.2 The theoretical framework for the current research

Language learning strategies

(Oxford, 1990)

Direct strategies

-Memory -Cognitive -Compensation

2.5 Summary

To sum up, this chapter has just provided a clear explanation of two variables in the thesis Firstly, the role of language learning strategies was proved significant and useful to language teachers and learners Therefore, it is essential for teachers of language to have insights into learners’ use of language learning strategies including the frequency of learners’ strategy use and types of language learning strategies the learners report using frequently Next, a review of related literature on language learning strategies, definitions, characteristics as well as classifications of language learning strategies was revealed Later on, situational factors and social factors supposed to have impact on language strategy use were also explored Finally, an overall discussion about the use of language learning strategies and the inconclusive correlation in terms of gender discrepancies in the use of language learning strategies through the previous studies was held Consequently, the frequency of the use of language learning strategies in previous studies was shown Simultaneously, evidence about the relationship between gender and language learning use from the aforementioned studies was exposed, implying the connection between gender and language strategy use is somewhat inconclusive

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This chapter offers a comprehensive overview of the research methodology First of all, the design for the research is given Secondly, the context in which the research was conducted is given in a detailed description Thirdly, participants for the research are identified and the research instruments are then presented Finally, data collection procedures and analysis methods are mentioned in detail as well

3.1 Research design

Central to this research is the investigation into the language learning strategies grade ten students at Ernst Thalmann high school perceived themselves as employing in their learning process and the connection between gender difference and the use of language learning strategies as well Apparently and particularly, this

research was done to find out the answers to the three subsequent queries:

1 To what extent do grade ten students at Ernst Thalmann high school use language learning strategies to support their learning?

2 What types of language learning strategies do the students report using frequently?

3 Is there a statistically significant gender difference in the use of language learning strategies?

To disclose the essence of the learners’ language strategy use in terms of frequency and preferences as well as to gain deeper insights into its relationship with gender differences, a combination of qualitative and quantitative research was employed for data collection in the current research

More specifically, in this research, a questionnaire was developed for the quantitative phase and interviews of semi-structure were made for the qualitative