Encyclopedia of the archaeology of ancient egypt

of Ancient Egypt Compiled and edited by Kathryn A.Bard with the editing assistance of Steven Blake Shubert London and New York... British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catal

Ancient Egypt

of Ancient Egypt

Compiled and edited by Kathryn A.Bard with the editing assistance of Steven Blake Shubert

London and New York

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis

or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to

http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk/.”

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York,

NY 10001

© 1999 Routledge All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or

by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission

in writing from the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from

the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Encyclopedia of the archaeology of ancient

Egypt/edited by Kathryn A.Bard; with the editing assistance of Steven Blake Shubert Includes bibliographical references and index 1 Egypt—Antiquities—Encyclopedias I Bard, Kathryn A

II Schubert, Steven Blake DT58.E53 1998 98–16350 932′.003–dc21 CIP

ISBN 0-203-98283-5 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN - (Adobe e-Reader Format) ISBN 0-415-18589-0 (Print Edition)

List of illustrations x

How to use this Encyclopedia xxiv Acknowledgments xxvi List of abbreviations xxviii List of contributors xxx Chronology of Ancient Egypt xliii

Third Intermediate Period 65

Tables

1 Correlation of Paleolithic sequence in the Nile Valley 7

2

Distribution and chronological range of Late Paleolithic

13

4 Site distribution in the Wadi Tumilat by wadi division 1080

Figures

8 Inscribed labels from Tomb U-j, Umm el-Qa’ab, Abydos 123

10 The mummy of Hefefi (from el-Hagarsa) in its wooden coffin 143

11 El-Alamein, Marina, monument and superstructure of Tomb 1 145

12 General view of the 1979 excavations at Kom el-Dikka 149

13

Plan of the major monuments in the central city at

169

20

Remains of an Early Dynasty mudbrick building in Layer V at

23 Plan of excavated remains at Ismat el-Kharab, Dakhla Oasis 262

Re at Deir el-Bahri (from H.E.Winlock)

27

Representation of Djehuty-Nefer’s house in his tomb in

western Thebes (TT 104) and its interpretation (from

H.A.Assad)

306

28 Plan of the Nubian fort at Dorginarti, Levels III and IV 309

29 Dynastic stone blades, late Predynastic to New Kingdom 312

30

Temple of Satet, Elephantine: 1st/2nd Dynasties (left), 4th/5th

336

35 The enclosure wall of Elkab and its immediate surroundings 346

Tomb of Queen Hetepheres at Giza: detail of the

butterfly-pattern bracelets as discovered lying in her jewelry box in 1926

43

Valley temple and Sphinx Temple of Khafre’s pyramid

413

45 Cross-section plan of Khufu’s pyramid tomb at Giza 415

49 Gurob, New Kingdom settlement and northern cemeteries 430

50 Location of Akhenaten’s Gm-p3-itn temple at East Karnak 472

A typical tomb of the 26th Dynasty at el-Asasif (belonging to

524

56

A typical tomb of the 26th Dynasty at Saqqara (belonging to

Amen-Tefnakht, Commander of the Recruits of the Royal

61 Plan of Marea waterfront (by Thomas Boyd) 561

62 Plan of structures on Bates’s Island, Marsa Matruh 565

63

Central Marsa Matruh and the eastern lagoon system as far east

67

View of the western cemetery at Giza, taken from the top of

595

68 Basic elements of a typical Old Kingdom mastaba tomb 597

71 Plan of the Northern “Royal Cemetery” (Beg N) at Meroe 612

72

Conjectural restoration of pyramids Beg N 11, Beg N 12 and

613

75

“Elite” burial of the 1st Dynasty at Minshat Abu Omar with

two chambers; the larger chamber had been robbed (Tomb

X-ray of Queen Nodjme, revealing a sacred heart scarab and

652

80

Anthropoid coffins of the two brothers, Khnum-Nakht and

Nekht-Ankh These finely painted wood coffins are good

examples of the geometric style of decoration popular in the

Middle Kingdom The inscription down the front of each gives the funerary menu From the Tomb of Two Brothers, Rifa, 12th Dynasty

656

81

Panel portrait of a man, originally placed over the mummy’s

face, showing the clothing and hairstyle fashionable during the Graeco-Roman period From Hawara

658

84 Stages in the manufacture of a Predynastic bifacial knife 684

86 Lower Paleolithic handax (from Bir Tarfawi, Western Desert) 723

87

Middle Paleolithic flake-tools (a, c, e) and Levallois flakes (b,

(from Wadi Kubbaniya)

92

Subterranean chambers showing wall paintings and engaged

statuary, tomb of Queen Meresankh III at Giza (G 7530–7540)

Map of the Eastern Desert with principal routes and emporia,

835

95

Wall reliefs in the tomb of General Horemheb in the New

850

96 The tomb of Iniuia in the New Kingdom cemetery, Saqqara 851

99

Cross-section of Zoser’s Step Pyramid at Saqqara, showing the

863

102

Map of the monuments and inscriptions at Serabit el-Khadim,

882

103 Relief of a ship from a pyramid temple of Sahure, 5th Dynasty 891

105

Location of Siwa Oasis and the Qattara Depression in the

901

107

Relief in the Umm ‘Ubaydah temple, Siwa Oasis: processions

of gods and King Wenamen wearing the Libyan chief’s ostrich

feather headdress and kneeling in front of the shrine of Amen

112 Tell el-Amarna, restored plan of the Great Temple sanctuary 936

113

Tell el-Amarna, plan of the house of Hatiay, Overseer of the

938

114 Sketch of the three successive fortresses at Tell el-Herr (1988) 957

116

A, Medinet Habu, 18th Dynasty temple; B, Funerary temple of

1001

Remains of the Sadd el-Kafara dam in the Wadi Garawi in

1059

128 Upstream face of the northern wall (right bank of the wadi) 1061

129 Location of recorded scripts at Wadi Maghara, Sinai 1073

Map of Egypt showing sites described

28 Farafra part of region

29 Farafra part of region

87 Thebes, Qurnet Murai

88 Thebes, Sheikh Abd el-Qurna

Map of Thebes showing sites

described in this work

These are followed by more than 300 entries in alphabetical order These entries discuss:

See also references at the end of each entry will lead you to related topics

There is also a list of further reading following each entry, which includes language sources as well as references available in English

foreign-Stylistic features

The following stylistic features have been employed in the Encyclopedia:

a metric measurements, such as km, m, cm and so on

b BC/AD not BCE/ACE

(nearby) town, e.g Nagada Please use the index for guidance on alternative names

d transliteration of Egyptian words, for example,

Work on this book began in 1991 at the instigation of Kennie Lyman, and many friends and colleagues were helpful in its undertaking I would first like to thank all contributors who wrote their entries in a timely manner, and those who cheerfully volunteered to write several entries, especially Manfred Bietak, Ed Brovarski, Karl Butzer, Rosalie David, Rodolfo Fattovich, Abdel Monem Gomaà, Zahi Hawass, Christian Hölzl, Timothy Kendall, Leonard and Barbara Lesko, Peter Der Manuelian, Bill Peck, Friederike Kampp Seyfried, Steve Sidebotham, Stephen Thompson, Rob Wenke, Bruce Williams, Frank Yurco, and the late I.E.S.Edwards, with whom I had the great privilege to engage in a correspondence that was both educational and enjoyable

This volume could not have been finished without the editing assistance of Steven Blake Shubert, who, although he came in on the project at a late date, worked with much dedication and a good eye for details Steven’s cheerfulness and reliability are greatly appreciated Harry C Broadhead helped Steven with logistical support A number of professors and former graduate students in the Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Toronto, where I studied Egyptian archaeology, were supportive and pleased to contribute to this volume

Richard Fazzini and Donald Redford graciously served as project advisors and also suggested the names of possible contributors Suggestions for contributors were also provided by Christian and Heike Guksch, Barry Kemp, Leonard and Barbara Lesko, and Bruce Trigger The late Bernard Bothmer offered encouragement to the project in its early stages Janet Johnson and Donald Whitcomb were helpful in discussions as the project evolved Tim Kendall suggested that Nubian sites should also be included in the encyclopedia, and while a number of Nubian sites are missing, some of the major ones that are relevant to the culture of ancient Egypt can be found in this volume Aslihan Yener and Paul Goldberg were helpful in explaining some of the technical details in the entry on mining at Gebel Zeit

Translations of several entries were done by Benjamin Clark and Steven Shubert (French), Alexandra O’Brien (German) and Rodolfo Fattovich (Italian)

At Boston University, technical help with computer files was provided by Qadeer Hassan, Sarah Mascia, Ann-Eliza Lewis and Ben Thomas John Ziemba and Lea Koonce cheerfully sent many faxes for me My colleagues in the Department of Archaeology and the African Studies Center, Farouk El-Baz in the Center for Remote Sensing, and a number of my students were encouraging and interested in the project

Chuck Jones in the Oriental Institute Archives My thanks to the Oriental Institute for allowing me to be there as a visiting scholar so that much of this project could be completed

Diep and Peter Shoemaker provided last-minute help with files, as did Rodolfo Fattovich with a number of entries and contributors Sidney Kramer was very helpful in getting Routledge involved in the project At Routledge, Senior Editors Fiona Cairns and Denise Rea were thoughtful, dedicated, and very pleasant to work with via e-mail Without the help of these friends and colleagues this volume could not have been completed The end result, of course, is my own responsibility, and although there are certainly lacunae in the list of entries, I hope it will provide a useful reference and overview to all those interested in the wonderful things of ancient Egypt

KATHRYN A.BARD

ÄA Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Wiesbaden

AASOR Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research

ASAE Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte, Caire

AVDAIK Archäologische Veröffentlichungen, Deutsches

Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Kairo BAR British Archaeological Reports, Oxford

BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

BdÉ Bibliothèque d’Étude, Institut français d’archéologie

orientale, Caire

Bf Beiträge zur ägyptischen Bauforschung und

Altertumskunde, Kairo, Zurich, Wiesbaden BES Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar, New York

BIÉ Bulletin de l’Institut d’Égypte, Caire

BIFAO Bulletin de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale,

Caire BSFE Bulletin de la Société français d’égyptologie, Paris

CRIPEL Cahier de Recherches de l’Institut de Papyrologie et

d’Égyptologie de Lille

DÖAW Denkschrift der Österreichischen Akademie der

Wissenschaften in Wien, Phil.-hist Klasse

FIFAO Fouilles de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale,

Caire

HÄB Hildesheimer Ägyptologische Beiträge, Hildesheim

JAA Journal of Anthropological Archaeology

JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society

JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt

JMA Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology

JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies

JSSEA Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities

LÄ Lexikon der Ägyptologie, ed W.Helck and W.Westendorf,

Wiesbaden LAAA Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology

MÄS Müncher Ägyptologische Studien, Berlin, Munich

MIFAO Mémoires piblís par les Membres de l’Institut français

d’archéologie orientale du Caire

MDAIK Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts,

Abteilung Kairo

MMJ Metropolitan Museum of Art Journal

NARCE Newsletter of the American Research Center in Egypt

OIP Oriental Institute Publications, University of Chicago

SAOC Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, Chicago: The

Oriental Institute Press SDAIK Sanderschrift des Deutschen Arhäologischen Instituts,

Abteilung, Kairo, Mainz

ZÄS Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde,

Leipzig, Berlin

William Dever

University of Arizona

Aidan Dodson

University of Bristol

Anna Maria Donadoni Roveri

Museum of Ancient Egypt, Turin

Peter Der Manuelian

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Karl Martin

Institute of Archaeology, University of Hamburg

Institute of Archaeology, University College London

Steven Blake Shubert

Charles Van Siclen

Van Siclen Books, San Antonio

William Ward

Thomas von der Way

German Institute of Archaeology, Cairo

Kent R.Weeks

American University in Cairo

Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto at Scarborough, and Department

of Near Eastern and Asian Civilization (Egyptian Section), Royal Ontario Museum

Frank J.Yurco

Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago

Paleolithic

Lower Paleolithic, circa 700/500,000–200,000 BP

Middle Paleolithic, circa 200,000–45,000 BP

Upper Paleolithic, circa 35,000–21,000 BP

Late Paleolithic, circa 21,000–12,000 BP

Nagada II, circa 3600–3200 BC

Nagada III/Dynasty 0, circa 3200–3050 BC

Intef I Intef III

17th Dynasty (Thebes), circa 1650–1550 BC:

circa 14 kings, the last four of which were: Ta’o II

Amenhotep I Amenhotep III

Tuthmose I Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten (Amarna period)

Third Intermediate Period:

21st Dynasty (Tanis), circa 1069–945 BC:

Local dynasties, circa 730 BC:

Thotemhat and Nimlot (Hermopolis)

Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator

Ptolemy VIII Evergetes II

Ptolemy IX Soter II

Ptolemy X Alexander I

Ptolemy IX Soter II (again)

Ptolemy XI Alexander II

Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos

Cleopatra VII Philopator

when Christian persercution ended in the Roman empire, to the Arab invasion

of Egypt in AD 639

Geographic and chronological scope of Egyptian archaeology

Kemet, the “black land,” was the name the ancient Egyptians gave to their state The

“black land” of the fertile floodplain along the lower Nile Valley was differentiated from the barren “red land” of the deserts to either side of the valley Beginning around 3100–

3000 BC, a unified state stretched along the Nile from Aswan at the First Cataract to the Delta coast along the Mediterranean Sea, a distance of over 1,000km downriver This was the kingdom of ancient Egypt, ruled by a king and his centralized administration during the periods of political stability known as the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms

Ancient Egypt was the land of the lower Nile Valley This is a much smaller region than what comprises the modern country of the Arab Republic of Egypt, which includes the region south of the First Cataract to 22° N, the huge desert to the west of the Nile to the Libyan border, the desert to the east of the Nile bordered by the Red Sea, and the Sinai peninsula to the Israeli border

Because the Nile flows from south to north, southern Egypt beginning at the First Cataract is called “Upper Egypt,” and northern Egypt, including the Cairo region and the Delta, is called “Lower Egypt.” The region between Upper and Lower Egypt is sometimes called “Middle Egypt,” and consists of the Nile Valley north of the bend in the river at Qena and Nag Hammadi to the region of the Fayum The main geographic feature

of the Fayum is a large lake, now called Birket Qarun, which was much larger when

wetter conditions prevailed in the early to middle Holocene (circa 12,000 to 5,000 years

ago)

The major geographic feature of Egypt is, of course, the Nile River and the fertile floodplains to either side North of Cairo the main channel of the Nile branches off to form the Delta, a much more humid region than the Nile Valley In Dynastic times the Delta was much more suitable for cattle pasturage than for large-scale cereal cultivation East of the Nile Delta is the Sinai peninsula, now separated from Africa by the Suez Canal and the Gulf of Suez Mountainous and dry like the Eastern Desert of Egypt, the Sinai provided a land route to southwest Asia To the west of the Nile is the Western Desert Within the Western Desert are a number of oases created by springs, where there

is evidence of both prehistoric and pharaonic activity These oases include Siwa, Bahariya, Farafra, Kharga and Dakhla

To the east of the Nile is the Eastern Desert, also known as the Red Sea Hills because

it borders the Red Sea This is a much more mountainous region than the Western Desert, with some mountains over 1,200m high Fresh water is scarce in the Red Sea Hills and along the shore of the Red Sea, and this factor greatly limited human habitation there The Eastern Desert was the source of many hard stones used for sculpture and other craft goods, and minerals such as copper and gold

To the south of the First Cataract in the Nile at Aswan is the land known as Nubia Upper Nubia is now in northern Sudan, and Lower Nubia is the southernmost part of