Encyclopedia of infant and early childhood development, vol 2 (academic press, 2008)

He served as Assistant Professor and Lecturer at Harvard University from 1966–1972 andthen moved to the University of Denver as Professor of Psychology, where he has conducted research o

Marshall M Haith received his M.A and Ph.D degrees from U.C.L.A and then carried out postdoctoral work at YaleUniversity from 1964–1966 He served as Assistant Professor and Lecturer at Harvard University from 1966–1972 andthen moved to the University of Denver as Professor of Psychology, where he has conducted research on infant andchildren’s perception and cognition, funded by NIH, NIMH, NSF, The MacArthur Foundation, The March of Dimes,and The Grant Foundation He has been Head of the Developmental Area, Chair of Psychology, and Director ofUniversity Research at the University of Denver and is currently John Evans Professor Emeritus of Psychology andClinical Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center

Dr Haith has served as consultant for Children’s Television Workshop (Sesame Street), Bilingual Children’sTelevision, Time-Life, and several other organizations He has received several personal awards, including UniversityLecturer and the John Evans Professor Award from the University of Denver, a Guggenheim Fellowship for serving asVisiting Professor at the University of Paris and University of Geneva, a NSF fellowship at the Center for AdvancedStudy in the Behavioral Sciences (Stanford), the G Stanley Hall Award from the American Psychological Association, aResearch Scientist Award from NIH (17 years), and the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the Societyfor Research in Child Development

Janette B Benson earned graduate degrees at Clark University in Worcester, MA in 1980 and 1983 She came to theUniversity of Denver in 1983 as an institutional postdoctoral fellow and then was awarded an individual NRSApostdoctoral fellowship She has received research funding form federal (NICHD; NSF) and private (March of Dimes,MacArthur Foundation) grants, leading initially to a research Assistant Professor position and then an AssistantProfessorship in Psychology at the University of Denver in 1987, where she remains today as Associate Professor ofPsychology and as Director of the undergraduate Psychology program and Area Head of the Developmental Ph.D.program and Director of University Assessment Dr Benson has received various awards for her scholarship andteaching, including the 1993 United Methodist Church University Teacher Scholar of the Year and in 2000 the CASEColorado Professor of the Year Dr Benson was selected by the American Psychological Association as the 1995–1996Esther Katz Rosen endowed Child Policy Fellow and AAAS Congressional Science Fellow, spending a year in theUnited States Senate working on Child and Education Policy In 1999, Dr Benson was selected as a Carnegie Scholarand attended two summer institutes sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation program for the Advancement for theScholarship of Teaching and Learning in Palo Alto, CA In 2001, Dr Benson was awarded a Susan and Donald SturmProfessorship for Excellence in Teaching Dr Benson has authored and co-authored numerous chapters and researcharticles on infant and early childhood development in addition to co-editing two books

v

EDITORIAL BOARD

Richard Aslin is the William R Kenan Professor of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at the University of Rochester and isalso the director of the Rochester Center for Brain Imaging His research has been directed to basic aspects of sensoryand perceptual development in the visual and speech domains, but more recently has focused on mechanisms ofstatistical learning in vision and language and the underlying brain mechanisms that support it He has published over

100 journal articles and book chapters and his research has been supported by NIH, NSF, ONR, and the Packard andMcDonnell Foundations In addition to service on grant review panels at NIH and NSF, he is currently the editor of thejournalInfancy In 1981 he received the Boyd R McCandless award from APA (Division 7), in 1982 the Early Careeraward from APA (developmental), in 1988 a fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim foundation, and in 2006 waselected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

Warren O Eaton is Professor of Psychology at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada, where he has spenthis entire academic career He is a fellow of the Canadian Psychological Association, and has served as the editor of one

of its journals, the Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science His current research interests center on child-to-childvariation in developmental timing and how such variation may contribute to later outcomes

Robert Newcomb Emde is Professor of Psychiatry, Emeritus, at the University of Colorado School of Medicine Hisresearch over the years has focused on early socio-emotional development, infant mental health and preventiveinterventions in early childhood He is currently Honorary President of the World Association of Infant Mental Healthand serves on the Board of Directors of Zero To Three

Hill Goldsmith is Fluno Bascom Professor and Leona Tyler Professor of Psychology at the University ofWisconsin–Madison He works closely with Wisconsin faculty in the Center for Affective Science, and he is thecoordinator of the Social and Affective Processes Group at the Waisman Center on Mental Retardation and HumanDevelopment Among other honors, Goldsmith has received an National Institute of Mental Health MERIT award, aResearch Career Development Award from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the JamesShields Memorial Award for Twin Research from the Behavior Genetics Association, and various awards from hisuniversity He is a Fellow of AAAS and a Charter Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science Goldsmith hasalso served the National Institutes of Health in several capacities His editorial duties have included a term as AssociateEditor of one journal and membership on the editorial boards of the five most important journals in his field Hisadministrative duties have included service as department chair at the University of Wisconsin

Richard B Johnston Jr is Professor of Pediatrics and Associate Dean for Research Development at the University

of Colorado School of Medicine and Associate Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs at the National JewishMedical & Research Center He is the former President of the American Pediatric Society and former Chairman of theInternational Pediatric Research Foundation He is board certified in pediatrics and infectious disease He haspreviously acted as the Chief of Immunology in the Department of Pediatrics at Yale University School of Medicine,been the Medical Director of the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation, Physician-in-Chief at the Children’sHospital of Philadelphia and Chair of the Department of Pediatrics at the University Pennsylvania School of Medicine

He is editor of ‘‘Current Opinion in Pediatrics’’ and has formerly served on the editorial board for a host of journals

in pediatrics and infectious disease He has published over 80 scientific articles and reviews and has been cited over 200times for his articles on tissue injury in inflammation, granulomatous disease, and his New England Journal of Medicinearticle on immunology, monocytes, and macrophages

vii

Jerome Kagan is a Daniel and Amy Starch Professor of Psychology at Harvard University Dr Kagan has wonnumerous awards, including the Hofheimer Prize of the American Psychiatric Association and the G Stanley HallAward of the American Psychological Association He has served on numerous committees of the National Academy ofSciences, The National Institute of Mental Health, the President’s Science Advisory Committee and the Social ScienceResearch Council Dr Kagan is on the editorial board of the journalsChild Development and Developmental Psychology, and

is active in numerous professional organizations Dr Kagan’s many writings include Understanding Children: Behavior,Motives, and Thought, Growth of the Child, The Second Year: The Emergence of Self-Awareness, and a number of cross-culturalstudies of child development He has also coauthored a widely used introductory psychology text Professor Kagan’sresearch, on the cognitive and emotional development of a child during the first decade of life, focuses on the origins oftemperament He has tracked the development of inhibited and uninhibited children from infancy to adolescence.Kagan’s research indicates that shyness and other temperamental differences in adults and children have bothenvironmental and genetic influences

Rachel Keen (formerly Rachel Keen Clifton) is a professor at the University of Virginia Her research expertise is inperceptual-motor and cognitive development in infants She held a Research Scientist Award from the NationalInstitute of Mental Health from 1981 to 2001, and currently has a MERIT award from the National Institute of ChildHealth and Human Development She has served as Associate Editor of Child Development (1977–1979),Psychophysiology (1972–1975), and as Editor of SRCD Monographs (1993–1999) She was President of theInternational Society on Infant Studies from 1998–2000 She received the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Awardfrom the Society for Research in Child Development in 2005 and was elected to the American Academy of Arts andScience in 2006

Ellen M Markman is the Lewis M Terman Professor of Psychology at Stanford University Professor Markman waschair of the Department of Psychology from 1994–1997 and served as Cognizant Dean for the Social Sciences from1998–2000 In 2003 she was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and in 2004 she was awarded theAmerican Psychological Association’s Mentoring Award Professor Markman’s research has covered a range of issues incognitive development including work on comprehension monitoring, logical reasoning and early theory of minddevelopment Much of her work has addressed questions of the relationship between language and thought in childrenfocusing on categorization, inductive reasoning, and word learning

Yuko Munakata is Professor of Psychology at the University of Colorado, Boulder Her research investigates theorigins of knowledge and mechanisms of change, through a combination of behavioral, computational, andneuroscientific methods She has advanced these issues and the use of converging methods through her scholarlyarticles and chapters, as well as through her books, special journal issues, and conferences She is a recipient of the BoydMcCandless Award from the American Psychological Association, and was an Associate Editor ofPsychological Review,the field’s premier theoretical journal

Arnold J Sameroff, is Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan where he is also Director of theDevelopment and Mental Health Research Program His primary research interests are in understanding how familyand community factors impact the development of children, especially those at risk for mental illness or educationalfailure He has published 10 books and over 150 research articles including theHandbook of Developmental Psychopathology,The Five to Seven Year Shift: The Age of Reason and Responsibility, and the forthcoming Transactional Processes in Development.Among his honors are the Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award from the Society for Research in ChildDevelopment and the G Stanley Hall Award from the American Psychological Association Currently he is President

of the Society for Research in Child Development and serves on the executive Committee of the International Societyfor the Study of Behavioral Development

viii Editorial board

This is an impressive collection of what we have learned about infant and child behavior by the researchers who havecontributed to this knowledge Research on infant development has dramatically changed our perceptions of the infantand young child This wonderful resource brings together like a mosaic all that we have learned about the infant andchild’s behavior In the 1950s, it was believed that newborn babies couldn’t see or hear Infants were seen as lumps of claythat were molded by their experience with parents, and as a result, parents took all the credit or blame for how theiroffspring turned out Now we know differently

The infant contributes to the process of attaching to his/her parents, toward shaping their image of him, towardshaping the family as a system, and toward shaping the culture around him Even before birth, the fetus is influenced bythe intrauterine environment as well as genetics His behavior at birth shapes the parent’s nurturing to him, from whichnature and nurture interact in complex ways to shape the child

Geneticists are now challenged to couch their findings in ways that acknowledge the complexity of the interrelationbetween nature and nurture The cognitivists, inheritors of Piaget, must now recognize that cognitive development isencased in emotional development, and fueled by passionately attached parents As we move into the era of brainresearch, the map of infant and child behavior laid out in these volumes will challenge researchers to better understandthe brain, as the basis for the complex behaviors documented here No more a lump of clay, we now recognize the child

as a major contributor to his own brain’s development

This wonderful reference will be a valuable resource for all of those interested in child development, be they students,researchers, clinicians, or passionate parents

T Berry Brazelton, M.D.Professor of Pediatrics, Emeritus Harvard Medical SchoolCreator, Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)

Founder, Brazelton Touchpoints Center

ix

Encyclopedias are wonderful resources Where else can you find, in one place, coverage of such a broad range of topics,each pursued in depth, for a particular field such as human development in the first three years of life? Textbooks havetheir place but only whet one’s appetite for particular topics for the serious reader Journal articles are the lifeblood ofscience, but are aimed only to researchers in specialized fields and often only address one aspect of an issue.Encyclopedias fill the gap

In this encyclopedia readers will find overviews and summaries of current knowledge about early human developmentfrom almost every perspective imaginable For much of human history, interest in early development was the province ofpedagogy, medicine, and philosophy Times have changed Our culling of potential topics for inclusion in this work fromtextbooks, journals, specialty books, and other sources brought home the realization that early human development isnow of central interest for a broad array of the social and biological sciences, medicine, and even the humanities.Although the ‘center of gravity’ of these volumes is psychology and its disciplines (sensation, perception, action,cognition, language, personality, social, clinical), the fields of embryology, immunology, genetics, psychiatry, anthropol-ogy, kinesiology, pediatrics, nutrition, education, neuroscience, toxicology and health science also have their say as well

as the disciplines of parenting, art, music, philosophy, public policy, and more

Quality was a key focus for us and the publisher in our attempts to bring forth the authoritative work in the field Westarted with an Editorial Advisory Board consisting of major contributors to the field of human development – editors ofmajor journals, presidents of our professional societies, authors of highly visible books and journal articles The Boardnominated experts in topic areas, many of them pioneers and leaders in their fields, whom we were successful inrecruiting partly as a consequence of Board members’ reputations for leadership and excellence The result is articles ofexceptional quality, written to be accessible to a broad readership, that are current, imaginative and highly readable.Interest in and opinion about early human development is woven through human history One can find pronounce-ments about the import of breast feeding (usually made by men), for example, at least as far back as the Greek and Romaneras, repeated through the ages to the current day Even earlier, the Bible provided advice about nutrition duringpregnancy and rearing practices But the science of human development can be traced back little more than 100 years,and one can not help but be impressed by the methodologies and technology that are documented in these volumes forlearning about infants and toddlers – including methods for studying the role of genetics, the growth of the brain, whatinfants know about their world, and much more Scientific advances lean heavily on methods and technology, and fewareas have matched the growth of knowledge about human development over the last few decades The reader will beintroduced not only to current knowledge in this field but also to how that knowledge is acquired and the promise ofthese methods and technology for future discoveries

CONTENTS

Several strands run through this work Of course, the nature-nurture debate is one, but no one seriously stands at one orthe other end of this controversy any more Although advances in genetics and behavior genetics have been breathtaking,even the genetics work has documented the role of environment in development and, as Brazelton notes in his foreword,researchers acknowledge that experience can change the wiring of the brain as well as how actively the genes areexpressed There is increasing appreciation that the child develops in a transactional context, with the child’s effect onthe parents and others playing no small role in his or her own development

There has been increasing interest in brain development, partly fostered by the decade of the Brain in the 1990s, as wehave learned more about the role of early experience in shaping the brain and consequently, personality, emotion, and

xi

intelligence The ‘brainy baby’ movement has rightly aroused interest in infants’ surprising capabilities, but the fullpicture of how abilities develop is being fleshed out as researchers learn as much about what infants can not do, as theylearn about what infants can do Parents wait for verifiable information about how advances may promote effectiveparenting.

An increasing appreciation that development begins in the womb rather than at birth has taken place both in the fields

of psychology and medicine Prenatal and newborn screening tools are now available that identify infants at genetic ordevelopmental risk In some cases remedial steps can be taken to foster optimal development; in others ethical issues may

be involved when it is discovered that a fetus will face life challenges if brought to term These advances raise issues thatcurrently divide much of public opinion Technological progress in the field of human development, as in other domains,sometimes makes options available that create as much dilemma as opportunity

As globalization increases and with more access to electronic communication, we become ever more aware ofcircumstances around the world that affect early human development and the fate of parents We encouraged authors

to include international information wherever possible Discussion of international trends in such areas as infantmortality, disease, nutrition, obesity, and health care are no less than riveting and often heartbreaking There is somuch more to do

The central focus of the articles is on typical development However, considerable attention is also paid topsychological and medical pathology in our attempt to provide readers with a complete picture of the state of knowledgeabout the field We also asked authors to tell a complete story in their articles, assuming that readers will come to thiswork with a particular topic in mind, rather than reading the Encyclopedia whole or many articles at one time As aresult, there is some overlap between articles at the edges; one can think of partly overlapping circles of content, whichwas a design principle inasmuch as nature does not neatly carve topics in human development into discrete slices for ourconvenience At the end of each article, readers will find suggestions for further readings that will permit them to take off

in one neighboring direction or another, as well as web sites where they can garner additional information of interest

AUDIENCE

Articles have been prepared for a broad readership, including advanced undergraduates, graduate students, professionals

in allied fields, parents, and even researchers for their own disciplines We plan to use several of these articles as readingsfor our own seminars

A project of this scale involves many actors We are very appreciative for the advice and review efforts of members ofthe Editorial Advisory Board as well as the efforts of our authors to abide by the guidelines that we set out for them.Nikki Levy, the publisher at Elsevier for this work, has been a constant source of wise advice, consolation and balance.Her vision and encouragement made this project possible Barbara Makinster, also from Elsevier, provided manyvaluable suggestions for us Finally, the Production team in England played a central role in communicating withauthors and helping to keep the records straight It is difficult to communicate all the complexities of a project this vast;let us just say that we are thankful for the resource base that Elsevier provided Finally, we thank our families andcolleagues for their patience over the past few years, and we promise to ban the words ‘‘encyclopedia project’’ from ourvocabulary, for at least a while

Marshall M Haith

andJanette B BensonDepartment of Psychology, University of Denver

Denver, Colorado, USAxii Preface

PERMISSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The following material is reproduced with kind permission of Oxford University Press Ltd

Figure 1 of Self-Regulatory Processes

http:/ /www.oup.co.uk/

The following material is reproduced with kind permission of AAAS

Figure 1 of Maternal Age and Pregnancy

Figures 1a, 1b and 1c of Perception and Action

http:/ /www.scie ncema g.or g

The following material is reproduced with kind permission of Nature Publishing Group

Figure 2 of Self-Regulatory Processes

http:/ /www.na ture.com/nat ure

The following material is reproduced with kind permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd

Figure 4b of Visual Perception

http:/ /www.tan df co.uk/jour nals

Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping

K M Zosuls, L E Lurye, and D N Ruble, New York University, New York, NY, USA

ã 2008 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved.

Glossary

Collective identity – Refers to the self as a member

of a collective group, such as gender or race See

also social identity.

Gender awareness – Although the term ‘awareness’

is often used more generally, in this article, this term

specifically refers to children’s ability to distinguish

the sexes.

Gender constancy – Proposed by Lawrence

Kohlberg to refer to children’s understanding that

gender is not changeable The development of

gender constancy includes three stages: (1) accurate

identification of sex category membership for oneself

and others (basic gender identity); (2) stability of sex

category membership over time (gender stability);

and (3) consistency of sex category membership

across superficial transformations in appearance or

context (gender consistency).

Gender development – Refers to the processes

involved in the development of the components

of gender, including concepts and beliefs about

gender, gender identity, or self-perception as a

member of a gender group, gender-related

preferences, and gender-related behaviors.

Developmental processes are generally described

as cognitive, socialization, or biological.

Habituation methodologies – A type of looking

time method in which infants are first presented with

a stimulus until they lose interest in it or ‘habituate’ to

it and are then presented with a pair of stimuli The

pair of stimuli contains one stimulus similar to and

one stimulus different from the habituation stimulus.

The time infants spend looking at each stimulus is

measured These studies presume that differences

in looking time between the familiar and novel

stimulus represent an awareness of differences

between the two stimuli.

Looking time methods (preferential looking methods) – Methods used in studies with infants who are still too young to effectively express their

knowledge verbally and who have other infancy-related performance limitations (e.g., cognitive, motor) that do not allow for the use of methods in which children have to perform tasks or answer questions These methods typically involve showing infants pairs of stimuli and measuring the time that infants spend looking at each one of the stimuli Sequential touching paradigm – An unstructured task in which children are given a set of objects from two different categories (e.g., male and female dolls) and categorization is inferred if a child touches objects from a single category in succession more than would be expected from chance It is thought that such spontaneous behaviors indicate attention

to categorical contrasts.

Social identity – Although defined in various ways, key elements include: (1) refers to aspects of the self-concept that are defined in terms of or in relation

to other people and groups, (2) socially constructed and interpersonally significant categories, and (3) certain values and emotional significance are attached to these role or category memberships.

Social identity is a broader concept than collective identity in that it can refer to the self as fulfilling a role

or the self as a member of a collective group (i.e., collective identity).

Violation of expectancy paradigm – A looking time method in which children’s looking times are measured in response to mismatched stimuli or impossible events compared to properly matched or possible events Longer looking times to mismatched stimuli/impossible events are thought to indicate that

an event is perceived as novel, surprising, or incongruous, suggesting that it is unexpected.

1

Gender Knowledge in Early ChildhoodGender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping 3

4 Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping

Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping 5

6 Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping

Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping 7

Implications of Gender Knowledge

8 Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping

Theoretical Perspectives

Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping 9

10 Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping

Gender: Awareness, Identity, and Stereotyping 11