The impacts of households characteristics on the occupation opportunities of women the case study in vietnam

Although increasing husband’s wage was driven the labor force participation of married women down but it can not support to improve the working hours of this women group.. Model of Probi

UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS ERASMUS UNVERSITY ROTTERDAM

HO CHI MINH CITY INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES

VIETNAM – THE NETHERLANDS PROGRAMME FOR M.A IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS

THE IMPACTS OF HOUSEHOLD’s CHARACTERISTICS ON THE OCCUPATION

OPPORTUNITIES OF WOMEN:

THE CASE STUDY IN VIETNAM

BY

NGUYỄN THỊ TỐ VY

MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS

HO CHI MINH CITY, JANUARY 2018

CERTIFICATION

“I certify the content of this thesis has not already been submitted for any degree and

is not being currently submitted for any other degrees

I certify that, to be the best of my knowledge, any help received in preparing this thesis and all source used, have been acknowledged in this thesis.”

Signature

Nguyễn Thị Tố Vy Date 18th January 2018

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to send my thanks to my lecturers in Vietnam Netherlands Program who helped me to achieve the knowledge through interesting lessons, usefull assignment, utility seminars and new information during my master studying

I greatly express my special thanks to Dr Truong Dang Thuy for all his academic recommendations and supports through finishing thesis process

I am gratefull to all the staffs in the Vietnam Netherland Office have delivered me books and necessary documents during the studying process My thanks are also extended to all my classmaters, who have sympathised and shared learning experiences with me through over last two years

I deepest thank to all of my family’s members who have congrated and given me a lot

of supports during last three years They have transfered my strong motivation into the practical actions to help me finish this course on time

ABBREVIATIONS

VHLSS ……… Viet Nam Households Living Standard Survey VND ……….Viet Nam Dong GSO ……….General Statistic Office of Vietnam

status

ABSTRACT

This study purposes to examine the factors affect Vietnamese women’s decision to participate in workforce and labor supply Our samples were taken from dataset of Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey in 2014 including women from

15 to 55 years of age in 63 provinces and cities in Vietnam We found that the married women’s employment was strong determined by their individual’s characteristics (age, head of household, particular by Vietnam Women Union) The age and head of household have strong negative impacts on the married women’s occupation opportunity The Women Union has strongly positive impacts on both married women and female group We also found that household size does not have any impact on female group Inversely, it has strong positive impacted on married women group The bigger household size increasing the opportunities of married women’s labor force participation, while the higher number of children reducing this opportunities down The rural married women have much more occupation opportunities than urban married women’s but the urban married women have to work with longer working hours Although increasing husband’s wage was driven the labor force participation of married women down but it can not support to improve the working hours of this women group The married woman’s occupation opportunity was not impacted by her and her husband’s education levels The phenomenon as married women more likely participate in to the economic activities than the unmarried women was also determined in our study

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii

ABBREVIATIONS iii

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF TABLES vi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Problem statement 1

1.2 Research objectives 2

1.3 Scope of the study 3

1.4 Research structure 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND 4

EMPIRICAL STUDIES 4

2.1 Literature review of labour supply models 4

2.2 Review of empirical studies 8

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DATA 17

3.1 Research methodology 17

3.2 Data 18

3.2.1 Data Source 18

3.2.2 Variables description 20

3.3 Collective household labor frame-work 24

3.4 Approached models 25

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH RESULTS 30

4.1 Summary Statistics 30

4.2 Research results 58

4.2.1 Results of Probit, Tobit regression, marginal effects for the full sample 58

4.2.2 Results of Probit, Tobit Regression, marginal effects for the sub-sample of married women 63 4.3 Discussions 69

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 82

5.1 Conclusions 82

5.2 Policy implications 83

5.3 Limitations of the study 84

REFERENCE 85

APPENDIX 93

LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Definitions Variables Used in the Model 21

Table 2: Summary statistics for the full sample (N = 9,171) 32

Table 3: Summary statistics for the sample of married women (N = 4,077) 35

Table 4: Employment status 38

Table 5: Employment status and household size 40

Table 6: Employment status and number of children 42

Table 7: Employment status and number of old persons 43

Table 8: Results of Probit and Tobit regression with the full sample (N = 9,171) 60

Table 9: Results of Probit and Tobit Regressions for Married Women (N = 4,077) 66

Table 10: Compare Strongest Impacts on Women’s Employment status 77

of male of labor force is 82.5% and participation rate of female of labor force is 73.3% While the ratio of unemployment women is always higher than the ratio of unemployment man: the ratio of youth female unemployment is 7.15% while the ratio of youth male unemployment is 5.51% only These show that the participative opportunities of women in labor force market should be paid attention by government, policy makers, offices and everyone

The results from the study of Rahmah Ismail & Noorasiah Sulaiman (2014) showed that even though the entrance of female labor in almost economic sectors is increasing over years, their participation rate is still low in Malaysia It is the similar situation in Sudan (Julliffe, 2004) in which presented female career is less than 50 % out of the total career in these countries The age of married women and the number

of children are deeply influenced on the supply of female labor As the rate of entrance of women labor attributed to several reasons, an investigation of

determinants of female labor supply is really responsible, as they are important for policy design and the further benefits of females

In several researches as Francois (1998), Basu (2006), Atal (2010) have investigated the relationships between the supply of female labor and the process of decision by the household They found that the participation of female in labor workforce is decided by the household and the distribution of power is formed endogenously among the household members The occupation opportunity of women indicates that the contribution of women income to their families will determine the distribution of her power This will increase in the household when she could receive more benefits It means that she has more opportunities to get another job but not house-working only Thus, the decision of woman whether work outside

or stay at home as a house-wife is determined by the collective utility of the household and the market wage is as an economic incentive only Moreover, participation of females to the labor force market is always dependent on several factors

1.2 Research objectives

The aim of this research is to examine the impacts of household characteristics, especially household size on married women’s occupation opportunities in Vietnam Model of Probit, OLS and Tobit are used to analyze the decision to participate in workforce and the number of working hours of women

Several variables are used as independent variables

Household size is defined as the number of members in the household in our study Beside, the other characteristics of the household and woman are also analyzed, including: household’s ownership asset, household’s total income, number

of children in household, household poverty status, household locality status or woman’s marriage status, woman’s education, woman’s age, her husband’s wage, her husband’s education, her husband’s employment status and other variables

This study attempts to answer one main reseach question as follow:

 Which factors affect Vietnamese women’s decision to participate in the workforce and labor supply?

1.3 Scope of the study

We attempt to examine the employment of female and married women in 63

provinces in Vietnam and base on the dataset taken from Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey (VHLSS) in 2014 Subjects of the study include women from 15 to 55 years of age

1.4 Research structure

The proceeds of this study as follows: Chapter one is the introduction Chapter two presents the literature review and empirical theories Chapter three introduces the collected dataset and the methodology we used to analyze the data in this study Chapter four presents the estimation results and discussions parts The conclusion, policy implication and limitation are presented in the section five

CHAPTER 2:

LITERATURE REVIEW AND EMPIRICAL STUDIES

2.1 Literature review of labour supply models

The labour force is defined by US Beureau of Labour Statistics (BLS) as: “All persons classified as employed or unemployed Employed persons are persons aged 16 years

or older, who work for an employer or are self-employed, and excludes people who work as volunteers and people engaged in self-service/homemaking Unemployed persons are those jobless persons who are aged 16 years or older, were available for job in last four weeks, and had made specific efforts to find a job at any time during that period” This definition can show clearly the total of labour force of an economy However, it does not show how to exclude the persons who are labour force participation but they do not work actually at the investigated period because of their special characteristics as: students, retires, the disabled, and the voluntarily idle as well as it has no limited ceiling age

According to the definition of macroeconomists, the labor force is defined as the people who are employed and unemployed called working-age persons The working-age persons are defined as people between the ages of 16-64 but not include the students, retirees, the disabled people, house-workers and the voluntarily idle The advantage of this definition is it has the limited ceiling age Although, it can also category between employed, unemployed and students, retirees, the disabled people, the voluntarily idle, but it does not include the self-service/homemakers in the labor force Actually, students, retires, the disabled people, voluntarily idle, the self-services and homemakers also join economic activities They directly or/and indirectly make the goods, materials or services for the economy and get back income from their works

There are some disadvantages among the definitions here Both of them seem difficultly examine or determinate works of house workers, homemakers, the full-time or/and part-time jobs of students, retires as well as the disabled in Vietnam According to Labor Law of Vietnam No 10/2012/QH13, the working-age persons who are aged 15 or older, for men aged 15-60 and for women aged 15-55 Therefore, in this study, we concern about the female and married women who participate in Vietnam labor market aged 15-55 years

There are three labour supply theoretical models in the traditional microeconomic They are individual labour supply model; household model included the unitary household labour model and collective household labour model

Individual labour supply model

The individual labour supply model is a basic model follows the neoclassical theory It

is known as the basic model of a trade-off of a consumer between consuming more goods or more leisure In 1920s, Marshall wrote that, more working hours mean earning more income is limited by time spending for leisure and reverse which had found in his research (Marshall, 1920) Theoretically, it is analyzed the individual labour supply decision is assumed that each unit of labor maximizes his/ her utility signified to income and entertainment The result of works creates income, after that consumer use income to buy goods and/or services The choosing of goods and/or service that is making the unilities Entertainment as service itself is understood as a kind of goods and any person who consumes it is also given back the utility by their consumption activities This theory proves that limited amount of time available, more working hours more income earning but less time for leisure These presented clearly in the studies of Mincer and Becker (Mincer, 1962; Becker, 1965)

The individual labour supply model absolutes the individual labour decision that have no any relative to other members in his/her family or household The participation decision of this individual in the labour market is a unique although ignore the impact of household factors In the fact, the participation of a member in

the family could be impacted by any his/her relative in their family That is the reason why the individual labour supply model was not approached widely now

Household models

The individual model of a choice between entertainment and consumption ignores some of element factors as household production or family income etc which may influence labour supply Actually, an individual participation decision in labor market not only depends on his or her income and time, but also depends on other factors as his or her wage, the number of family’s members, the house-working hours that other members can share in their family, other members’ income and the changing of goods or leisure’s prices Therefore the household model seems more suitable than the individual model Nowadays, both individual labour supply model and household model have certain restrictions viewed from many corners Individual labour supply model ignore the various relatives in the household Household model ignore the individual characteristics of a person, reverse

Family’s characteristics and structures have considerable influence on the behaviour of its members Hence, they can directly and indirectly influence on individual’s choices The studies of family choices have been improved along two different lines The first one is the rule that a single factor can be balanced with its family through their utility function It called unitary household labour supply model The second one known that the collectively household labour supply model that makes choices which based on something individual does By this way, the choices of each member is not be enlarged (or constrained) by familial framework only, it may

be also influenced by the others

Unitary household labour model

Fortin and Lacroix (1997) proved that in the unitary household labour supply model, under a budget constraint, a household has its participation decision in the labour market in order to it can maximize the household’s utility An individual’s labour decision might be a factor that impacted by his or her own choices or by other

difference factors come from his or her family’s members conditions (so called household’s characteristics, for example: the number of members in the household, total income of the household, the number of children are there in the household, ect.) as also come from the outside factors (so called society factors, for example: the unemployment and employment rate in the market, rural or urban condition, ect.) In

a long run, there are some different versions of household models developed and used to estimate the household’s behaviours in two aspects: the household behaviours in the general aspect and the household behaviour in the special aspect Athough, after the numbers of evidences in the researches of Blundell and Meghir (1986), Blundell and Walker (1986) as Lundberg (1988) Fortin and Lacroix (1997), the unitary model is rejected under its literature influences

Collective household labour model

Although the unitary model was rejected, its limitations also are the premises of the further model development after that The studies of Apps and Rees (1988), Chiappori (1992), Chiappori (2002) proved that there is a better model which can consider individual’s preferences and bargain to Pareto efficient outcome of all household’s members in a family That is the collective household labour model The household’s labour market participation decision has two stages under the collective labour supply model, the first stage is that non-labour’s income is balanced among household’s members by sharing principle, and the second one is that each member

of the household makes his or her own labour supply decision in the way can maximize his or her own utility under the match budget constraint Fortin and Lacroix

(1997), Blundell et al (2007), Bloemen (2004) have also concluded that the collective

labour supply model is more advantage than unitary household labour models through the household labour supply decision behaviours By adding the income sharing factor, Fortin and Lacroix (1997) tested and developed the collective model

on the basic of unitary model The study of Chiappori et al (2002) inherited the

previous results and improved the collective model with working spouses as well as

other distribution factors Further, Donni (2003) took the non-participation of this aspect into the household members’ unrestricted working hour decision

2.2 Review of empirical studies

This section review previous empirical studies on the decision to participate in labor force and labor supply Almost all studies about the participation in labor fore apply the Logit/Probit model, while those about labor supply usually apply Tobit model or the Heckman selection model which analyze both decision on the participation and labor supply simultaneously In the labour market, the women labour supply is rising yearly all over the world Specially, the labour force activities of women are higher in developing countries not only in number but also in kinds of work There are major of researches in the yield of women labour market participation were studied by lots of authors in the application science

The results in Khan and Khan (2009)’s study show that the participation decision of women in the labour market associated with literature implications The independent variables are pointed to 75% of the variation in labour force participation is accounted for the explanatory variables They found that the probability derivative of mother’s age is positive but the age square reverse is opposite This proved that when the age of women rise up the probability of labour force participation of married women grows up The maximum age of labour force participation is at 39.49 years old The authors estimated the average age their study

at the age of 41.61 years old This result is as the same as the national statistics in which shown that the women group of age from 40 to 45 years old is the women group that participate in the labour force with highest rate (Pakistan Bureaus of Statistics House - FBS, 2003:16)

In this research, the dependent variable – married women’s labor force participation (MLFP) that is binary has two values: it is 1 value if the married woman participated in the labour market; it is 0 if the married woman did not The authors use normal probability with Probit model to estimate the non-linear maximum

likelihood of labor force participation of married women There were limited amount

of explanation variables in the MLFP function It is defined that the labor force participation of married women is the activities done as paid-employment, self-employment, or in a family enterprise for at least one working hour during the researching periods (usually one week)

The equation is: 𝑌 = 𝑓(𝑋)

where, Y is the decision of married women to participate labor force X is a vector of exogenous socio-economic variables influencing the female’s decision of labor force participation (also called independent variables or explanation variables) The authors study the decision participation of married women at the age of 16-60 years old in labor force activities There are 3,911 observations in this research that studied in two districts of Punjab province in Pakistan through the survey was conducted in 2004-2005 They valuated that one woman if she has more one year of education their labour force participation may increase by 7.9 % The results also show that the probability of labour force participation of mothers as head of households is 3.7 %

D Blau and M Kahn (2006) increased the sample size In addition, the effect of selected endpoints was minimized by their model They aimed to make clearly the arguments of the changing in labour supply They used three sets of three year groups: they are including 1979-1981 (call “1980” group), 1989-1991 (call “1990” group), and 1999-2001 (call “2000” group) to focus on factors that effect on the participation decision of married women (in the age group of 25-54 years old) in labour market The March Current Population Survey (CPS) data used to observe the labour supply behaviour of United States married women of above three groups There are 64,001 observations in “1980” group, 58,987 observations in “1990” group and 48,733 observations in “2000” group

The authors used cross-sectional data on individuals to estimate functions such as the static labour supply models Firstly, the authors counted the changes of married women in the labor supply market from 1980 to 2000 They treat the models as a

linear model and Tobit model to compare the results for robustness Secondly, they used dis-aggregation by Subgroups including: Education groups; Mothers of Young Children groups; Age Groups Thirdly, they adjusted the extensive versus the intensive margin Fourthly, the authors pointed to the explanatory variables as the key of the regression process by testing robustness after finding The robustness of their results was tested by re-avaluating used models after tax incomes, wages and salaries And then, they changed the selectivity of Married Couples When faced to omited variable bias, they used grouped data to solve these problems The results are presented by differences reports for each of the three periods, the elasticity are shown together for each period The elasticity of women wage declined and the trend of the long-term of spouse’s wage elasticity also decreased continuously in the period of 1980-2000, it is really highest decreasing in the 1980s The results of this study showed that the wives’ labor supply was impacted negatively by the effects of husbands’ wage and the absolute value of these significant negative effects become weaker by the time At the mean part of labour supply, the absolute value as well as the elasticity of the husbands’ wages was declined considerably compare to the raw hour impacts

The paper of Ismail & Sulaiman (2014) focused on evaluating the impacts

which influenced to the participation decision of married women in the general labour supply in Malaysia They used a dummy variable to compute the women labour force It is understood as 1 if a woman has a job and as 0 if she has not The authors considered the logistic regression approach as the method to estimate the categorical dependent variable There were 4,000 households in Peninsular Malaysia were interviewed and randomly chosen in the field survey in 2011 The authors collected data from this survey contained communications about heads of families, spouses, heads of household, education, occupation This study aimed to focus on the participation decision of married women through the data of 3,520 married women who were collected in the survey The utility maximization as follows:

𝑈 = 𝑈(𝑋, 𝐿, 𝑄) (1)

The estimation of the logistic model utilizes the likelihood ratio test (LRT) as an indicator for fitness of the model and the t-test for identifying the significant of the parameters The estimation model for this study is as follows:

to those with primary and no schooling Women’s participation in the workforce is most welcome to obtain benefit, especially those with higher level of education

Merz (2006) collected the data from German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) to concentrate the undercurrent trends that there are some women groups showing their subgroup and heterogeneous development in these They used the representative sample as the individual household and private who are taken from Federal Republic of Germany The authors use the collective theory to study their research They defined three different categories: full-time, part-time and non-

employment in the 20 years period of time from 1984-2004 They calculate the real rate of wage hours of an individual through this annual cross-sectional dataset as the rate of gross monthly labour income and the working-hours of this person in the researched months This ratio calculated by using the worked-hours that signed in their contracts These results are not including the real working-hours and others also are not presented in the contracts The price index comes from German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) as the real working hours was used to interpret the results of wage rate in the real terms (2000=100) They found that the gross incomes has been decreased under the effects of several individual characteristics as sex, age, years of education, marital status, nationality after the regressions of the log on three dummy variables as full-time employment, occupation and industry The samples were divided into two groups as Western are of Germany and Eastern are of Germany The results were explained that the ratio occupation employment of Germany married women nonstop rising and distinguishing with high-middle-low education levels or if they have young children or not, this employment rate even was highest with women who have kids or who have the high education level In contrast, the women who have to work more hours weekly their husbands have less wage rate They also find out that the women who have higher-wage husbands could participate in the labour market as the similar as the other women They even could employ more part-time hours or employ fewer weekly hours in the labour market per week than women who have lower-wage husbands

Berulava and Chikava (1983) used the collective frame-work to resolve the behavior of individual in the household labour supply in several labour market frames At the researched regions – Georgian, French and Romanian – the authors based on the dataset of two years as 2002 and 2005 of Generations and Gender Survey, they contemporaneous applied unitary and collective household labour supply models to prove the restrictions of the parametric They also applied the collective lobour supply model and conducted comparative research to define the main determinants of household labour supply In particular, household preferences

are described by unique, well-behaved utility function (Fortin and Lacroix, 1997) The unitary household labour supply model, The collective labor supply model were applied to estimating the labour supply equations, the authors applied the Chiappori, Fortin and Lacroix (2002) methods and the semi-log function form but not apply the collective model as given before The authors established a restrictions set from several function to measure the validity of the models as unitary and collective labour supply models, as the methods that Chiappori, Fortin and Lacroix (2002) used in their study Beside, the authors also examine the unitary model according through testing the null hypothesis on non-existence of distribution factors (DFI) To test the relevance of the collective model they measure the validity two elements as the validity of cross-derivative condition and the validity of Pareto affection

The results show that the main determinant of the household labour supply in all of researched region in this paper including: the women and their spouses’ wages, cross-wage terms, and distribution factors In the researched regions of French, the significant at the level of 1% presented that the working-hours of labour supply are impacted negatively In contrast, in the researched regions of Georgia and Romania, the women’ wage impacted positively on the working-hours of labour supply and it shows a statistically significant The findings operated the correlated differences of spouses in these three researched regions The numbers of lower income spouses in Georgia are much more substantiates than the lower income couples in others, France and Romania Relative with working hours in the labour supply, Georgia is also the country which has the widest gender gap in this study It explained that these factors cannot solve and substitute the differences in preference structures between countries The authors presented the results which appropriated with the collective model in the researches in France and Romania At any justifiable significant level, these results nearly always are positive with the restrictions of Pareto affection as well as cross-term condition of the collective model While the data of Georgian rejected almost of restrictions of this model In contrast, for the unitary model (of non-existence of distribution factors) applied successfully to reject the restrictions of

this model in all these three countries This certify that the unitary model is valuable apply in showing the behaviors of households labour supply transitional countries, particularly in developed economics It may have similar positive impacts comparing with previous results came from other studies

In other study of Dostie and Kromann (2012), the elasticity of labour supply through the own-wage, couple-wage, non-labour income were measured by using the data of married women who live in Canada from 1996 to 2005 (the Survey of Labour and Income Dynamics - SLID) The data of Canadian Tax and Credit Simulator (CtaCS) and all income levels of household also calculated in this research Under investigating at the level of federal also at the level of province, working-hours that gave household back the real earnings during 10 years (from 1996 to 2005) have been taxed at the fourth level instead of the third level in 2001 by their government, rising one level in the fact It is also akin in several recently studies as the variable CPS used to evaluate the elasticity of labour supply (Heim, 2007; Blau and Kahn, 2007) To evaluate the elasticity of the labour supply the authors used the econometric method with four important steps alike to Heim (2007)

Firstly, the Heckman’s two step produce was applied to investigate the inverse Mills’s ratio (λit) The chosen equation was estimated by their Probit model to calculate at the time called t for per member called i (means - it) in the labour supply market:

λit ̂ = Φ(δ ̂ + δ0 ̂I3 it+ δ̂Xit)

ϕ(δ ̂ + δ0 ̂I3 it+ δ̂Xit) (3.1)

where, Iit is total non-labour income of per family and Xit includes the other variables that show an opportunity of an individual who can participate in the labour force They also adjust the endogenous participation of an individual in the labour market

by using the inverse Mills’s ratio in this step Secondly, the authors impute the observed wages using the traditional regression imputation method The wage was computed by using the characteristics of per person adding human capital Thirdly, they base on the working-hours that always are positive to evaluate the regression of

non-give working-hours And other variables explaining the number of worked-hours involved the non-labour income and the inverse Mills’s ratio Fourthly, the participation of an individual in the labour supply market was investigated in this final step by applying the Probit model Beside, the dependent variables are the wages of participation labour force women as well as the women who can not participate in the labour force but they could receive the wages by applying the equation (3.2):

𝑃 (Participationit

= 1) = Φ (δ0 + δ1lnw ̂wit+ + δ2lnw ̂hit+ δ3Iit+ δXit) (3.4)

In above the equation, the wages of wife, husband and other income were calculated

by the participation of per member in their family The husband’s consumption behaviour is difference from the wife’s consumption behaviour by difference income sources in the similar family In the period of times as 10 years (from 1996-2005), they recognized that the labour supply elasticity really declined by applying the income tax policy of Canada government, the results showed that the elasticity of labour force move to nearly zero The most reasonable evidence that is the elasticity

of Canada labour force is lower than the elasticity of the United State That is why they found the dramatic evidences in US proved that the declination of this changing

in Canada is too small to calculate They analysed that the fewer working-hours of wives the larger elasticity of women participation in the labour force They called three hours of working-woman are the limitation units of worked-hours that if the working-hours of a woman more than this unit the elasticity of these are nearly zero

In the case the taxes were accounted when the income of a woman is lower this unit and the elasticity of the hours of work are also zero The chain of results of their study presented that the impacts of living public policies have weaker influence than itself one decade before in Cananda While, the women who have less working-hours

in a week, have more influences to their spouse’s wages or even to their wages Therefore, these low working-hours women should be concerned on if the government want to rise the working hours for the women labour force

Smith and Stelcner (1988) used released data from the 1981 Census to re-test the behaviour of married women in labour force in Canada The authors used Heckman's procedure to ensure for selectivity bias and incorporating the influence of income taxes, this study finds small wage and income effects on Canadian wives' labour supply Data are come from the Statistics Canada (1985) showed the Public Use Sample Tape, Household / Family File in 1981 The sample is restricted to 2,851 married couples, with wives twenty to fifty-four years of age While the tape provides information on labor earnings and on actual worked weeks in 1980, data on hours of

a worked week are presented only on the week ending 3 June 1981 for the reference The hourly wage rate is calculated by dividing annual earnings in 1980 by the product

of weeks worked in 1980 and hours worked in the reference week in 1981 The division of annual working-hours between working- hours per week and worked weeks in a year, while potentially important, was not examined in this study In this paper, the authors also report labour supply wage elasticity estimates that are small and not significantly different from zero Their data are drawn from the 1981 Census and used the Heckman’s technique (Heckman, 1980) to put down the bias of selectivities and calculate the factors that impact on labour supply cause of income taxes

CHAPTER 3:

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DATA

3.1 Research methodology

Work force participation

Our study follows the paper of Khan and Khan (2009) in which the authors have evaluated the decision of labor supply participation of married women for the normal probability using Probit model One of our two dependent variables is called as women’s labor force participation is showed by a function of Pr = F(x) = WEs It receives value 1 if a woman participated in the labor force and receives value 0 if she did not

The function is: Pr (Participation =WEs = Y=1) = F(x) where, Participation = Y = WEs is the decision of women labor force participation;

x1………xn are the exogenous socio-economic variables influencing the female’s decision of labor force participation

Labor supply

Moreover, we use Tobit model to evaluate the factors which may impact on the number of working hours of a woman (WORKHOURS) The second dependence variable presents the working time of a woman in a month at the investigated period The unit of working time is calculated by her real working hours limited from 0-480 hours per month The model is presented as follows:

𝑦𝑗∗= 𝑥′𝛽𝑗+ 𝜀𝑗

𝑦𝑗 = 𝑥′𝛽𝑗 if 𝑦𝑗∗ > 0

𝑦𝑗 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑦𝑗∗ ≤ 0

where 𝑦𝑗 is the WORKHOURS

We study the decision participation of female and married women at the age of

15-55 years old in labor force activities There are 9,171 observations in this study that is

collected from 63 provinces of Vietnam in VHLSS in 2014 It is called as the full sample

of female group We run the two regressions presented above with this full sample which has nineteen independent variables They are involved by household characteristics (the first characteristic group) and individual’s characteristics of a woman (the second characteristic group) (presenting in detail in table 1) The Probit model is used to run this full sample (female group) with dependent variable is WEs with 9,171 observations In the Tobit model, we run with dependent variables is WORKHOURS with 9,161 observations only because there are 100 observations in the female group which have not enough information to running this model

In addition, we also run the two models above with sub-sample of married women group The married women sample with 4,077 individuals who are married at the investigated period collected from the full one (so call married women group or sub-sample) Beside the similar eightteen independent variables as they are in full sample (not including marriage status variable), we add husband’s factors as the third characteristic group of a woman (presenting in detail in table 1) This sub-sample is also used to run the two models: Probit and Tobit with the similar 4,077 observations separated two dependent variables as WEs with Probit model and WORKHOURS with Tobit model

3.2 Data

3.2.1 Data Source

As mentioned, we study the decision of women (in the age group of 15-55 years) to participate in labor force activities and the factors that impact on the decision of women (also in the age group of 15-55 years) to participate in labor force activities The women are understood as the married women (in the sub sample) or the female (in the full sample) as well The research study in 63 provinces and cities in Vietnam through the data of Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey (VHLSS) was conducted in 2014 In addition, we also investigate the impacts of household characteristics on the number of working hours of women

From 2002 to 2014, the General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO) conducts the VHLSS every two years in even years to systematically monitor the living standards of the Vietnamese population; monitor and evaluate the implementation

of the Comprehensive Poverty Reduction and Growth Strategy; contributing to the evaluation of the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the socio-economic development objectives of Vietnam The survey uses the direct interview method Investigators came to the household, met household heads and related household members to interview and wrote information on the household questionnaire The leader of the survey team interviewed commune leaders and relevant local officials and recorded the information in the commune interview cards

In order to ensure the quality of the information collected, the survey did not accept indirect survey methods or copied information from other sources available on the interview cards

Household level survey information in the VHLSS dataset includes: some demographic characteristics of household members, including age, gender, ethnicity, marital status Household income including: Income level; Income by income (wage, salary, self-employment in agriculture, forestry, fisheries, household self-employment, others income); Income by economic sector and industry Household expenditures as: expenditures, expenditures by purpose and expenditures (expenses for food, clothing, housing, travel, education, health care, culture, etc; and other expenses by category Groups / expenditures for calculating CPI weights) Education level, professional qualification of each member of the household, sickness, illness and use of health services, employment status, working time, property, housing and amenities such as utensils, electricity, water, sanitation, participating in poverty reduction program, credit situation, operational management and risk management are also collected in these surveys The scope of the survey was selected by households and communes in 63 provinces and central cities The survey was made

up of households, household members, and communes/wards Each survey unit is a selected household or ward1

a family enterprise Women employment status is at the one or zero values just at the investigated period only in the statistic of Vietnam GSO in 2014 The second one

is women working hours so called the average monthly working hours of a woman equal the average working hours of a woman in one day times to the number of real days that this person did do over last 30 days The unit of working time is calculated

by her real working hours limited from 0-480 hours per month (table 1)

There are twenty five independent variables in our study they are divided into three groups: the first group is household’s characteristics group including household size - hhsize, household’s, household’s poverty status - poverty, schooling members

of the household - attendsch, number of children in the household – children15, number of old people in the household – oldpp60, total incomes of the household - totalinc, average per capita monthly income – averagecapinc, number of severely illness or injured members in the household – illness, household’s ownership assets

or 2009, surveyed households in each EA in the survey were selected based on EA's latest list of households (3 months prior to the survey) The VHLSS survey series were conducted from 2002 to 2010 based on a sample of the sample selection The basic sample is a random sample from the enumerated areas (EAs) of the 1999 Population Census Similarly, the Population Census of 2009 will provide information for the design and implementation of new models for the years after 2012 onwards (GSO)

status – assets The second one called individual’s characteristics group including women’s age - age, women as the member of Vietnam Women Union – vwunion, women’s married status – marriage (in full sample only), women as the head of household - headh and women’s education categories in which there are four binary variables: women’s primary school status - primarysch, women’s secondary school status – secondarysch, women’s high school certification - highsch, women’s higher high school certification – higherhsch The third one is society’s characteristics including locality status – locality, economical areas – areacode

In the sub-sample we use again almost independent variables which appied in the full one but remove the marriage variable and add the husband’s characteristics together The factors of the spouses of married women including husband’s employment status called husbandwk, husband’s wage or salary per month called husbandwage, and husband’s education category with four variables: husband’s primary school certification - hprimaryshc, husband’s secondary school certification - hsecondsch, husband’s high school certification - hhighshc, husband’s higher high school certification - hhigherhsch (table 1)

Table 1: Definitions Variables Used in the Model

No Variable Notation Definition / explaination Unit Dependent variables

1 Women’s

employment

status,

hour a week, 0=otherwise

No Variable Notation Definition / explaination Unit

5 Severel illness/injured illness 0 if family has zero serious

illness or injured, 1 otherwise

Binary

her household per month

The average per capita income

No Variable Notation Definition / explaination Unit

Binary

Vietnam Women Union, 0 otherwise

until month of interview

years

living in at the interviewed period

3.3 Collective household labor frame-work

In this study, we refer the collective frame-work to collect the variables for both Probit model and Tobit model Whereby, the participation in the labor supply and workforce of an individual is impacted by three factor groups including individual’s characteristics, household’s characteristics and society’s characteristics The collective household labor frame-work added more one new factors group when

an individual is at the marital status with the spouses’ characteristics The conceptual frame-work as follow:

Conceptualy, the spouse’s characteristics belong to the household’s characteristics group They are included in the members’ sharing In particularly, the spouse is the person who should share the burden of the household (or family), also the spiritual and material life with the woman and who almost lives beside the married woman during her life (except the special situations) Therefore, the spouse’s characteristics are more distinctive than the others and we group them into a

seperated group as the showed presentation This conceptual frame-work is approached by us as the main compass during the evaluating, estimating and analyzing process of this study

3.4 Approached models

To evaluate the impacts of presented factors groups on the full sample and the sub sample, we use the Probit model and Tobit model to run the regression and estimate the results

3.4.1 Probit regression with full sample

To estimate the impacts of household’s and individual’s characteristics on women’s employment, we run the Probit model with the dependent variable is 𝑊𝐸𝑠𝑓and use the below equation (1) with full-sample (9,171 observations):

𝑊𝐸𝑠𝑓 = 𝑏0+ 𝑏1ℎℎ𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒2+ 𝑏2𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑐ℎ2+ 𝑏3𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑛152+ 𝑏4𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑝𝑝602

+ 𝑏5 𝑝𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦2+𝑏6𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑐2+ 𝑏7𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑐2 + 𝑏8𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦2+ 𝑏9𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠2+ 𝑏10𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠2+ 𝑏11𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒2+ 𝑏12𝑎𝑔𝑒2+ 𝑏13𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑒1+ 𝑏14 𝑣𝑤𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛1+ 𝑏15ℎ𝑒𝑎ℎ𝑑2+𝑏16 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ2+ 𝑏17 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ2+ 𝑏18ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ2+ 𝑏19 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ2 (1)

where,

WEsf is the women’s employment in the full-sample (fs)

f is the full-sample (fs)

b0…b19 is the coefficients of the independence variables in the equation (1)

The independent variables are explained as at the end of this “Approached models” part

3.4.2 Tobit regression with full sample

The Tobit model is used to censored the full-sample with the dependent variable is 𝑊𝑂𝑅𝐾𝐻𝑂𝑈𝑅𝑆𝑓 and the form is presented in the equation (2) with 9,161 observations as below:

𝑊𝑂𝑅𝐾𝐻𝑂𝑈𝑅𝑆𝑓 = 𝑑0+ 𝑑1ℎℎ𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒3+ 𝑑2𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑐ℎ3+ 𝑑3𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑛153

+𝑑4𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑝𝑝603+ 𝑑5 𝑝𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦3+ 𝑑6𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑐3+ 𝑑7𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑐3+ 𝑑8𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦3+𝑑9𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠3+ 𝑑10𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠3+ 𝑑11𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒3+ 𝑑12𝑎𝑔𝑒3+ 𝑑13𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑒3

+𝑑14 𝑣𝑤𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛3+ 𝑑15ℎ𝑒𝑎ℎ𝑑3+ 𝑑16 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ3+ 𝑑17 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ3

+ 𝑑18ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ3+ 𝑑19 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ3 (2)

where,

WORKHOURSf is the women’s working hours per month in the full-sample (fs)

d0…d19 is the coeffitions of the independence variables in the equation (2)

The independent variables are explained as at the end of this “Approached models” part

3.4.3 Probit regression with sub sample of married women

To estimate the impacts of household’s, spouse’s and individual’s characteristics on married women’s employment, we run Probit model again with dependent variable is 𝑊𝐸𝑠𝑚 and use the equation (3) with sub-sample (4,077 observations) to analysis the results, as below:

𝑊𝐸𝑠𝑚 = 𝑎0+ 𝑎1ℎℎ𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒1+ 𝑎2𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑎3𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑛151+ 𝑎4𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑝𝑝601

+ 𝑎5𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠1+𝑎6𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑐1+ 𝑎7𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦1+ 𝑎8𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠1+ 𝑎9 𝑝𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦1+ 𝑎10𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑐1 +𝑎11 ℎ𝑢𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒1+ 𝑎12 ℎ𝑢𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑘1+ 𝑎13 ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑎14 ℎ𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑐ℎ1

+ 𝑎15ℎℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑎16 ℎℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑎17 𝑣𝑤𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛1+ 𝑎18ℎ𝑒𝑎ℎ𝑑1+ 𝑎19 𝑎𝑔𝑒1+ 𝑎20𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒1+ 𝑎21 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑎22 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑎23ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1

+ 𝑎24 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1 (3)

where,

WEsm is the women’s employment in the married sub-sample

m is married sub-sample

a0…a24 is coefficients of the independence variables in the equation (3)

The independence variables are similar variables used for Probit model in the equation (1) after we remove the marriage status and further including the husband’s characteristics as husband’s employment status called husbandwk, husband’s wage

or salary per month called husbandwage, and husband’s education category with

four variables: husband’s primary school certification status, husband’s secondary school certification status, husband’s high school certification status, husband’s higher high school certification status The independent variables of this sub sample

are also detail explained as at the end of this “Approached models” part

3.4.4 Tobit regression with sub sample of married women

The Tobit model is continuously applied to run the sub-sample with 4,077 obsevations in which the working hours of the married women (𝑊𝑂𝑅𝐾𝐻𝑂𝑈𝑅𝑆𝑚 ) is the dependent variable The number of hours that a married woman has to work per month also limited from 0-480 hours The independent variables are similar variables used for Probit model in the equation (3) The details are presented in the equation (4) as below:

𝑊𝑂𝑅𝐾𝐻𝑂𝑈𝑅𝑆𝑚 = 𝑐0+ 𝑐1ℎℎ𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒1+ 𝑐2𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑐3𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑛151+ 𝑐4𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑝𝑝601+𝑐5𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠1+ 𝑐6𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑐1+ 𝑐7𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦1+ 𝑐8𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠1+ 𝑐9 𝑝𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦1

+𝑐10𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑐1 + 𝑐11 ℎ𝑢𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒1+ 𝑐12 ℎ𝑢𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑘1

+ 𝑐13 ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ1

+ 𝑐14 ℎ𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑐15ℎℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑐16 ℎℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑐17 𝑣𝑤𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛1+ 𝑐18ℎ𝑒𝑎ℎ𝑑1+ 𝑐19 𝑎𝑔𝑒1+ 𝑐20𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒1+ 𝑐21 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ1

+𝑐22 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑐23ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ 𝑐24 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1 (4)

where,

WORKHOURSm is the women’s working hours per month in the sub-sample (mss)

c0…c24 is coefficients of the independence variables in the equation (4)

For both above four regressions we have below detail explained independent variables:

hhsize is the household size

attendshc is the number of members attending school in the household

children15 is the number of children in the household

oldpp60is the number of old people in the household

illness is the number of household members is in the severely illness or injured status

totatlinc is the total monthly incomes of household

locality is the location of the household

assets is the household’s ownership assets

poverty is the poverty status of the household

averagecapinc is the average per capita monthly income of the household

husbandwage is the husband’s wages/salaries of the women

husbandwk is the husband’s employment status

hprimarysch is the husband’s primary school certification status

hsecondsch is the husband’s primary school certification status

hhighsch is the husband’s primary school certification status

hhigherhsch is the husband’s primary school certification status

vwunionis the member status of Vietnam Women Union

headh is the married women as the head of the household

marriage is the marital status of the women

age is age of the married women

areacode is the number of economic are code of the women

primarysch is the primary school certification status of the women

secondarysch is the secondary school certification status of the women

highsch is the high school certification status of the women

higherhsch is the higher high school certification status of the women

3.4.5 Prediction method of marginal effects

After the Probit estimations, we complute the marginal effects at the means of the explanatory variables and also predicte the probability of women participation in the

labor force by dy/dx – mfx command for each independent variable as follow equations:

𝑊𝐸𝑠𝑓 = β0+ β1ℎℎ𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒2+ β2𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑐ℎ2+ β3𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑛152+ β4𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑝𝑝602

+ β5

𝑝𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦2+β6𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑐2+ β7𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑐2 + β8𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦2 + β9𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠2+ β10𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠2+ β11𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒2+ β12𝑎𝑔𝑒2+ β13𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑒1+ β14

𝑣𝑤𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛1+ β15ℎ𝑒𝑎ℎ𝑑2+β16

+ £15ℎℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ £16 ℎℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ £17 𝑣𝑤𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛1+ £18ℎ𝑒𝑎ℎ𝑑1+ £19 𝑎𝑔𝑒1+ £20𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒1+ £21 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ £22 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑐ℎ1+ £23ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1

+ £24 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑠𝑐ℎ1 (6)

where, the female labour supply status whether working or not working called WEsf

and the independent variables similar to the independent variables in the equation (1) The married women labour supply status whether working or not working called WEsm and the independent variables similar to the independent variables in the equation (3) £ is the percentage points of probability of a married woman participation in the labor force and β is the percentage points of probability of a

female participation in the labor force

CHAPTER 4:

RESEARCH RESULTSThis chapter presents the research results, including the summary statistics, some bivariate analyses and the regression results For regression results, we report the Probit regression and Tobit regression for the two samples: the full sample and the sub-sample of married women

The results of survey in VHLSS show that the average household size is 3.81 persons This trend slowly reduces over the nearest 12 years (2002-2014) In our full sample, the household size has largest crop is 13 members household group and the average household size is 4.46 persons per household It is higher than the average household size of GOS presented in VHLSS 0.55 persons One household has from 0

to 9 of schooling members with 1.68 people per household in the average While the number of children in a household are from 0 to 7 kids with average of 1.03 kids per household It indicates that households also have the members of schooling adults who are above 15 years This is a reasonable phenomenon in Vietnam as well as in general world when the schooling ages are almost higher than the age of 15 years The schooling age can be lengthened to above 20 years even above 30 or 40 years, nowadays The number of old people and severel illness are similar with the average 0.29 and 0.251 people per household There are 7,081 households do not have old people live together by 77.21%, while the households which have from 1 to 4 old

ages live together are only 22.79% The percentages of women have 0 illness people who live in the similar household is 81.02% by 7,340 households There is 81.81% of this rate (80.03%) in this group having a job The rate of occupation opportunities of a woman are not so much difference in the groups in which have from 1 to 5 illness members The minimum total incomes of a household receive the value with 463.25vnd per month By the women private index and household private index we find that the minimum total incomes belong to the woman who living in family with 3 members, her husband is jobless, has no wage, and her child is below 15 years While the maximum total incomes of household reaches up the value at 334,500.00vnd per month This is 4 members household with 3 adults and 1 old person, no child

In the location view, there are 69.46% of female receive 0 value means they are in rural place (6,370 individuals by) and 28.43% of female receive 1 value means they live in urban places (2,801 individuals) in our full sample It may be earning money pressure of rural women is higher than urban women when comparing the employment rate of rural women are always higher than urban women in our study The summary statistics results in the table 2 present 84.46% of rural female having the job while there are 75.58% of urban female participate in the labor force There are 6.78% female who live in the poverty household (622 persons) in our full sample

As above analyses, it shows the rate of poverty household is low, but the average per capita income this variable presents the really high rate of low average per capita income in this full sample There are 7,711/9,171 individuals (84.08%-84.25%) in full-sample who have average per monthly capita income are below the Vietnam nation average per capita income line2 It may be the pressure of women that lead them to work in the labor force The results of our study also proved this discussion, there are 11.32% of head of household are women if they are in the female group Although,

2 According to reports of GSO and World Bank (WB), the average yearly income per capita of Vietnam of 2014 is 2,028.00usd/ person/ year Balance average monthly income per capita of Vietnam of 2014 is 169usd/per/month equal 3,937,856.00vnd/per/month Vietnam population of 2014 is about 90,730,000 people Gross Domestic Productivity (GDP) in 2014 of Vietnam is 184,000.44 thousand usd TheVietnam dong and US dolar exchange rates by December 31 st 2014 by Vietnam national Bank is 21,400.00vnd/usd

there is one of three of female who are members of Vietnam Women Union only by 35.33% of total female in our full-sample The rates of working female and non-working female have the distinct differences when they are balanced between 96.30% of working female who are the members of Vietnam Women Union and 73.80% of working female who are not the members of Vietnam Women Union in our study (the differences are 22.50%)

Table 2: Summary statistics for the full sample (N = 9,171)

No Variable Unit Obs Mean Std