Because of their antioxidant and Table 1.2 Basic uses of herbs and spices Basic function Major function Subfunction Flavouring Parsley, cinnamon, allspice, dill, mint, Garlic, onion, bay
Trang 1Volume 2
Edited by
K V Peter
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Trang 3(* = main point of contact)
Chapter 1
Professor K V Peter*
Kerala Agricultural University
KAU – PO, Vellanikkara
Thrissur, Kerala State
M R Shylaja and Professor K V Peter*
Kerala Agricultural University
S Venizelou 1Lycovrisi 14123Greece
Tel: +30 210 2845940Fax: +30 210 2840740E-mail: microlab.itap@nagref.grProfessor G.-J E Nychas* and
Dr P N SkandamisAgricultural University of AthensDepartment of Food Science andTechnology
Iera Odos 75Athens 11855GreeceTel/Fax: +30 10 529 4693E-mail: gjn@aua.gr
Chapter 4
Dr R RodenburgTNO PharmaUtrechtseweg 483704HE ZeistThe Netherlands
Trang 4Tel: +31 30 6944844
Fax: +31 30 6944845
E-mail: pharma-office@pharma.tno.nl
Chapter 5
P N Ravindran* and G S Pillai
Centre for Medicinal Plants Research
Arya Vaidya Sala
Dr S K Malhotra* and Dr O P Vijay
National Research Centre on Seed Spices
Mr B Krishnamoorthy* and Dr J Rema
Indian Institute of Spices Research
Chapter 9
Dr M M Sharma* and Dr R K SharmaRajasthan Agricultural UniversityBikaner
IndiaE-mail: mmohanrau@yahoo.com
Chapter 10
Dr M T Lis-BalchinSchool of Applied ScienceSouth Bank University
103 Borough RoadLondon SE1 0AAE-mail: lisbalmt@lsbu.ac.uk
Chapter 11
Dr M T Lis-BalchinSchool of Applied ScienceSouth Bank University
103 Borough RoadLondon SE1 0AAE-mail: lisbalmt@lsbu.ac.uk
Chapter 12
Dr J Thomas*, K M Kuruvilla and
T K HrideekICRI Spices BoardKailasanadu POKerala, India – 685 553E-mail: jtkotmala@hotmail.com
Trang 5Laboratory of Plant Physiology
Agricultural University of Athens
Hyderabad – 500 030Andhra PradeshIndia
Tel: +91 040 24015222Fax: +91 040 24017969E-mail: dmhegde@rediffmail.com
Chapter 18
C.K GeorgePeermade Development SocietyPost Box 11
Peermade – 685531Idukki Dist
KeralaIndiaE-mail: ckgeorge@vsnl.com
Chapter 19
Professor E Stahl-Biskup*
University of HamburgInstitute of PharmacyDepartment of Pharmaceutical Biology andMicrobiology
Bundesstrasse 45D-20146 HamburgGermany
Tel: +49 (0)40 42838 3896Fax: +49 (0)40 42838 3895E-mail: elisabeth.stahl-biskup
@uni-hamburg.deProfessor R P VenskutonisHead of Department of Food TechnologyRadvilenu pl 19
Kaunas
LT – 3028LithuaniaTel: +370 37 456426Fax: +370 37 456647E-mail: rimas.venskutonis@ktu.lt
Trang 6Tel: (63-49) 536 2448Fax: (63-49) 536 2478E-mail: tanchodg@lb.msc.net.ph
Trang 7List of contributors x
1 Introduction 1
K V Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India and K Nirmal Babu, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India 1.1 Introduction to herbs and spices 1
1.2 Uses of herbs and spices 3
1.3 Active plant constituents 4
1.4 The structure of this book 5
1.5 References 8
Part I General issues 9
2 The functional role of herbal spices 11
M R Shylaja and K V Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India 2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Classification 12
2.3 Production, consumption and processing 13
2.4 Functional properties 15
2.5 Sources of further information 21
3 Herbs and spices and antimicrobials 22
C C Tassou, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece, and G.-J E Nychas and P N Skandamis, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece 3.1 Introduction 22
3.2 Barriers to the use of herb and spice essential oils as antimicrobials in foods 22
3.3 Measuring antimicrobial activity 23
3.4 Studies in vitro 26
3.5 Applications in food systems 27
3.6 Mode of action and development of resistance 32
3.7 Legislation 34
Trang 83.8 Future prospects and multifactorial preservation 34
3.9 References 34
4 Screening for health effects of herbs 41
R Rodenburg, TNO Pharma, The Netherlands 4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Types of assays 42
4.3 Throughput vs content assays 44
4.4 Assay quality 45
4.5 Screening bio-active compounds 45
4.6 Screening experiments for anti-inflammatory properties 46
4.7 Future trends 49
4.8 Sources of further information 51
4.9 References 51
5 Under-utilized herbs and spices 53
P N Ravindran and Geetha S Pillai, Centre for Medicinal Plants Research, India and K Nirmal Babu, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India 5.1 Introduction 53
5.2 Sweet flag 53
5.3 Greater galangal 60
5.4 Angelica 64
5.5 Horseradish 69
5.6 Black caraway 72
5.7 Capers 74
5.8 Asafoetida 77
5.9 Hyssop 81
5.10 Galangal 83
5.11 Betel vine 85
5.12 Pomegranate 89
5.13 Summer savory 91
5.14 Winter savory 94
5.15 Other 95
5.16 References 98
Part II Particular herbs and spices 105
6 Ajowan 107
S K Malhotra and O P Vijay, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India 6.1 Introduction and description 107
6.2 Production 107
6.3 Cultivation 108
6.4 Chemical structure 109
6.5 Main uses in food processing 111
6.6 Functional properties and toxicity 112
6.7 Quality issues 113
6.8 References 115
Trang 97 Allspice 117
B Krishnamoorthy and J Rema, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India 7.1 Introduction and description 117
7.2 Production and trade 119
7.3 Chemical composition 120
7.4 Cultivation 125
7.5 Uses 131
7.6 Functional properties 132
7.7 Quality issues and adulteration 134
7.8 References 138
8 Chervil 140
A A Farooqi and K N Srinivasappa, University of Agricultural Sciences, India 8.1 Introduction and description 140
8.2 Cultivation and production technology 141
8.3 Uses 143
8.4 Sources of further information 144
9 Coriander 145
M M Sharma and R.K Sharma, Rajasthan Agricultural University, India 9.1 Introduction and description 145
9.2 Origin and distribution 146
9.3 Chemical composition 146
9.4 Cultivation and post-harvest practices 147
9.5 Uses 149
9.6 Diseases, pests and the use of pesticides 149
9.7 Quality issues 151
9.8 Value addition 157
9.9 Future research trends 159
9.10 References 159
Appendix I 160
Appendix II 161
10 Geranium 162
M T Lis-Balchin, South Bank University, UK 10.1 Introduction 162
10.2 Chemical composition 162
10.3 Production and cultivation 163
10.4 Main uses in food processing and perfumery 166
10.5 Functional properties 167
10.6 Quality issues and adulteration 171
10.7 References 173
11 Lavender 179
M T Lis-Balchin, South Bank University, UK 11.1 Introduction 179
11.2 Chemical composition 179
11.3 Production 180
Trang 1011.4 Uses in food processing, perfumery and paramedical spheres 182
11.5 Functional properties and toxicity 183
11.6 Quality issues and adulteration 188
11.7 References 190
12 Mustard 196
J Thomas, K M Kuruvilla and T K Hrideek, ICRI Spices Board, India 12.1 Introduction and description 196
12.2 Chemical composition 198
12.3 Production and cultivation 200
12.4 Uses 201
12.5 Properties 202
12.6 Quality specifications 204
12.7 References 204
13 Nigella 206
S K Malhotra, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India 13.1 Introduction and description 206
13.2 Chemical structure 207
13.3 Cultivation 208
13.4 Main uses in food processing 209
13.5 Functional properties and toxicity 210
13.6 Quality specifications and adulteration 212
13.7 References 214
14 Oregano 215
S E Kintzios, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece 14.1 Introduction and description 215
14.2 Chemical structure 216
14.3 Production and cultivation 219
14.4 Main uses in food processing and medicine 222
14.5 Functional properties 223
14.6 Quality specifications and commercial issues 225
14.7 References 226
15 Parsley 230
D J Charles, Frontier Natural Products, USA 15.1 Introduction and description 230
15.2 Chemical composition 232
15.3 Production and cultivation 233
15.4 Organic farming 235
15.5 General uses 238
15.6 Essential oils and their physicochemical properties 239
15.7 References 241
16 Rosemary 243
B Sasikumar, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India 16.1 Introduction and description 243
16.2 Chemical composition 244
16.3 Production and cultivation 245
Trang 1116.4 Post-harvest technology 246
16.5 Uses 248
16.6 Toxicology and disease 251
16.7 Conclusion 252
16.8 References 252
17 Sesame 256
D M Hegde, Directorate of Oilseeds Research, India 17.1 Introduction 256
17.2 Chemical composition 259
17.3 Production 268
17.4 Processing 275
17.5 Uses 279
17.6 Future research needs 283
17.7 References 284
18 Star anise 290
C K George, Peermade Development Society, India 18.1 Introduction, morphology and related species 290
18.2 Histology 292
18.3 Production and cultivation 293
18.4 Main uses 294
18.5 References 295
19 Thyme 297
E Stahl-Biskup, University of Hamburg, Germany and R P Venskutonis, Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania 19.1 Introduction 297
19.2 Chemical structure 298
19.3 Production 303
19.4 Main uses in food processing 306
19.5 Functional properties and toxicity 310
19.6 Quality specifications and issues 313
19.7 References 318
20 Vanilla 322
C C de Guzman, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines 20.1 Introduction and description 322
20.2 Production and trade 325
20.3 Cultivation 326
20.4 Harvesting, yield and post-production activities 330
20.5 Uses 338
20.6 Vanilla products 338
20.7 Functional properties 340
20.8 Quality issues and adulteration 340
20.9 Improving production of natural vanillin 346
20.10 Future outlook 348
20.11 References 349
Index 355
Trang 12K V Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India and K Nirmal Babu, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India
The history of herbs and spices is as long as the history of mankind People have used theseplants since earliest times No other commodity has played a more pivotal role in thedevelopment of modern civilization as spices The lives of people and plants are moreentwined than is often realized Some herbs have the power to change our physiologicalfunctioning, they have revolutionized medicine, created fortunes for those who grow,process and treat them, and in many cases have assumed social and religious significance.Herbs have changed the course of history and in economic terms have greater importance asingredients in food and medicine, perfumery, cosmetics and garden plants The knowledge
of herbs has been handed down from generation to generation for thousands of years(Brown, 1995) Wars have been fought and lands conquered for the sake of these plants.Even today we continue to depend on herbs and spices for many of our newest medicines,chemicals and flavours and they are used in culinary preparations, perfumery and cosmetics.Many medicinal herbs are also food, oil and fibre plants and have always been grown for a
range of purposes (Parry, 1969; Rosengarten, 1973; Andi et al., 1997).
The term ‘herb’ has more than one definition In the most generally accepted sense,herbs are plants valued for their medicinal and aromatic properties and are often grownand harvested for these unique properties Some of the earliest of herb gardens wereplanted about 4000 years ago in Egypt Herb growing was often associated with temples,which required herbs and sacred flowers for daily worship and rituals Both horticultureand botany began with the study of herbs The earliest gardens were herb gardens Thepresent-day concept of a herb garden has developed largely from ancient Egyptian,Christian and Islamic traditions In most parts of the world, herbs are grown mainly asfield crops or on a small scale as a catch-crop among vegetables and ornamentals as theywere thousands of years ago The cultivation requirements of some of the most importantherbs are given in Table 1.1
Trang 13Table 1.1 Cultivating requirements and uses
Anise Annual Seeds are sown in a dry, light The aromatic seeds are used in
soil in early summer Seedlings should cooking, in pot-pourris and in some
be thinned to inches apart Anise needs simple home remedies.
120 frost-free days to produce fully
ripened seed heads.
Basil Perennial Grows easily from seed It is The leaves are a classic complement to
frost sensitive Basil needs medium-rich, tomatoes; they are also used to flavour well-drained soil and full sun Pinch off salads, sauces and vegetables.
tips and flower buds to promote bushiness.
Chervil Annual and resembles parsley Seeds are The leaves, with their delicate
anise-(Anthriscus sown in spring Thin to 15 cm (6 inches) like flavour, are often used in soups
cerefolium) apart Likes moist, well-drained soil and and salads.
partial shade Will self-sow.
Lavender Perennial, with many varieties English Grown for its fragrance in the garden
lavender is the hardiest Mulch it over and to be used in pot-pourris and the winter Propagation is easiest by root sachets.
division Likes full sun and alkaline,
gravelly soil.
Oregano Perennial Prefers well-drained, slightly The leaves are a favorite seasoning for
alkaline soil and full sun Propagate by pizza and other Italian dishes.
seed, root division or cuttings.
Parsley Biennial, usually grown as an annual Curly leaved parsley is popular as
(Petro- Both types like a rich, well-drained soil garnish, but flat leaved (Italian) parsley
selinum and full sun or partial shade Parsley seeds is more flavourful and is used as
crispum) seeds germinate slowly Be patient; keep addition to salads and sauces Parsley
the soil moist Thin to (20 cm) 8 inches tea makes a healthful tonic.
apart.
Rosemary Perennial, grown indoors in cold climates Propagate by layering or cuttings This
Rosemary needs full sun, and a sandy is an aromatic flavouring for meat and well-limed soil Cut it back after flower- poultry dishes Also used for making ing to prevent it from becoming leggy wreaths.
Savory Winter savory, a perennial, has a peppery, Savory is used to flavour sausages and
pungent flavour Summer savory, an other meats and is sometimes included annual, is similar but more delicate Plant in a bouquet garni.
seeds of summer savory in a rich, light,
moist soil; thin to 20 cm (8 inches) apart.
Winter savory thrives in poorer soil and
with less water It can be propagated by
seed, division or cuttings.
Thyme Perennial There are many species and The leaves add pungent taste to meats
varieties including lemon, English, golden and vegetables; thyme sprigs are a and garden The garden variety is the most main ingredient in bouquet garnishing popular for cooking Thyme grows well in for soups and stews.
dry sloping sides; pruning after flowering
will keep it from getting woody.
Propagated by cuttings.
Source: Reader’s Digest (1990).
Trang 141.2 Uses of herbs and spices
Herbs and spices have tremendous importance in the way we live, as ingredients in food,alcoholic beverages, medicine, perfumery, cosmetics, colouring and also as garden plants.Spices and herbs are used in foods to impart flavour, pungency and colour They also haveantioxidant, antimicrobial, pharmaceutical and nutritional properties In addition to theknown direct effects, the use of these plants can also lead to complex secondary effects such
as salt and sugar reduction, improvement of texture and prevention of food spoilage Thebasic effects of spices when used in cooking and confectionery can be for flavouring,deodorizing/masking, pungency and colouring (Table 1.2) They are also used to make foodand confectionery more appetizing and palatable Some spices, such as turmeric andpaprika, are used more for imparting an attractive colour than for enhancing taste Themajor colour components of spices are given in Table 1.3 Because of their antioxidant and
Table 1.2 Basic uses of herbs and spices
Basic function Major function Subfunction
Flavouring Parsley, cinnamon, allspice, dill, mint, Garlic, onion, bay leaves, clove,
tarragon, cumin, marjoram, star anise, thyme, rosemary, caraway, sage, basil, anise, mace, nutmeg, fennel, savory, coriander, pepper, oregano, sesame, vanilla, fenugreek, cardamom, horseradish, Japanese pepper, saffron,
Deodorizing/ Garlic, savory, bay leaves, clove, leek,
masking thyme, rosemary, caraway, sage,
oregano, onion, coriander
Pungency Garlic, savory, bay leaves, clove, leek, Parsley, pepper, allspice, mint,
thyme, rosemary, caraway, sage, tarragon, cumin, star anise, mace, oregano, onion, coriander, Japanese fennel, sesame, cardamom, mustard, pepper, mustard, ginger, horseradish, cinnamon, vanilla, horseradish, red pepper, pepper Japanese pepper, nutmeg, ginger Colouring Paprika, turmeric, saffron
Source: Ravindran et al (2002).
Table 1.3 Colour components in spices
Carotenoid
β -carotene Reddish orange Red pepper, mustard, paprika, saffron Cryptoxanthin Red Paprika, red pepper
Capsanthin Dark Red Paprika, red pepper
Capsorbin Purple red Paprika, red pepper
Neoxanthin Orange yellow Parsley
Violaxanthin Orange Parsley, sweet pepper
Source: Ravindran et al (2002).
Trang 15Table 1.4 Spices and herbs used in alcoholic beverages
Alcoholic beverages Spices and herbs used
Vermouth Marjoram, sage, coriander, ginger, cardamom, clove, mace, peppermint,
thyme, anise, juniper berry Gin Coriander, juniper berry
Aquavit Anise, fennel, dill, caraway
Curaçao Cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, coriander
Kummel Caraway, fennel, coriander
Anisette Anise, fennel, nutmeg
Ganica Cinnamon, cardamom, coriander, mint, fennel, clove, pepper
Geme de cumin Cumin
Geme de cacao Clove, mace, vanilla
Geme de menthe Peppermint
Peppermint schnapps Peppermint
Source: Ravindran et al (2002).
antimicrobial properties, spices have dual function – in addition to imparting flavour andtaste, they play a major role in food preservation by delaying the spoilage of food Manyherbs and spices have been used in cosmetics, perfumery and beauty and body care sinceancient times The toiletries and allied industries use spices and herbs and their fragrant oilsfor the manufacture of soaps, toothpastes, face packs, lotions, freshness sachets, toiletwaters and hair oils They are essential ingredients in beauty care as cleansing agents,infusions, skin toners, moisturizers, eye lotions, bathing oils, shampoos and hair condition-ers, cosmetic creams, antiseptic and antitanning lotions and creams, improvement of
complexion and purifying blood (Pamela, 1987; Ravindran et al., 2002) Spices form an
important component in quite a few alcoholic beverages and beers (Table 1.4)
1.2.1 Medicinal uses
Herbs and spices have been an essential factor in health care through the ages in all cultures.They are prepared in number of ways to extract their active ingredients for internal andexternal use There are a number of different systems of herbal medicine, the most important
of which are Chinese and Indian (Ayurvedic) systems of medicine All spices are medicinal
and are used extensively in indigenous systems of medicine Some of the important uses of
major medicinal spices in Ayurveda, according to Mahindru (1982), are given in Table 1.5.
Extracts from herbs and spices are used as infusions, decoctions, macerations, tinctures,fluid extracts, teas, juices, syrups, poultices, compresses, oils, ointments and powders
Many medicinal herbs used in Ayurveda have multiple bioactive principles It is not
always easy to isolate compounds and demonstrate that the efficacy can be attributed to anyone of the active principles However, the active principles and their molecular mechanism
of action of some of the medicinal plants are being studied (Tables 1.6 and 1.7)
Herbs and spices are rich in volatile oils, which give pleasurable aromas In addition, herbsmay contain alkaloids and glycosides, which are of greater interest to pharmacologists.Some of the main active constituents in herbs are as follows (Brown, 1995; De Guzman andSienonsma, 1999):
Trang 16• Acids – these are sour, often antiseptic and cleansing.
• Alkaloids – these are bitter, often based on alkaline nitrogenous compounds They affectthe central nervous system and many are very toxic and addictive
• Anthraquinones – these are bitter, irritant and laxative, acting also as dyes
• Bitters – various compounds, mainly iridoides and sesquiterpenes with a bitter taste thatincreases and improves digestion
• Coumarines – are antibacterial, anticoagulant, with a smell of new-mown hay
• Flavones – these are bitter or sweet, often diuretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic and inflammatory Typically yellow, and present in most plants
anti-• Glycosides – there are four main kinds of glycosides
cardiac: affecting heart contractions;
synogenic: bitter, antispasmodic sedative, affecting heart rate and respiration;
mustard oil: acrid, extremely irritant;
sulphur: acrid, stimulant, antibiotic.
• Gums and mucilages – these are bland, sticky or slimy, soothing and softening
• Resins – often found as oleo-resins or oleo-gum resins – they are acrid, astringent,antiseptic, healing
• Saponins – are sweet, stimulant hormonal, often anti-inflammatory, or diuretic, soapy inwater
• Tannins – are astringent, often antiseptic, checking bleeding and discharges
• Volatile oils – are aromatic, antiseptic, fungicidal, irritant and stimulant
1.3.1 Genetic erosion in herbs and spices
People all over the world have picked and uprooted herbs from the wild since ancient times.Medicinal herbs in particular have always been mainly collected from the wild and theknowledge of where they grow and the best time to gather them has formed an important oraltradition among healers of many different countries in many different cultures Theseancient traditions successfully balance supply and demand, allowing plant stock to regener-ate seasonally Owing to the strong commercial pressures of food and pharmaceuticalindustries of today, the balance now has been disrupted by unregulated gathering, leading tosevere genetic erosion Some of the most commonly used culinary herbs such as chilli
peppers (Capsicum annuum var annuum) and basil (Ocimum basilicum) have such a long
history of use and cultivation that truly wild plants have never been recorded Theypresumably became extinct because of over-collection
This book is the second volume for the series on Herbs and Spices and has two parts Thefirst part deals with health benefits of herbs and spices and the use of herbs and spices asantimicrobials and antioxidants The second part deals with detailed information on indi-vidual spices This covers a brief description, classification, production, cultivation,post-harvest handling, uses in food processing, chemical structure and functional properties
of important compounds extracted and quality specifications The crops covered are treespices such as allspice and star anise, and important herbs such as chervil, coriander,oregano, parsley, rosemary and thyme A few other spices such as vanilla and sesame arealso included
Though individual chapters vary in structure and emphasis, depending on the importance
Trang 171. Murchchha-paka of ghee, ✔ – – – Tej patra – Coriander
Trang 19Table 1.6 Ayurvedic modes of administration
Cinnamon oil Volatiles Antimicrobial Infections
Asafoetida Umbilicus Antiflatulent Post-operative
Source: Vaidya (2002).
Table 1.7 Molecular phytopharmacology of a few herbs and spices
Plant Active principle Molecular action Uses
Mangifera indica Mangiferin Macrophage activation Immunostimulant
Source: Vaidya (2002).
of the spice and the body of research surrounding it, the matter is organized in the sameformat as in the first volume It is hoped that this book will form a good reference book forall those who are involved in the study, cultivation, trade and use of spices and herbs
ANDI C , KATHERINE R , SALLIE M and LESLEY M (1997), The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices.
Hermes House, London.
BROWN D (1995), The Royal Horticultural Society – Encyclopedia of Herbs and Their Uses Dorling
Kindersley Limited, London.
DE GUZMAN C C and SIENONSMA J S (1999), Plant Resources of South East Asia No 13 Spices.
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands.
MAHINDRU S N (1982), Spices in Indian Life Sultanchand and Sons, New Delhi.
PAMELA W (1987), The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices Marshall Cavendish Books Ltd, London.
PARRY J W (1969), Spices Volumes I & II Chemical Publishing Co., New York.
RAVINDRAN P N , JOHNY A K and NIRMAL BABU K (2002), Spices in our daily life Satabdi Smaranika
2002 Vol 2 Arya Vaidya Sala, Kottakkal.
READER ’ S DIGEST (1990), Magic and Medicine of Plants Readers Digest Association, Inc., USA.
ROSENGARTEN F (1973), The Book of Spices, Revised Edition Pyramid, New York.
VAIDYA A D B (2002), Recent trends in research on Ayurveda Satabdi Smaranika 2002 Vol 1 Arya
Vaidya Sala, Kottakkal.
Trang 20General issues
Trang 21The functional role of herbal spices
M R Shylaja and K V Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India
Herbal spices or leafy spices are annual/biennial/perennial plants, the leaves of which (fresh
or dry) are primarily used for flavouring foods and beverages Apart from being used asflavouring agents, herbal spices are also known to possess nutritional, antioxidant, antimi-crobial and medicinal properties Because of the attractive foliage, a few herbs are also used
as garnishing spices in many food preparations The essential oils extracted from tenderstems, leaves and flowering tops are used in cosmetics, perfumeries and toiletries and forflavouring liquors, soft drinks, beverages and pharmaceutical preparations ISO document
676 lists 38 leafy spices ( Table 2.1)
Table 2.1 Leafy spices in ISO document 676
SI No Botanical name Family Common name Plant part used as spice
1. Allium tuberosum Liliaceae Indian leek, Chinese chive Bulb, leaf
2. Allium fistulosum Liliaceae Stony leek, Welsh onion, Leaf and bulb
Japanese bunching onion
7. Apium graveolens Apiaceae Celery, garden celery Fruit, root, leaf
8. Apium graveolens var Apiaceae Celeriac Fruit, root, leaf
rapaceum
9. Artemisia dracunculus Asteraceae Tarragon, estragon Leaf
10. Cinnamomum Lauraceae Cassia, Chinese Cassia Bark, leaf
aromaticum
11. Cinnamomum tamala Lauraceae Tejpat, Indian Cassia Leaf, bark
14. Foeniculum vulgare Apiaceae Bitter fennel Leaf, twig, fruit
15. Foeniculum vulgare Apiaceae Sweet fennel Leaf, twig, fruit
Trang 2217. Laurus nobilis Lauraceae Laurel, true laurel, bay leaf, Leaf
sweet flag
18. Levisticum officinale Apiaceae Garden lovage, lovage Fruit, leaf
19. Lippia graveolens and Verbenaceae Mexican oregano Leaf terminal shoot
Lippia berlandieri
20. Melissa officinalis Lamiaceae Balm, lemon balm, melissa Leaf, terminal shoot
21. Mentha arvensis Lamiaceae Japanese mint, field mint, Leaf, terminal shoot
corn mint
24. Mentha spicata Lamiaceae Spearmint, garden mint Leaf, terminal shoot
27. Origanum majorana Lamiaceae Sweet marjoram Leaf, floral bud
28. Origanum vulgare Lamiaceae Oregano, origan Leaf, flower
31. Pimenta racemosa Myrtaceae West Indian bay Fruit, leaf
32. Rosmarinus officinalis Lamiaceae Rosemary Terminal shoot, leaf
33. Salvia officinalis Lamiaceae Garden sage Terminal shoot, leaf
34. Satureja hortensis Lamiaceae Summer savory Terminal shoot, leaf
35. Satureja montana Lamiaceae Winter savory Terminal shoot, leaf
36. Thymus serpyllum Lamiaceae Wild thyme, creeping thyme Terminal shoot, leaf
37. Thymus vulgaris Lamiaceae Thyme, common thyme Terminal shoot, leaf
38. Trigonella Fabaceae Creeping thyme, fenugreek Seed, leaf
foenumgraecum
Herbal spices can be classified based on botanical families, crop duration and growth habit
2.2.1 Classification based on botanical families
Apiaceae Dill, celery, fennel, lovage, parsley, etc
Lamiaceae Hyssop, mint, basil, marjoram, oregano, rosemary, sage, thyme, etc.Liliaceae Leek, chive
2.2.2 Classification based on duration of crop
Annual Basil, coriander, dill, etc
Biennial Caraway, leek, parsley, etc
Perennial Sage, laurel, pimenta, curry leaf, chive, mint, oregano, tarragon,
thyme, etc
2.2.3 Classification based on growth habit
Herbs Caraway, coriander, mint, oregano, marjoram
Shrubs Rosemary, sage, thyme
Trees Pimenta, curry leaf, laurel
Trang 232.3 Production, consumption and processing
Most of the herbal spices originated in Mediterranean countries and have been used sinceancient Egyptian and Roman times mainly for the purpose of embalming Even today, theMediterranean zone is the major source of herbal spices, and Germany, France and the USAare the major producers of high-quality cultivated herbs
Curly parsley, chives and dill are widely grown in Germany, while flat parsley andtarragon are widely grown in France The USA has cultivation of high-quality herbs such asparsley, tarragon, oregano and basil The Mediterranean countries of Egypt and Moroccocultivate parsley, chives and dill East European countries such as Poland, Hungary, Greeceand the former Yugoslavia grow herbs on a limited scale The countries of origin of herbalspices and major areas of cultivation are given in Table 2.2
The European and American markets are the major consumers of herbal spices Oregano
is the most consumed herb in Europe and USA, followed by basil, bay leaf, parsley, thymeand chives Herbs such as mint, rosemary, savory, sage and marjoram are consumed only to
a limited extent in major markets Consumption of different herbs vary according to the localfood habits Marjoram is the most sold herb in Gemany, while sage is popular in the USA butless so in Europe
Egypt, Turkey, Spain and Albania are major exporters of herbal spices The mild sunnyclimate and rocky landscape favour production and processing of herbal spices in thesecountries Turkey is the biggest oregano and bay leaf exporter, Egypt is the biggest basil,marjoram and mint exporter and Spain is the biggest thyme and rosemary exporter.Herbal spices can be used either fresh or dried or in the form of extractives such as oilsand oleoresins Herbs have traditionally been traded as dried products With the advent ofmodern methods of preservation, frozen herbs and fresh herbs have become available but theindustry remains dominated by the trade in dried products
Different methods are used to dry herbs and spices Sun drying and shade drying are stillwidely used Since natural sun/shade drying leads to quality deterioration by way ofcontamination, artificial methods such as using circulation of hot air in a specially constructeddrying room or drying with the help of hot air or microwave oven have been widely adopted.Freeze drying by applying a vacuum is a method that has proved to be the best method forpreserving the delicate flavour and aroma of chives and leek As sun drying destroyschlorophyll, artificially dried leaves have a better appearance and high market preference.Organic spices are gaining in market share The major consumers of organic spices in theworld are the USA, Europe and Japan, which are also the major consumers of herbal spices.There is great potential for the cultivation of organic herbal spices to enjoy the premiumprice in the international market and to improve the quality and appearance of the producewithout any pesticide or chemical residues The spice extracts such as essential oils andoleoresins from leaves and flowering tops of various herbal spices can be recovered usingsteam distillation, water cum steam distillation, supercritical carbon dioxide extraction andsolvent extraction using low-boiling organic solvents Of the different methods, extractionusing compressed carbon dioxide gas or supercritical fluid is the most effective and iscurrently used on a commercial scale In steam distillation the plant material is exposed tohigh temperatures from steam vapour, leading to the degradation of important components
of essential oil, while extraction with organic solvents leaves residues of the solvent in spiceextracts In supercritical carbon dioxide extraction the energy cost associated with theprocess is lower, the extracts are free of solvent and there is no degradation of importantcomponents The important compounds responsible for flavour in various herbal spices arelisted in Table 2.3
Trang 24Table 2.2 Origin and major areas of cultivation of herbal spices
1 Allspice Central America, Mexico Jamaica, Honduras, Guatemala,
and West Indies Leeward Islands
2 Basil, sweet India, Iran, Africa Belgium, France, Bulgaria, Hungary,
India, Italy, Poland, Spain and USA
3 Bay leaves (laurel) Countries bordering the Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy,
Mediterranean Israel, Morocco, Portugal, Spain,
Turkey and Yugoslavia
4 Caraway Europe Netherlands, Bulgaria, Canada, Germany
India, Morocco, Poland, Romania, Russia, Syria, UK and USA
5 Celery Europe, Africa France, Hungary, India, Japan,
Netherlands, UK and USA
6 Chervil Russia and Western Asia France, Italy, Russia, Spain, UK and USA
7 Chive Northern Europe Austria, Canada, France, Germany, Italy,
Netherlands, Switzerland, UK and USA
8 Coriander Africa, Europe Argentina, Bulgaria, China, France, India,
Italy, Morocco, Mexico, Netherlands, Romania, Russia, Spain, Turkey, UK, USA and Yugoslavia
9 Dill France, Spain and Russia Canada, Denmark, Egypt, Germany,
Hungary, India, Netherlands, Mexico, Pakistan, Romania, UK and USA
10 Fennel Europe and Asia Minor Bulgaria, China, Denmark, Egypt, France,
Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Morocco, Netherlands, Romania, Russia, Syria,
UK and USA
11 Fenugreek Europe and West Asia Algeria, Argentina, Cyprus, Egypt,
France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy, Lebanon, Morocco, Portugal, Spain, USA and Yugoslavia
12 Leek Mediterranean region Europe, Africa, Near East and USA
13 Marjoram Saudi Arabia and France, Germany, Grenada, Hungary,
Western Asia Italy, Morocco, Portugal, Spain,
South America, Tunisia, UK and USA
14 Mint (peppermint) Argentina, Australia, Brazil, France,
Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Taiwan, Yugoslavia, UK and USA
15 Mint (spearmint) England Germany, Japan, Netherlands, Russia
and UK
16 Oregano Greece, Italy and Spain Albania, France, Greece, Italy, Mexico,
Spain, Turkey and Yugoslavia
17 Parsley Sardinia Algeria, California, Louisiana,
Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Lebanon, Nether- lands, Portugal, Spain, Turkey and UK
18 Rosemary Europe Algeria, France, Germany, Italy,
Morocco, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Tunisia, Turkey, Yugoslavia and USA
19 Sage Albania and Greece Albania, Cyprus, Dalmatian Islands,
Canada, Southern France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, Yugoslavia,
UK and USA
20 Tarragon Russia Russia, France and USA
21 Thyme China and East Indies Bulgaria, Canada, France, Germany,
Greece, Italy, Morocco, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Tunisia, Turkey, UK and USA
Trang 25Table 2.3 Compounds responsible for flavour in herbal spices
Spice Major component Others
Allspice Eugenol Cineol, phellandrene, caryophyllene
Basil, sweet D -Linalool Methyl chavicol, eugeneol and cineole
Bay (laurel) Cineole L -Linalool, eugenol, methyl eugenol, geraniol, geranyl and leaves eugenyl esters, L - α -terpineol, α -pinene and β -phellandrene Caraway Carvone D -Limonene, carveol, D -dihydrocarveol, L -neodihydro carveol Celery D -Limonene Selinene, sesquiterpene alcohol, sedanolide
Coriander D -Linalool D - α -pinene, β -pinene, α and γ -terpinene, gerciniol, borneol,
p− cymene Dill Carvone Dihydrocarvone, D -Limonene, α -phellandrene, α -pinene and
dipentene Fennel Anethole Fenchine, α -pinene, camphene, D - α -phellandrene, dipentene,
methyl chavicol and p-hydroxyphenyl acetone
Marjoram Carvacrol D -Linalool, eugenol, chavicol, methyl chavicol, D -terpineol and
carpophyllene limonene, cineol Mint Menthol Menthone, menthyl acetate, β -pinene, α -pinene, sabinene (peppermint) acetate
Mint L -Carvone Terpene, carveol, dihydrocarveol acetate
(spearmint)
Oregano Thymol Carvacrol, α -pinene, cineole, linalyl acetate, linalool,
dipentene, p-cymene and β -caryophyllene Parsley Apiole Myristicin, α -pinene
Rosemary Cineole Borneol, linalool, eucalyptol, camphor, bornyl acetate,
α -pinene, camphene, sabinene, phellandrene, α -terpinene Sage Thujone Borneol, cineole, bornylesters, α -pinene, salvene,
D -camphor phellandrene, ocimene Tarragon Methyl chavicol L -Pinitol, α -benzopyrene and eugenol
Thyme Thymol Carvacol, linalool, L -borneol, geraniol, amyl alcohol, β -pinene,
camphene, p-cymene, caryophyllene, 1,8-cineole
In addition to adding flavour to foods and beverages, herbal spices are valued for theirnutritional, antioxidant, antimicrobial, insect repellent and medicinal properties
2.4.1 Nutritional properties
Most of the herbal spices are rich sources of protein, vitamins, especially vitamins A, C and
B, and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and iron
Parsley is the richest source of vitamin A, while coriander is one of the richest sources ofvitamins C and A Parsley and chervil are also rich sources of vitamin K The nutritive values
of various herbal spices are presented in Table 2.4
2.4.2 Antioxidant properties
Antioxidants are added to foods to preserve the lipid components from quality deterioration.Synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), butylated hydroxy toluene
(BHT), propyl gallate (PG) and tert-butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ) are the commonly used
synthetic antioxidants Owing to their suspected action as promoters of carcinogenesis,there is growing interest in natural antioxidants
Trang 26Table 2.4 Nutritive value of herbal spices (approximate composition/100 g of edible portion)
Spice Energy Protein Fat Total CHO Fibre Ash Calcium Fe Mg P K Na Zn Ascorbic acid Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin A
Trang 27Many herbal spices are known as excellent sources of natural antioxidants, and sumption of fresh herbs in the diet may therefore contribute to the daily antioxidant intake.Phenolic compounds are the primary antioxidants present in spices and there is a linearrelationship between the total phenolic content and the antioxidant properties of spices.Essential oils, oleoresins and even aqueous extracts of spices possess antioxidative properties.
con-The plants of the Lamiaceae family are universally considered as an important source ofnatural antioxidants Rosemary is widely used as an antioxidant in Europe and the USA.Oregano, thyme, marjoram, sage, basil, fenugreek, fennel, coriander and pimento alsopossess antioxidant properties, better than that of the synthetic antioxidant butylatedhydroxy toluene Phyto constituents such as carvacrol, thymol, rosmarinic acid and carnosicacid are responsible for the antioxidative property Important natural antioxidants andcomponents responsible for the property are presented in Table 2.5 Information on therelative antioxidative effectiveness (RAE) of various herbal spices is given in Tables 2.6 and2.7
Table 2.5 Antioxidants isolated from herbal spices
Rosemary Carnosic acid, carnosol, rosemarinic acid, rosmanol
Sage Carnosol, carnosic acid, rosmanol, rosmarinic acid
Oregano Derivatives of phenolic acid, flavonoids, tocopherols
Thyme Carvacrol thymol, p-cymene, caryophyllene, carvone, borneol
Summer savory Rosmarinic acid, carnosol, carvacrol, thymol
Table 2.6 Relative antioxidative effectiveness (RAE) of herbal spices evaluated as whole plant material in different substrates
Marjoram, rosemary, Lard Rosemary>sage>marjoram
sage, coriander
32 different plant materials Lard Rosemary>sage>oregano>thyme
19 different plant materials Oil-in-water emulsion Sage>oregano
32 different plant materials Oil-in-water emulsion Allspice>rosemary
Allspice, savory, Sausage, water Allspice>savory>marjoram
marjoram, coriander
15 different plant materials Sausage, water Sage>rosemary>marjoram>aniseed
12 different plant materials Ground chicken meat Marjoram>caraway>peppermint
Trang 28Table 2.7 Relative antioxidative effectiveness (RAE) of herbal spice extracts
Lecithin emulsion, daylight, room temperature, 26 days Rosemary>sage
Methyl linoleate, 100°C Sage>deodorized rosemary>
untreated rosemary Lard, 75°C Oregano>thyme>marjoram>
spearmint>lavender>basil TGSO, 100°C Summer savory>peppermint>
common balm>spearmint> oregano>common basil Low-erucic rapeseed oil, 60°C, 23 days Sage>thyme>oregano
marjoram>caraway Minced chicken meat, 4°C and –18°C Caraway>wild marjoram
Raw pork meats, pretreated with NaCl, 4°C and –18°C Sage>basil>thyme
Microwave cooked pork patties treated with NaCl, –18°C Basil=thyme
2.4.3 Antimicrobial properties
Herbal spices are important sources of antimicrobials, and the use of spices, their essentialoils or active ingredients for controlling microbial growth in food materials constitutes analternative approach to chemical additives
Some of the spice essential oils (individual or combinations) are highly inhibitory toselected pathogenic and spoilage micro-organisms The fractionation of essential oils andfurther application help to improve the level of activity in some cases The optical isomers
of carvone from Mentha spicata and Anethum sowa (Indian dill) were more active against
a wide spectrum of human pathogenic fungi and bacteria than the essential oils as such.Mixing compounds such as carvacrol and thymol at different proportions may exert total
inhibition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus The inhibition is due to
damage in membrane integrity, which further affects pH homeostasis and equilibrium ofinorganic ions Such knowledge on the mode of action helps spice extracts/ingredients to beapplied successfully in foods Also, application of active ingredients instead of essential oilwill not change the food’s flavour very much
Plant extracts or seed diffusates could be used for the control of seed-borne pathogensand can be a substitute for costly chemicals for seed treatment Plant extracts of pimentocan be used for controlling fungal growth during storage of wheat grains Likewise, the
seed diffusates of Anthem graveolens and Coriandrum sativum gave a high level of growth inhibition against seed-borne fungi such as Alternaria alternata and Fusarium
solani.
Of the various herbal spices, oregano and thyme show the highest antimicrobial activity.Carvacrol, present in the essential oils of oregano and thyme, has been proved to be the mostimportant fungitoxic compound The activity of herbal spices against fungi and bacteria andthe mode of application are given in Table 2.8
Trang 29The functional role of herbal spices
Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus flavus, Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina lutea, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris
Aspergillus fumigatus, Microsporum canis
Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizactonia solani
Cladosporium spp.
Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Lactobacillus plantarum Anethum graveolens, coriander Seed diffusates Alternaria alternata, Fusarium solani,
Macrophomina phaseolina
solanacearum, Erwinia carotovora
carvacrol
carvacrol
Trang 30Table 2.9 Insect repellent properties of herbal spices
Spice Mode of application Insects
Fenugreek Seed extract Tribolium castaneum,
Acanthoscelides obtectus
Fennel Direct contact and fumigation Callosobruchus chinensis,
Lasioderma serricorne
Indian dill Essential oil Callosobruchus maculatus
Dill Essential oil Lucilia sericata
Peppermint and basil Powdered aerial parts Sitophilus granaricus
Basil Fumigation of essential oil Callosobruchus maculatus
Mint Essential oil Drosophila melanogaster
Peppermint Leaf powder Callosobruchus analis
Cumin and anise Vapour of essential oil Tetranychus cinnabarinus, Aphis
gossypii, Tribolium confusum, Ephestia kuehniella
Oregano Essential oil Acanthoscelides obtectus,
Tetranychus cinnabarinus, Aphis gossypii
2.4.4 Insect repellent properties
The herbal spices have good insect repellent properties Powdered plant parts or extracts ofseed or essential oils or active ingredients separated from essential oils and oleoresins ofspices are used as insect repellents
The repellent action is noticed against many storage pests of grains and pulses Herbalspices can also be used as mosquito repellents The essential oil of basil and piperidinealkaloid separated from long pepper repels mosquitoes The details of insect repellentproperties of herbal spices are presented in Table 2.9
2.4.5 Medicinal properties
Herbs and spices are known for their medicinal properties and have been used in traditionalmedicines from time immemorial Powdered spices are either externally applied or takeninternally for various ailments
The essential oils of many herbs and spices are used in pharmaceutical preparations Theessential oil of coriander is reported to be analgesic, dill and anise oils as antipyretic,coriander, celery, parsley and cumin oils as anti-inflammatory Recently, anticarcinogenicproperty has been reported for essential oils of cumin and basil and these can be used asprotective agents against carcinogenesis Also, methanol extracts of allspice, marjoram,tarragon and thyme strongly inhibited platelet aggregation induced by collagen in humans.The important medicinal properties of herbal spices are given in Table 2.10
Trang 31Table 2.10 Medicinal properties of herbal spices
Spice Medicinal properties
Allspice Stimulant, digestive and carminative
Basil, sweet Stomachic, anthelmintic, diaphoretic, expectorant, antipyretic carminative,
stimulant, diuretic, demulcent Bay leaves (laurel) Stimulant, narcotic
Caraway Stomachic, carminative, anthelmintic, lactagogue
Celery Stimulant, tonic, diuretic, carminative, emmenagogue, anti-inflammatory Chive Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, aphrodisiac, emmenegogue, anti-
inflammatory Coriander Carminative, diuretic, tonic, stimulant, stomachic, refrigerent, aphrodisiac,
analgesic, anti-inflammatory Dill Carminative, stomachic, antipyretic
Fennel Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, emmenagogue
Fenugreek Carminative, tonic, aphrodisiac
Leek Stimulant, expectorant
Marjoram Carminative, expectorant, tonic, astringent
Mint (peppermint) Stimulant, stomachic, carminative, antiseptic
Mint (spearmint) Stimulant, carminative and antispasmodic
Oregano Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, diuretic, diaphoretic and emmenagogue Parsley Stimulant, diuretic, carminative, emmenagogue, antipyretic, anti-
inflammatory Rosemary Mild irritant, carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic
Sage Mild tonic, astringent, carminative
Tarrgon Aperient, stomachic, stimulant, febrifuge
Thyme Antispasmodic, carminative, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, spasmodic,
laxative, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge
ANON (1998), New Horizons: Challenges Ahead, Proceedings of World Spices Congress 1998, Spices
Board India and All India Spices Exporters Forum.
CSIR (1998), The Wealth of India – a Dictionary of Indian Raw Materials and Industrial Products,
National Institute of Science Communication, CSIR, New Delhi, India.
FARRELL , K T (1990), Spices, Condiments and Seasonings, 2nd edition AVI book, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
GUENTHER , E (1975), The Essential Oils, Robert E Krieger Publishing Company, Huntington, New
York.
PETER , K V (ed.) (2001), Handbook of Herbs and Spices, Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington.
POKORNY , J , YANISHLIEVA , N and GORDON , M (2001), Antioxidants in food: practical applications.
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington.
PRUTHI , J S (2001), Minor Spices and Condiments – Crop Management and Post Harvest Technology,
ICAR, New Delhi, India.
Trang 32Herbs and spices and antimicrobials
C C Tassou, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece, and G.-J.
E Nychas and P N Skandamis, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece
Herbs and spices are used widely in the food industry as flavours and fragrances However,they also exhibit useful antimicrobial and antioxidant properties Many plant-derivedantimicrobial compounds have a wide spectrum of activity against bacteria, fungi andmycobacteria and this has led to suggestions that they could be used as natural preservatives
in foods (Farag et al., 1989; Ramadan et al., 1972; Conner and Beuchat, 1984a,b; Galli et al.,
1985) Although more than 1300 plants have been reported as potential sources of crobial agents (Wilkins and Board, 1989), such alternative compounds have not beensufficiently exploited in foods to date
antimi-In this chapter, the antimicrobial compounds from herbs and spices are reviewed and thebarriers to the adoption of these substances as food preservatives are discussed The mode
of action of essential oils and the potential for development of resistance are also discussed.The focus is primarily on bacteria and fungi in prepared foods
3.2 Barriers to the use of herb and spice essential oils as
antimicrobials in foods
Since ancient times, spices and herbs have not been consciously added to foods aspreservatives but mainly as seasoning additives due to their aromatic properties Althoughthe majority of essential oils from herbs and spices are classified as Generally Recognized
As Safe (GRAS) (Kabara, 1991), their use in foods as preservatives is limited because offlavour considerations, since effective antimicrobial doses may exceed organolepticallyacceptable levels This problem could possibly be overcome if answers could be given to thefollowing questions:
• Can the inhibitory effect of an essential oil (a mixture of many compounds) be attributed
to one or several key constituents?
• Does the essential oil provide a synergy of activity, which simple mixtures of componentscannot deliver?
Trang 33• What is the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the active compound(s) of theessential oil?
• How is the behaviour of the antimicrobial substance(s) affected by the homogeneous(liquid, semisolid) or heterogeneous (emulsions, mixtures of solids and semisolids)structure of foodstuffs?
• Could efficacy be enhanced by combinations with traditional (salting, heating, tion) and modern (vacuum packing, VP, modified atmosphere packing, MAP) methods
acidifica-of food preservation?
An in-depth understanding of the antimicrobial properties of these compounds is needed toanswer these questions but such understanding has been lacking, despite the burgeoningliterature on the subject Methodological limitations (discussed in more detail below) in the
evaluation of antimicrobial activity in vitro have led to many contradictory results
More-over, there have been too few studies in real foods (these are considered laborious and oftenlead to negative outcomes) There is also a need to investigate the appropriate mode ofapplication of an essential oil in a foodstuff For instance, immersion, mixing, encapsula-tion, surface-spraying, and evaporating onto active packaging are some promising methods
of adding these compounds to foods that have not been extensively investigated
The antimicrobial activity of plant-derived compounds against many different
microorgan-isms, tested individually and in vitro, is well documented in the literature (Tables 3.1 and
3.2; Ippolito and Nigro, 2003) However, the results reported in different studies are difficult
to compare directly Indeed, contradictory data have been reported by different authors for
the same antimicrobial compound (Mann and Markham, 1998; Manou et al., 1998; Skandamis, 2001; Skandamis et al., 2001b) Also, it is not always apparent whether the
methods cited measure bacteriostatic or bactericidal activities, or a combination of both.Antimicrobial assays described in the literature include measurement of:
• the radius or diameter of the zone of inhibition of bacterial growth around paper discsimpregnated with (or wells containing) an antimicrobial compound on agar media;
• the inhibition of bacterial growth on an agar medium with the antimicrobial compounddiffused in the agar;
• the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the antimicrobial compound in liquidmedia;
• the changes in optical density or impedance in a liquid growth medium containing theantimicrobial compound
Three main factors may influence the outcome of the above methods when used withessential oils of plants: (i) the composition of the sample tested (type of plant, geographicallocation and time of the year), (ii) the microorganism (strain, conditions of growth, inoculumsize, etc.), and (iii) the method used for growing and enumerating the surviving bacteria.Many studies have been based on subjective assessment of growth inhibition, as in the discdiffusion method, or on rapid techniques such as optical density (turbidimetry) withoutaccounting for the limitations inherent in such methods In the disc method, the inhibitionarea depends on the ability of the essential oil to diffuse uniformly through the agar as well
as on the released oil vapours Other factors that may influence results involve the presence
Trang 34Table 3.1 Plant essential oils tested for antibacterial properties
Achiote, 14 Allspice, 16 Almond 1 (bitter, sweet), Aloe Vera, 14 Anethole, 11 Angelica, 1 Anise, 1,5,6 Asafoetida 14 (Ferula spp.)
Basil, 1,10,31 Bay, 1,20,28,31 Bergamot, 1 Birch 14
Cajeput, 32 Calmus, 1 Camomile-German, 10 Cananga, Caraway, 1,3 Cardamon, 1 Carrot seed, 39
Cedarwood, 39 Celery, 39 Chilli, 39 Cinnamon casia, 1,19,16,18 Cinnamon (bark leaf), 28,33 Cinnamon, 28 Citronella, 1 Clove, 1,3,8,10,1,12,15,16,18,19,40 Coriander, 1,5,8 Cornmint, 5 Cortuk, 17 Cumin, 3,5,10 Cymbopogon, 38 Dill 1,5
Elecampane, Estragon, 10 Eucalyptus, 24,35,38 Evening primrose 39
Frankincense, 39 Fennel 1,5,10,23
Gale (sweet), Gardenia, 39 Garlic, 10,16,18,22 Geranium, 1 Ginger, 1,10 Grapefruit 6
Horseradish, Hassaku Fruit Peel 27
Jasmine 14,32
Laurel, 1,5,10 Lavender, 1 Lemon, 1,5,6,10 Lime, 1,6 Linden flower, 2 Liquorice, Lovage, 1 Lemongrass 24,31,36 Mace, 20 Mandarin, 1,6,10 Marigold Tagetes,39 Marjoram, 1,10,31 Mastich gum tree (Pistachia lentiscus var chia),14 Melissa, 1 Mint (apple), 1,29,30 Mugwort, 39 Musky bugle, Mustard, 16 , Mountain tea
(Sideritis spp.)14
Neroly, 10 Nutmeg 1,8,10,20
Onion, 10,16,18,22 Orange, 1,5,6,10,21 Oregano, 4,9,10,16,18,31 Ocicum 38
Palmarosa, 24 Paprika, 16 Parsley, 1,5,10 Patchouli, 39 Pennyroyal, Pepper, Peppermint, 1,10,24 Pettigrain, 10 Pimento 1,10,18
Ravensara, 39 Rose, 1 Rosemary, 1,3,7,10,16 Rosewood 39
Saffron, 10 Sage, 1,3,5,7,10,16 Sagebrush, 13 Savoury, 5 Sassafras, 1 Sideritis, 37 Senecio (chachacoma), 34 Spike, 1 Spearmint, 1 Star Anise, 1 St John’s Wort 1
Tangerine, 39 Tarragon, 4 Tea Thuja, 1 Thyme, 1,3,4,5,9,10,18,40 Tuberose, 39 Turmeric, 16 Teatree 25,26
Valerian, 1 Verbena, 1 Vanilla 10
Wintergreen, 39 Wormwood 39
Data from: 1 Deans and Ritchie (1987); 2 Aktug and Karapinar (1987); 3Farag et al (1989); 4Paster et al (1990);
5 Akgul and Kivanc (1989); 6Dabbah et al (1970); 7Shelef et al (1980); 8Stecchini et al (1993); 9Salmeron et al.
(1990); 10Aureli et al (1992); 11 Kubo and Himejima (1991); 12Briozzo et al (1989); 13 Nagy and Tengerdy (1967);
14 Nychas and Tassou (2000); 15 Al-Khayat and Blank (1985); 16 Azzouz and Bullerman (1982); 17 Kivanc and Akgul (1990); 18 Ismaiel and Pierson (1990); 19Blank et al (1987); 20 Hall and Maurer (1986); 21 Sankaran (1976); 22 Elnima
et al (1983); 23 Davidson and Branen (1993); 24Pattnaik et al (1995a,b,c); 25Mann et al (2000); 26 Nelson (2000);
27Takahashi et al (2002); 28Smith-Palmer et al (2001); 29Iscan et al (2002); 30Tassou et al (2000); 31 Mejlholm and Dalgaard (2002); 32 Skandamis (2001); 33Chang et al (2001); 34Perez et al (1999); 35Oyedeji et al (1999); 36 Carlson-
Castelan et al (2001); 37Ozcan et al (2001); 38Cimanga et al (2002); 39 Nychas unpublished; 40Smith-Palmer et al.
(1998).
of multiple active components These active compounds at low concentrations may interactantagonistically, additively or synergistically with each other Some of the differences in theantimicrobial activity of oils observed in complex foods compared with their activity whenused alone in laboratory media could be due to the partitioning of active components
between lipid and aqueous phases in foods (Stechini et al., 1993, 1998).
Turbidimetry is a rapid, non-destructive and inexpensive method that is easily automatedbut has low sensitivity Turbidimetry detects only the upper part of growth curves, andrequires calibration in order to correlate the results with viable counts obtained on agar
media (Koch, 1981; Bloomfield, 1991; Cuppers and Smelt, 1993; McClure et al., 1993; Dalgaard and Koutsoumanis, 2001; Skandamis et al., 2001b) The changes in absorbance
are only evident when population levels reach 106–107 CFU/ml, and are influenced by thesize of the bacterial cells at different growth stages The physiological state of the cells(injured or healthy), the state of oxidation of the essential oil as well as inadequate
Trang 35Table 3.2 Naturally occurring antimicrobial compounds in plants
Apigenin-7-glucose, aureptan
Benzoic acid, berbamine, berberine, borneol
Caffeine, caffeic acid, 3-o-caffeylquinic acid, 4-o-caffeylquinic acid, 5-o-caffeylquinic acid,
camphene camphor, carnosol, carnosic acid, carvacrol, caryophelene, catechin, 1,8 cineole, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid, citral, chlorogenic acid, chicorin, columbamine, coumarine,
p-coumaric acid, o-coumaric, p-cymene, cynarine
Dihydrocaffeic acid, dimethyloleuropein
Esculin, eugenol
Ferulic acid
Gallic acid, geraniol, gingerols
Humulone, hydroxytyrosol, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 4-hydroxycinnamic acid
Isovanillic, isoborneol
Linalool, lupulone, luteoline-5-glucoside, ligustroside, S-limonene
Myricetin, 3-methoxybenzoic acid, menthol, menthofurane
Oleuropein
Paradols, protocatechic acid, o-pyrocatechic, α -pinene, β -pinene, pulegone
Quercetin
Rutin, resocrylic
Salicylaldehyde, sesamol, shogoals, syringic acid, sinapic
Tannins, thymol, tyrosol, 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoic acid, 3,4,5-thihydroxyphenylacetic acid Verbascoside, vanillin, vanillic acid
Data from: Nychas and Tassou (2000); Iscan et al (2002); Flamini et al (2002); Mourey and Canillac (2002); Takahashi et al (2002); Amakura et al (2002); Gounaris et al (2002), Hayes and Markovic (2002); Chang et al (2001); Perez et al (1999); Oyedeji et al (1999); Carlson-Castelan et al (2001); Ozcan et al (2001); Cimanga et
agents but also for estimation of growth kinetics in mathematical modelling (Ayres et al.,
1993, 1998; Tranter et al., 1993; Tassou et al., 1995, 1997; Johansen et al., 1995; Tassou and Nychas, 1995a,b,c; Koutsoumanis et al., 1997, 1998; MacRae et al., 1997; Lacho- wicz et al., 1998) The technique depends on using a medium that offers a sharp
detectable impedimetric change as the bacterial population grows and converts the lowconductivity nutrients into highly charged products As with turbidometry, calibration ofimpedimetric data with plate counts is necessary (Dumont and Slabyj, 1993; Koutsou-
manis et al., 1998).
Although time-consuming and laborious, the traditional microbiological method of mining viable numbers by plate counting remains the gold standard in antimicrobial studies Thelatter method has a major advantage of requiring little capital investment; however, it is material-intensive, requires a long elapse time and may have poor reproducibility
deter-MICs are measured by serial dilution of the tested agents in broth media followed by
growth determination by either absorbance reading or plate-counting (Carson et al., 1995).
The MIC technique has been miniaturized and automated using the bioscreen cal growth analyser (Lambert and Pearson, 2000) to allow a high throughput of compounds
microbiologi-and microorganisms (Lambert et al., 2001) The advantage of this method is the
simultane-ous examination of multiple concentrations of one or more preservatives and subsequentdetermination of MIC based on mathematical processing
Trang 363.4 Studies in vitro
Almost all essential oils from spices and herbs inhibit microbial growth as well as toxinproduction The antimicrobial effect is concentration dependent and may become stronglybacteriocidal at high concentrations Gram-positive bacteria (spore- and non-spore-form-ers), Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts (Tables 3.1–3.3) and moulds (Ippolito and Nigro, 2003)are all affected by a wide range of essential oils Well-known examples include the essentialoils from allspice, almond, bay, black pepper, caraway, cinnamon, clove, coriander, cumin,garlic, grapefruit, lemon, mace, mandarin, onion, orange, oregano, rosemary, sage andthyme The active compounds of some of these essential oils are shown in Tables 3.2 and 3.4
Table 3.3 Some examples of microorganisms sensitive to the antimicrobial action of essential oils from herbs and spices
Gram-positive bacteria Gram-negative bacteria Yeasts/fungi
F culmorum Mucor sp.
Pichia anomala Penicillium sp.
Pen chrysogenum Pen patulum, Pen roquefortii Pen citrinum Rhizopus sp.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Trichophyton
mentagrophytes Torulopsis holmii Pityrosporum ovale
Acetobacter spp.
Acinetobacter sp.
A.calcoaceticus Aeromonas hydrophila Alcaligenes sp.
A faecalis Campylobacter jejuni Citrobacter sp.
C freundii Edwardsiella sp.
Enterobacter sp.
En aerogenes Escherichia coli
E coli O157:H7 Erwinia carotovora Flavobacterium sp.
Fl suaveolens Klebsiella sp.
K pneumoniae Moraxella sp.
Neisseria sp.
N sicca Mycobacterium smegmatis Pseudomonas spp.
P aeruginosa, fluorescens, fragi and clavigerum Proteus spp.
Pr vulgaris Salmonella spp.
Salmonella enteritidis, senftenberg, typhimurium, flexneri, pullorum Serratia sp.
S marcecens Vibrio sp.
V parahaemolyticus Yersinia enterocolitica
Based on: Nychas (1995); Mejlholm and Dalgaard (2002); Thangadural et al (2002); Mangena and Muyima (1999); Karaman et al (2001); Hayes and Markovic (2002); Chang et al (2001); Cimagna et al (2002).
Trang 37Table 3.4 Examples of essential oils commonly used for food preservation and their main active constituents
Herb/spice Active compound Herb/spice Active compound
Allspice eugenol, methyl eugenol Mint α -, β -pinene, limonene, 1,8-cineole Caraway carvone Onion D-n-propyl disulphide,
methyl-n-propyl disulphide
Cinnamon cinnamaldehyde, eugenol Oregano thymol, carvacrol
Cloves eugenol, eugenol acetate Pepper monoterpenes
Coriander D -linalool, D - α -pinene Rosemary borneol, 1,8-cineole,
Cumin cuminaldehyde Sage thujone, 1,8-cineol, borneol
Garlic diallyl disulphide, diallyl tri- Thyme thymol, carvacrol, menthol, menthone
sulphide, allyl propyl disulphide
Data from: Skandamis (2001); Iscan et al (2002); Flamini et al (2002); Karaman et al (2001); Gounaris et al (2002), Oyedeji et al (1999); Ozcan et al (2001); Cimanga et al (2002).
and discussed in Adams and Smid, 2003) The antimicrobial activity of these compounds isinfluenced by the culture medium, the temperature of incubation and the inoculum size Inaddition, a strong synergism with some membrane chelators acting as permeabilizing agents(e.g ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, EDTA) against Gram-negative bacteria has been
reported (Tassou, 1993; Ayers et al., 1998; Brul and Coote, 1999; Skandamis, 2001; Skandamis et al., 2001b).
There have been relatively few studies of the antimicrobial action of essential oils in model
food systems and in real foods (Table 3.5) The efficacy of essential oils in vitro is often much greater than in vivo or in situ, i.e in foods (Nychas and Tassou, 2000; Davidson, 1997; Skandamis et al., 1999b) For example, the essential oil of mint (Mentha piperita) has been shown to inhibit the growth of Salmonella enteritidis and Listeria monocytogenes in culture
media for 2 days at 30ºC However, the effect of mint essential oil in the traditional Greekappetizers tzatziki (pH 4.5) and taramasalata (pH 5.0) and in paté (pH 6.8) at 4ºC and 10ºC
was variable Salmonella enteritidis died off in the appetizers under all conditions examined but not when inoculated in paté and maintained at 10ºC Similarly, L monocytogenes numbers declined in the appetizers but increased in paté (Tassou et al., 1995a,b, 2000) Growth of Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., L monocytogenes and Staphylococcus
aureus was inhibited by oregano essential oil (EO) in broth cultures However, the
antimicrobial action of this EO in an emulsion or pseudoemulsion type of food such asaubergine salad, taramasalata and mayonnaise depended on environmental factors such as
pH, temperature and oil (vegetable or olive) used Homemade aubergine salad and
tarama-salata were inoculated with E coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enteritidis, respectively The
pH of these products was adjusted to 4–5.3 A range of concentrations (0–2.1%) of oreganoessential oil was added and the foods were incubated at temperatures from 0 to 20ºC The
survival curves for E coli O157:H7 in aubergine salad at 0 and 15ºC, modelled according
to Baranyi, are shown in Figs 3.1 and 3.2 A reduction in viable counts for both pathogens
in both foods tested was observed and their death rate depended on the pH, the storage
temperature and the essential oil concentration (Koutsoumanis et al., 1999; Skandamis and Nychas, 2000; Skandamis et al., 1999a, 2002b) (see Fig 3.3).
Trang 38Milk (fresh, skimmed) Staph aureus Mastic gum Tassou and Nychas (1995c)
Salmonella enteritidis
P fragi
Dairy products: L monocytogenes
soft cheese, mozzarella Salmonella enteritidis Clove, cinnamon, thyme Smith-Palmer et al (2001); Menon and Garg (2001)
Fresh meat: Salmonella typhimurium and enteritidis Oregano, clove, basil, sage Tassou and Nychas (1995b); Menon and Garg (2001);
block or minced Staph aureus Skandamis and Nychas (2001, 2002a,b); Tsigarida et al.
P fragi (2000); Skandamis et al (2002a,b); Stecchini et al (1993)
L monocytogenes
Lactic acid bacteria
Br thermosphacta
Enterobacteriaceae Yeasts and indigenous flora Meat products: L monocytogenes Mint Tassou et al (1995)
paté Salmonella enteritidis
Indigenous flora sausage Br thermosphacta, E coli Mustard oil Lemay et al (2002)
Fish: Salmonella enteritidis Oregano Tassou et al (1996)
Gilt-head bream Staph aureus
Resident flora Cod fillets, salmon Photobacterium phosphoreum Basil, bay, cinnamon, clove, Mejlholm and Dalgaard (2002)
lemongrass, marjoram, oregano, sage, thyme Salads and dressings: Staph aureus Carob Tassou et al (1997)
tuna, potato, aubergine Salmonella enteritidis
(egg plant), tarama- P fragi
salata, mayonnaise, L monocytogenes Mint, oregano, basil, sage Tassou and Nychas (1995c); Tassou et al (1995);
tzatziki Sh putrefaciens Koutsoumanis et al (1999); Skandamis and Nychas (2000);
Br thermosphacta Skandamis et al (1999a,b, 2001a, 2002c)
E coli
Indigenous flora Sauces: Salmonella enteritidis and typhimurium Basil, sage Tassou and Nychas (1995c)
meat gravy Staph aureus
P fragi
Trang 39Fig 3.1 Survival curves for E coli O157:H7 in aubergine (egg plant) salad at 0°C, pH 4.0 and 5.0,
in the presence of 0, 0.7, 1.4 and 2.1% oregano essential oil (Data from Skandamis and Nychas, 2000.)
The type of oil or fat present in a food can affect the antimicrobial efficacy of essentialoils This was evident when the efficiency of four plant essential oils (bay, clove, cinnamon
and thyme) was assessed in low-fat and full-fat soft cheese against L monocytogenes and
Salmonella enteritidis at 4ºC and 10ºC, respectively, over a 14-day period In the low-fat
cheese, all four oils at 1% reduced L monocytogenes to below the detection limit of the
plating method In contrast, in the full-fat cheese, the oil of clove was the only substance to
achieve such reduction The oil of thyme was ineffective against Salmonella enteritidis in
the full-fat cheese, despite the fact that this organism was completely inhibited in brothculture (Skandamis, 2001) Thyme oil was as effective as the other three oils in the low fat
cheese, reducing Salmonella Enteritidis to less than 1 log CFU/g from day 4 onwards (Smith-Palmer et al., 2001).
Table 3.5 summarizes some of the studies on the inhibitory action of essential oils in solidfoods (e.g fish and meat) stored under various packaging conditions (VP, MAP) For
example, L monocytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium were inhibited in meat treated with clove and oregano essential oil, respectively (Menon and Garg, 2001; Tsigarida et al., 2000; Skandamis et al., 2002a) Salmonella typhimurium survived in untreated meat, while the
addition of oregano essential oil at a concentration of 0.8% v/w reduced viable numbers by 1–
2 log CFU/g The same level of oregano essential oil reduced the counts of L monocytogenes
by 2–3 log CFU/g on meat A marked reduction of Aeromonas hydrophila was also reported
in cooked, non-cured pork treated with clove or coriander oils and packaged either undervacuum or air and stored at 2ºC and 10 ºC The lethal effect of these two oils was more
pronounced under vacuum than in aerobic conditions (Stecchini et al., 1993).
The availability of oxygen can affect the antimicrobial efficacy of essential oils Paster et
Trang 40Fig 3.2 Survival curves for E coli O157:H7 in aubergine (egg plant) salad at 15°C, pH 4.0 and 5.0,
in the presence of 0, 0.7, 1.4 and 2.1% oregano essential oil (Data from Skandamis and Nychas, 2000.)
al (1990, 1995) observed that the antimicrobial activity of the oregano essential oil on Staph aureus and Salmonella enteritidis was enhanced when these organisms were incu-
bated under microaerobic or anaerobic conditions Under conditions of low oxygen tension,
there are fewer oxidative changes in the essential oil (Paster et al., 1990, 1995) Moreover,
oregano essential oil was more effective under vacuum and a 40% CO2 : 30% O2 : 30% N2atmosphere when an impermeable film was used compared to aerobic incubation orpackaging in bags that allowed O2 to permeate the package (Tsigarida et al., 2000; Skandamis et al., 2002a).
Oregano EO has both bacteriostatic and bacteriocidal effects on raw fish (Sparus aurata) inoculated with Staph aureus and Salmonella enteritidis and stored under MAP (40% CO2,30% O2 and 30% N2 ) or in air at 1ºC Growth of spoilage organisms such as Shewanella
putrefaciens and Photobacterium phosphereum is also inhibited on gilt head seabream and
cod treated with oregano EO (Tassou et al., 1996; Mejlholm and Dalgaard, 2002) Similar
reductions were also reported for many other meat and fish organisms, as shown in Table 3.5
(Greer et al., 2000; Mejlholm and Dalgaard, 2002; Skandamis and Nychas, 2001, 2002a,b) The studies reviewed above all show that antimicrobial activity demonstrated in vitro is
not necessarily a good indication of practical value in food preservation The activecompounds of essential oils are often bound with food components (e.g proteins, fats,sugars, salts) Therefore, only a proportion of the total dose of EO added to a food remainsfree to exert antibacterial activity Extrinsic factors such as temperature also limit theantimicrobial action of essential oils (Davidson, 1997) Moreover, the spatial distribution ofthe different phases (solid/liquid) in a food and the lack of homogeneity of pH and water canalso play a role in efficacy Interactions between the different components in the food maycreate pH gradients in the final product as well as different bulk concentrations of theantimicrobial in the different phases The local buffering capacity of the food ingredients