Encyclopedia of islam and the muslim world

Martin Professor of Islamic Studies and History of Religions Emory University, Atlanta Associate Editors Sạd Amir Arjomand Professor of Sociology State University of New York, Stony Broo

Encyclopedia ofIslamand the Muslim World

Editorial Board

Editor in Chief

Richard C Martin

Professor of Islamic Studies and History of Religions

Emory University, Atlanta

Associate Editors

Sạd Amir Arjomand

Professor of Sociology State University of New York, Stony Brook

Marcia Hermansen

Professor of Theology Loyola University, Chicago

Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World

Editor in Chief Richard C Martin

Volume 1 A-L

Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World

Editor in Chief Richard C Martin

Volume 2 M-Z, Index

Encyclopedia of Islam

Richard C Martin, Editor in Chief

© 2004 by Macmillan Reference USA.

Macmillan Reference USA is an imprint of The

Gale Group, Inc., a division of Thomson

Learning, Inc.

Macmillan Reference USA™ and Thomson

Learning™ are trademarks used herein under

license.

For more information, contact

Macmillan Reference USA

300 Park Avenue South, 9th Floor

New York, NY 10010

Or you can visit our Internet site at

http://www.gale.com

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

No part of this work covered by the copyright

hereon may be reproduced or used in

any form or by any means—graphic,

electronic, or mechanical, including

photocopying, recording, taping, Web

distribution, or information storage retrieval

systems—without the written permission of

the publisher.

For permission to use material from this product, submit your request via Web at http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions, or you may download our Permissions Request form and submit your request by fax or mail to:

Permissions Department

The Gale Group, Inc.

27500 Drake Road Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Permissions Hotline:

248-699-8006 or 800-877-4253 ext 8006 Fax: 248-699-8074 or 800-762-4058 Cover photographs reproduced by permission

of Andrea Pistolesi / The Image Bank and

Robert Azzi / Aramco World.

While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, The Gale Group, Inc does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein The Gale Group, Inc accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world / edited by Richard C.

Martin.

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-02-865603-2 (set) — ISBN 0-02-865604-0 (v 1) — ISBN 0-02-865605-9 (v 2)

1 Islam—Encyclopedias I Martin, Richard C.

BP40.E525 2003 909’.097671—dc21

2003009964

This title is also available as an e-book.

ISBN 0-02-865912-0 Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Introduction ix

List of entries xiii

List of contributors xxiii

Synoptic outline of entries xxxi

List of maps xxxv

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ISLAM AND THE MUSLIM WORLD Glossary 749

Appendix: Genealogies and Timelines 755

Index 785

Editorial and Production Staff

i x

A growing number of scholars and pundits have declared that the twenty-first century will be theera of Islam Such predictions, whether intended in a positive or negative light, err in failing toappreciate the spread and influence of Islam during the past millennium and a half, especially onthe continents of Asia and Africa Nonetheless, events during the first decade of the newmillennium have underscored the importance of knowing about Islamic history and understand-ing the great diversity and richness of Muslim social, cultural, and religious practices Suicidebomber attacks on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington,D.C., on September 11, 2001, killed over three thousand persons These tragic events and themedia coverage of the aftermath as well as of the two wars subsequently fought in the Muslimcountries of Afghanistan and Iraq have dramatically shown how little is known in the West aboutIslam and the Muslim world Islam is, and has been for nearly fifteen centuries, a global religiousand political phenomenon Muslim networks of communication, from the annual pilgrimage toMecca to the vast new power of the World Wide Web, have enabled Muslims to establishpostmodern identities in a rapidly changing world, while at the same time preserving and

reinvigorating a variety of time-honored traditions and practices The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World is a sourcebook of information about Islam, its past and present, addressed to

students and general readers as the twenty-first century begins its first decade

The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World presents in two volumes some 504 articles,

alphabetically arranged, in incremental lengths generally of 200, 500, 1,000, 3,000, and 5,000words The work of some 500 scholars appears in these pages, carefully reviewed and edited in acommon style for easy access by readers who may presently have limited or no knowledge ofIslam It has also been prepared as a teaching and learning resource for teachers and students,from the high school grades through university The alphabetical ordering of articles that follow,

in the List of Articles, will enable readers to locate topics of interest quickly A synoptic outline of

the contents of the Encyclopedia, found within the frontmatter on pages xxxi–xxxiv, provides

readers with an overview by topic and subtopic of the range and kinds of information presented in

the main body of the Encyclopedia Approximately 170 photographs, drawings, maps, and charts

appear throughout the two volumes A glossary in the back matter of volume two, which lists

commonly used Arabic and other Islamic terms, such as shari
a, or “Islamic law,” will enable

general readers to determine quickly the meaning of essential but perhaps less familiar terms inIslamic studies

The Encyclopedia is truly an international work that reflects the diversity of ideas and practices

that have characterize the Islamic world throughout its history This diversity is reflected amongthe editors who organized and compiled this work and the scores of scholars who wrote thearticles contained in it The associate editors’ national origins are Canada, Iran, and South Africa;their religious affiliations or backgrounds include Sunni and Shi
ite Islam; and their scholarlytraining has been in sociology, the history of religions, and Islamic studies An even greater

I n t r o d u c t i o n

diversity exists among the contributing scholars who live and teach in North America, Europe,

Africa, and Asia, including the Middle East They represent the fields of history, philosophy,

religious studies, anthropology, sociology, political science, and the fine arts, among others In its

totality, then, this work represents a broad expanse of scholarly knowledge about Islam, accessible

in two volumes

Islam increasingly is recognized as a vital force in the contemporary world, a source ofcollective social identity, and religious expression for over one billion people around the world,

who comprise a fifth of the global population Public interest in learning about Islam is a very

recent phenomenon, however Events of the past few decades have generated a demand for

information about Islam on an unprecedented scale in the history of Islamic studies in the West

In negative terms, these events include violence: the colonial and postcolonial encounters

between Europeans and Muslims in Asia and Africa, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,

Hindu-Muslim clashes in South Asia, Serbian ethnic cleansing of Hindu-Muslim populations in the Balkans, and

the heavily televised American-led wars in the Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq In positive terms, the

recent years have seen productive Muslim diaspora communities emerge in Europe and the

Americas, Islamic patterns of democracy and civil society develop in some countries in Africa and

Asia, and venues of dialogue arise among Muslims, Jews, and Christians about their common

moral and social concerns as well as their differences That non-Muslims are learning more about

Islam and their Muslim neighbors through tools like this encyclopedia must also be counted as a

positive turn, and a much-needed one

Scholars, journalists, and writers of all sorts have responded robustly to this newly recognizedimportance of Islam and the Muslim world, thus creating a wealth of information about Islam

now available in bookstores, libraries, and newsstands around the world More significant for

readers of this work, the Internet hosts an expanding plethora of Web sites on Islamic teachings,

practices, sectarian groups, and organizations Many Web sites are sponsored by Muslim

scholars, organizations, and institutions and provide authentic, and sometimes competing,

information about Islamic beliefs and practices Unfortunately, others offer hostile

interpreta-tions of Islam The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World is designed to help students and

general readers cope with this growing demand and almost overwhelming supply of information

The decision to call this work the Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World was made after

considering other, less felicitous alternatives The editors wanted to produce a work that was

about Islamic cultures, religion, history, politics, and the like as well as the people who have

identified with Islam over the past fourteen centuries For the scope of the social and cultural

aspects of the subject matter of the Encyclopedia, the editors chose the phrase “Muslim World.”

The label “Muslim World” is not meant to suggest that diversity and variety are lacking in what

Muslims think, believe, and do as Muslims Nor is the Muslim World as represented in this work

to be thought of as separate from the rest of the world Indeed, it will be clear to readers of articles

on virtually all topics included below that Islamic history and Muslim people have been deeply

and richly engaged in and interacting with world history and are perhaps even more so in the

modern world, as the late Marshall G S Hodgson so persuasively argued in his monumental

three-volume work, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization (1974).

The growing demand for accessible knowledge about Islam in recent decades has produced anumber of histories, encyclopedias, and dictionaries that serve different purposes In addition to

Hodgson’s comprehensive historical essay on Islamic civilization, The Cambridge History of Islam

(1970) brought together substantial treatments of historical periods and geographical regions of

Islamic societies Another important and even older work that is widely used by scholars is the

ongoing project known as the Encyclopaedia of Islam The first edition was published in four

volumes in Leiden (1908–1938); the second and much larger edition recently reached its

completion in twice as many volumes with a significantly expanded list of contributing scholars;

and the third edition is now being planned The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World brings

to general readers in accessible form the rich tradition of serious scholarship on Islam and Muslim

peoples found in the Cambridge History and the Encyclopaedia of Islam, and it addresses information

about Islam in the twenty-first century that is not discussed in the older sources More recently,

I n t r o d u c t i o n

the Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World (1995) appeared in four volumes The focus of

this latter work is, as the title suggests, on Islam in the modern world, generally dated from the

beginning the eighteenth century through the last decade of the twentieth The Encyclopedia of

Islam and the Muslim World by contrast seeks to contextualize contemporary Islam within the

longer history of Islam, and it includes discussion of significant world events involving the Islamic

world over the past decade

In preparing this new resource on Islam, the editors sought to frame some of the traditional as

well as the more recent aspects of Islam in newer categories Thus, for example, readers will find

articles covering “Material Culture,” “Vernacular Islam,” “Identity, Muslim,” “Secularism,”

“Disputation,” and “Expansion of Islam.” A major feature of the Encyclopedia is the large number

of brief biographical sketches (nearly two hundred) of major figures in Islamic history, men and

women, past and present The editors also included articles on several important and sometimes

contested ethical and social issues, including “Ethnicity,” “Gender,” “Homosexuality,” “Human

Rights,” and “Masculinities,” along with the more traditional entries on gender (usually

concentrating on the feminine roles) and marriage The events of September 11, 2001, occurred

after the Table of Contents was prepared and authors were commissioned to write the articles

Nonetheless, new articles on “Terrorism,” “Usama bin Ladin,” and “al-Qa
ida,” among others,

were added

History, of course, will continue to unfold for humankind worldwide, including Muslims The

Encyclopedia includes a number of interpretive articles, such as “Ethics and Social Issues,” which

provide frameworks for understanding ongoing events in Islamic history

Editorial style is a matter of great importance in a work such as the Encyclopedia Readers can

easily get lost in technical terms and diacritical marks on words borrowed from Arabic and

Persian Integrating work from a great number of scholars from around the world, each with

differing practices in academic expression and in transliterating Islamic languages into Latin

letters, presented some challenges to the academic editors and the editorial staff at Macmillan

To make things easier on readers, especially for those not initiated into the argots of Islamic

technical terms, the editors decided to minimize the diacritical marks on loanwords from Arabic,

Persian, Urdu, Turkish, and other Islamic languages We encouraged authors and copy editors to

romanize those Islamic terms that have made it into the English language, such as jihad, hajj, and

Ramadan, as evidenced by their inclusion in modern dictionaries such as Webster’s Third New

International Dictionary Where it seemed helpful, editors supplied brief parenthetical definitions

and identifications, both in the text and in the Glossary

The people who made this project possible brought great ideas to it, are extremely talented

and competent, and were wonderful to work with Hélène Potter, Macmillan’s Director of New

Product Development, designed the project and brought to it a considerable knowledge about

Islam More than an industry leader, Hélène became first and foremost a friend and colleague

She is an accomplished professional with an uncanny understanding of the knowledge industry

she serves Corrina Moss, an Assistant Editor with Macmillan, worked on the project throughout

and kept in touch daily on editorial matters large and small To Corrina went the unpleasant task,

pleasantly administered, of keeping the associate editors and especially me on task Elly

Dickason, who was the publisher in 2000 when this project was approved, and Jonathan Aretakis,

chief copy editor, also deserve expressions of praise and gratitude—Elly for supporting the

project from the moment she reviewed it, and Jonathan for making sure the articles are factually

and stylistically appropriate

My colleagues Sạd Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, and Abdulkader Tayob served as

Associ-ate Editors The associAssoci-ate editors brought broad vision and detailed knowledge to their tasks of

helping to organize the contents of the Encyclopedia, and I am indebted to them for making my

own knowledge limitations less problematic in producing it Rochelle Davis, a specialist in Arabic

and Islamic studies, served as Assistant Editor, responsible for reading page proofs and preparing

the Glossary However, she contributed much more to the Encyclopedia, with an eye for

grammatical and content errors that greatly improved the penultimate draft My friend and

I n t r o d u c t i o n

colleague of many years, John Voll, Editorial Consultant, kindly advised Hélène Potter and me of

matters we should consider in the formative stages of planning the Encyclopedia, and he

contributed several important articles to it

On behalf of Sạd, Marcia, Abdulkader, Rochelle, and John, I would like to dedicate thisproject to our many Muslim and non-Muslim colleagues around the world, with whom we share

the task of teaching and writing about Islam in a high-tech, troubled world that needs to know

more about itself To that end we hope this work will help disseminate useful knowledge about

one of the world’s great civilizations to those who have a desire and need to know

Richard C Martin Creston, North Carolina August 15, 2003

Abd al-Qadir, Amir

Peter von Sivers

Abd al-Rahman Kawakibi

Sohail H Hashmi

Abd al-Razzaq al-Sanhuri

Khaled Abou El-Fadl

Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad Ibn

M Sait ÖzervarliAbu ‘l-Qasem KashaniMohammad H Faghfoory

AdaTahir Fuzile SitotoAdab

Barbara D MetcalfAdhan

Muneer Goolam FareedAfghani, Jamal al-DinSohail H HashmiAfrica, Islam inDavid RobinsonAfrican Culture and IslamAbdin Chande

Aga KhanAzim NanjiAhl al-BaytJuan Eduardo CampoAhl-e Hadis / Ahl al-HadithBarbara D MetcalfAhl al-Hadith

R Kevin JaquesAhl al-KitabStephen CoryAhmad Ibn Ibrahim al-GhaziRoman Loimeier

Ahmad Ibn IdrisKnut S VikørAhmadiyyaAvril A PowellAhmad Khan, (Sir) SayyidDavid LelyveldAhmad, Mirza GhulamAvril A Powell

AishaSa’diyya ShaikhAkbar

Gregory C KozlowskiAkhbariyya

Robert GleaveAkhlaq

Azim Nanji

AliDiana SteigerwaldAligarh

David LelyveldAllah

Daniel C PetersonAmerican Culture and IslamIhsan Bagby

Americas, Islam in theSylviane Anna DioufAndalus, al-

Aaron HughesAngels

Peter Lamborn Wilson

M Sait ÖzervarliBasri, Hasan al-Rkia E CornellBa
th Party

F Gregory Gause IIIBazargan, MehdiMazyar LotfalianBedouin

Rochelle DavisBid
a

Nico J G KapteinBin Ladin, UsamaRichard C MartinBiography and HagiographyMarcia HermansenBiruni, al-

Marcia HermansenBody, Significance ofBrannon M WheelerBourghiba, HabibJohn RuedyBukhara, Khanate and Emirate ofFlorian Schwarz

Bukhari, Asma AfsaruddinBuraq

al-Carel BertramCairo

Aslam Farouk-AlliCaliphate

Muhammad Qasim Zaman

CalligraphySheila S BlairJonathan M BloomCapitalism

Timur KuranCartography and GeographyKaren C Pinto

Central Asia, Islam inDevin DeWeeseCentral Asian Culture and IslamDevin DeWeese

ChildhoodElizabeth Warnock FerneaChristianity and IslamPatrice C BrodeurCircumcisionKathryn KuenyClothingCharlotte JirousekCoinage

Abdullah SaeedColonialismJamal MalikCommunismRichard C Campany, Jr

Conflict and Violence

A Rashied OmarConversionPeter B ClarkeCrusadesWarren C SchultzDar al-HarbJohn KelsayDar al-IslamJohn KelsayDa
waDavid WesterlundChrister HedinTorsten JansonDawla

Sohail H HashmiDeath

Juan Eduardo CampoDeoband

Barbara D Metcalf

Muneer Goolam Fareed

East Asia, Islam in

Jacqueline M Armijo

East Asian Culture and Islam

Jacqueline M Armijo

Economy and Economic Institutions

Nora Ann Colton

Iqtidar Alam Khan

Empires: Mongol and Il-Khanid

Haggai ErlichEthnicityAmal RassamEunuchsJane HathawayEuropean Culture and IslamJorgen S Nielsen

Europe, Islam inJorgen S NielsenExpansionFred M DonnerFadlallah, Muhammad HusaynMazyar Lotfalian

FalsafaParviz MorewedgeFarrakhan, LouisAminah Beverly McCloudFasi, Muhammad
Allal al-David L JohnstonFatima

Ursula GüntherFatwa

Daniel C PetersonFedaiyan-e IslamFakhreddin AzimiFeminism

Ghazala AnwarFez

Claudia GazziniFitna

Sandra S CampbellFundamentalismSohail H HashmiFutuwwa

Reeva Spector SimonGasprinskii, Isma
il Bay

A Uner TurgayGender

Zayn R Kassam

GenealogyMarcia HermansenGhannoushi, Rashid al-Gudrun KrämerGhayba(t)Robert GleaveGhazali, al-Ebrahim MoosaGhazali, Muhammad al-Qamar-ul HudaGhazali, Zaynab al-Ursula GüntherGlobalizationSạd Amir ArjomandGrammar and LexicographyKees Versteegh

Greek CivilizationOliver LeamanHadith

Harald MotzkiHajj Salim Suwari, al-Abdulkader TayobHaj
Umar al-Tal, al-Abdin ChandeHallaj, al-Herbert W MasonHAMAS

Tamara SonnHaremEtin AnwarHaron, AbdullahShamil JeppieHasan

Michael M J FischerHashemi-Rafsanjani,
Ali-AkbarMajid Mohammadi

HealingAbdullahi Osman El-TomHeresiography

Aaron HughesHijra

Rizwi FaizerHijri CalendarAhmad S Dallal

Hinduism and Islam

Juan Eduardo Campo

Hospitality and Islam

Khalid Yahya Blankinship

Hukuma al-Islamiyya, al- (Islamic

R Kevin JaquesIbn MajaAsma AfsaruddinIbn RushdOliver LeamanIbn SinaShams C InatiIbn TaymiyyaJames PavlinIdentity, MuslimDaniel C PetersonIjtihad

Muneer Goolam FareedIkhwan al-MusliminDavid L JohnstonIkhwan al-SafaAzim NanjiImamMuhammad Qasim ZamanImamate

Robert GleaveImamzadahAnne H BetteridgeInternet

Bruce B LawrenceMiriam CookeIntifadaPhilip MattarIqbal, MuhammadDavid LelyveldIran, Islamic Republic ofNancy L StockdaleIshraqi SchoolSeyyed Hossein NasrIslam and IslamicJohn O VollIslam and Other ReligionsPatrice C BrodeurIslamicate Society

R Kevin Jaques

Islamic JihadNajib GhadbianIslamic Salvation FrontDavid L JohnstonIslamic Society of North America

R Kevin JaquesIsma
il I, ShahSholeh A QuinnJa
far al-SadiqLiyakatali TakimJahannamJuan Eduardo CampoJahiliyya

Rizwi FaizerJama
at-e IslamiJamal MalikJami

Muneer Goolam FareedJamil al-Amin, ImamEdward E Curtis IVJam
iyat-e
Ulama-e HindJamal Malik

Jam
iyat-e
Ulama-e IslamJamal Malik

Jam
iyat-e
Ulama-e PakistanJamal Malik

JannaJuan Eduardo CampoJevdet Pasha

Linda T DarlingJihad

Sohail H HashmiJinnah, Muhammad
AliRasul Bakhsh RaisJudaism and IslamGordon D NewbyKalam

Parviz MorewedgeKano

Thyge C BroKaraki, Shaykh
AliRula Jurdi AbisaabKarbala

Diana Steigerwald

John WalbridgeMahdi

Marcia HermansenMahdi, Sadiq al-John O VollMahdist State, MahdiyyaShamil Jeppie

MahrZiba Mir-HosseiniMajlis

Sạd Amir ArjomandMajlisi, Muhammad BaqirRula Jurdi AbisaabMakassar, Shaykh Yusuf

R Michael FeenerMalcolm X

Edward E Curtis IVMalik, Ibn AnasJonathan E BrockoppMamun, al-

Muhammad Qasim ZamanManar, Manara

Sheila S BlairJonathan M BloomManicheanismElton L DanielMansa MusaOusmane KaneMarja
al-TaqlidRobert GleaveMarriageZiba Mir-HosseiniMartyrdomDaniel W Brown

Marwa, MuhammadPaula StilesMarwanRizwi FaizerMasculinitiesMarcia HermansenMashhad

Rasool Ja
fariyanMasjid

Patrick D GaffneyMaslaha

Richard C MartinMaterial CultureHassan MwakimakoMaturidi, al-

M Sait ƯzervarliMaududi, Abu l-A
la

Jamal MalikMazalimOsman TastanMazru
iRandall L PouwelsMedicine

Gail G HarrisonOsman M GalalMihna

Muhammad Qasim ZamanMihrab

Sheila S BlairJonathan M BloomMilitary RaidRizwi FaizerMinbar (Mimbar)Richard T AntounMinorities: DhimmisPatrick FrankeMinorities: Offshoots of IslamRobert Gleave

MiraclesMarcia HermansenMi
raj

Frederick ColbyMichael SellsModernismCharles Kurzman

L i s t o f E n t r i e s

Modernity

Javed Majeed

Modernization, Political:

Administra-tive, Military, and Judicial Reform

Aslam Farouk-Alli

Modernization, Political:

Authoritari-anism and Democratization

Muhammad Reza Shah PahleviStephanie Cronin

Muhammad, Warith DeenEdward E Curtis IVMuharram

David PinaultMuhasibi, al-Rkia E CornellMuhtasibRobert GleaveMujahidinAmin TarziMulla SadraSeyyed Hossein NasrMurjiites, MurjiaShalahudin KafrawiMusic

Munir BekenMuslim ibn al-HajjajAsma AfsaruddinMuslim Student Association ofNorth America

Aminah Beverly McCloudMu
tazilites, Mu
tazilaShalahudin KafrawiNader Shah AfsharJohn R PerryNahdlatul Ulama (NU)Nelly van Doorn-HarderNaini, Mohammad HosaynMohammad H FaghfooryNajaf

Mazyar LotfalianNar

Juan Eduardo CampoNasai, al-

Asma AfsaruddinNationalism: ArabNancy L Stockdale

Nationalism: IranianFakhreddin AzimiNationalism: Turkish

A Uner TurgayNation of IslamAminah Beverly McCloudNawruz

Anne H BetteridgeNazzam, al-

M Sait ÖzervarliNetworks, MuslimBruce B LawrenceMiriam CookeNikah

Ziba Mir-HosseiniNiyabat-e
ammaRobert GleaveNizam al-MulkWarren C SchultzNizari

Azim NanjiNur MovementBerna TuramNuri, FazlallahMohammad H FaghfooryNursi, Said

A Uner TurgayOrganization of the IslamicConference

Qamar-ul HudaOrientalismQamar-ul HudaPakistan, Islamic Republic ofRasul Bakhsh Rais

Pan-ArabismSohail H HashmiPan-Islam

Sohail H HashmiPan-TuranismTouraj AtabakiPasdaranMajid MohammadiPersian Language and LiteratureFranklin D Lewis

Qadhdhafi, Mu
ammar

al-Ali Abdullatif Ahmida

Qadi (Kadi, Kazi)

Kamran AghaieRefah PartisiLinda T DarlingReform: Arab Middle East andNorth Africa

Sohail H HashmiReform: IranHossein KamalyReform: Muslim Communities of theRussian Empire

Allen J FrankReform: South AsiaAhrar AhmadReform: Southeast AsiaMark R WoodwardReligious Beliefs

R Kevin JaquesReligious InstitutionsAbdulkader TayobRepublican BrothersJohn O VollRevolution: Classical IslamSạd Amir ArjomandRevolution: IslamicRevolution in IranKristian AlexanderRevolution: ModernSạd Amir ArjomandReza Shah

Stephanie CroninRiba

Timur KuranRida, RashidSohail H HashmiRitual

Gerard WiegersRumi, JalaluddinFranklin D LewisRushdie, SalmanAmir HussainSadat, Anwar al-Joel Gordon

SadrAndrew J NewmanSadr, Muhammad Baqir al-Majid MohammadiSadr, Musa al-Majid MohammadiSahara

F Ghislaine LydonSaint

Arthur F BuehlerSaladin

Warren C SchultzSalafiyya

John O VollSaleh bin AllawiAbdin ChandeSaudi Dynasty

F Gregory Gause IIISayyid

Robert GleaveScience, Islam andAaron HughesSecularism, IslamicCharles KurzmanSecularizationMahmood MonshipouriShafi
i, al-

Christopher MelchertShaltut, MahmudSohail H HashmiShari
a

Jonathan E BrockoppShari
ati,
Ali

Behrooz Ghamari-TabriziSharif

Robert GleaveShar
it Shangalaji, Reza-QoliPaula Stiles

Shaykh al-IslamRobert GleaveShaykhiyyaPaula StilesShi
a: EarlyDevin J Stewart

F Gregory Gause III

South Asia, Islam in

Scott A Kugle

South Asian Culture and Islam

Perween Hasan

Southeast Asia, Islam in

Nelly van Doorn-Harder

Southeast Asian Culture and Islam

Nelly van Doorn-Harder

Kathryn KuenyTahmasp I, ShahSholeh A QuinnTajdid

John O VollTalibanAmin TarziKimberly McCloudTanzimat

Linda T DarlingTaqiyya

Robert GleaveTaqlid

Robert GleaveTariqa

Carl W ErnstTasawwufCarl W ErnstTa
ziyaKamran AghaieTerrorismJuan Eduardo CampoCaleb ElfenbeinThaqafi, Mukhtar al-Christopher MelchertTimbuktu

Ousmane KaneTouba

Lucy CreeveyTraditionalism

R Kevin JaquesTranslationLamin SannehTravel and TravelersThyge C BroTribe

Amal Rassam

Turabi, Hasan John O VollTusi, Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan(Shaykh al-Ta
ifa)

al-Robert GleaveTusi, Nasir al-DinZayn R KassamUlema

Robert Gleave

UmarKhalid Yahya BlankinshipUmma

Abdullah SaeedUmm KulthumVirginia DanielsonUnited States, Islam in theEdward E Curtis IVUrdu Language, Literature,and Poetry

Christopher ShackleUsuliyya

Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi

Uthman Dan FodioRoman Loimeier

Uthman ibn
AffanRizwi FaizerVeilingGhazala AnwarLiz McKayVelayat-e FaqihRobert GleaveVernacular IslamJoyce Burkhalter FlueckigerWahdat al-Wujud

William C ChittickWahhabiyya

Sohail H HashmiWajib al-WujudShams C InatiWali Allah, ShahMarcia HermansenWaqf

Gregory C KozlowskiWazifa

Mansur Sefatgol

Zand, Karim KhanJohn R PerryZanzibar, Sa
idi Sultanate ofAbdin Chande

ZarAdeline MasquelierZaytuna

Claudia Gazzini

List of Contributors

Rula Jurdi Abisaab

University at Akron, OH

Karaki, Shaykh
Ali

Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir

Khaled Abou El-Fadl

University of California, Los

Ange-les, Law School

Abd al-Razzaq al-Sanhuri

Black Hills State University, SD

Reform: South Asia

Ali Abdullatif Ahmida

University of New England

Qadhdhafi, Mu
ammar

al-Iqtidar Alam Khan

Aligarh Historians Society, Aligarh

India

Empires: Mogul

Sultanates: Delhi

Kristian AlexanderUniversity of Utah

Revolution: Islamic Revolution in Iran

Richard T AntounState University of New York,Binghamton

Minbar (Mimbar)

Ghazala AnwarUniversity of Canterbury, NewZealand

Feminism Veiling

Etin AnwarHamilton College, NY

Harem Women, Public Roles of

Sạd Amir ArjomandState University of New York,Stony Brook

Globalization Majlis Monarchy Revolution: Classical Islam Revolution: Modern Sultanates: Seljuk

Jacqueline M ArmijoStanford University

East Asia, Islam in East Asian Culture and Islam

Touraj AtabakiUniversity of Utrecht, TheNetherlands

Khiva, Khanate of Pan-Turanism

Khalil AthaminaBirzeit Univeristy, Palestine

Kunti, Mukhtar

al-Fakhreddin AzimiUniversity of Connecticut

Fedaiyan-e Islam Mosaddeq, Mohammad Nationalism: Iranian

Ihsan BagbyUniversity of Kentucky

American Culture and Islam

Henning L BauerUniversity of California, Los Ange-les, NELC

Empires: Sassanian

Munir BekenUniversity of Washington

Music

Jonathan BerkeyDavidson College

Education

Carel BertramUniversity of Texas, Austin

Buraq

Anne H BetteridgeUniversity of Arizona

Imamzadah Nawruz

Anna BigelowLoyola Marymount University

Hinduism and Islam

Bard College, Annandale, NY

Malik, Ibn Anas

Shari
a

Patrice C Brodeur

Connecticut College

Christianity and Islam

Islam and Other Religions

Fitna

Juan Eduardo CampoUniversity of California, SantaBarbara

Ahl al-Bayt Arab League Death Hinduism and Islam Jahannam

Janna Mojahedin-e Khalq Nar

Terrorism

Abdin ChandeSidwell Friends School, Washing-ton, D.C

African Culture and Islam Haj
Umar al-Tal, al- Saleh bin Allawi (Jamal al Layl) Zanzibar, Sa
idi Sultanate of

William C ChittickState University of New York,Stony Brook

Ibn
Arabi Wahdat al-Wujud

Peter B ClarkeKing’s College, University ofLondon

Conversion Moravids

Frederick ColbyDuke University

Internet

Rkia E CornellUniversity of Arkansas

Basri, Hasan Muhasibi, al- Rabi
a of Basra

al-Stephen CoryUniversity of California, SantaBarbara

Ahl al-Kitab

Lucy CreeveyUniversity of Connecticut,Torrington

Bamba, Ahmad Touba

Stephanie CroninUniversity College, Northampton,England

Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi Reza Shah

Edward E Curtis IVUniversity of North Carolina,Chapel Hill

Jamil al-Amin, Imam Malcolm X

Muhammad, Elijah Muhammad, Warith Deen United States, Islam in the

Farhad DaftaryInstitute of Ismaili Studies, London

Assassins Shi
a: Isma
ili

Ahmad S DallalStanford University

Astrology Astronomy Hijri Calendar

Suleman DangorUniversity of Durban, South Africa

Mu
awiya

Elton L DanielUniversity of Hawaii

Manicheanism

Virginia DanielsonHarvard University

Umm Kulthum

Linda T DarlingUniversity of Arizona

Erbakan, Necmeddin Jevdet Pasha Kemal, Namek Political Organization Refah Partisi Tanzimat

Central Asia, Islam in

Central Asian Culture and Islam

Sylviane Anna Diouf

New York University

Americas, Islam in the

Fred M Donner

University of Chicago

Expansion

Nadia Maria El Cheikh

American University of Beirut,

Abdullahi Osman El-Tom

National University of Ireland

Abu ‘l-Qasem Kashani

Naini, Mohammad Hosayn

Nuri, Fazlallah

Rizwi FaizerIndependent Scholar, Canada

Abu Bakr Hijra Jahiliyya Marwan Military Raid Muhammad Sukayna Uthman ibn
Affan

Muneer Goolam FareedWayne State University, MI

Adhan Dietary Laws Du
a Ijtihad Jami

Mufti

Aslam Farouk-AlliUniversity of Cape Town, SouthAfrica

Cairo Holy Cities Modernization, Political: Administra- tive, Military, and Judicial Reform

R Michael FeenerUniversity of California, Riverside

Makassar, Shaykh Yusuf

Leonor FernandesAmerican University in Cairo,Egypt

Khanqa (Khanaqa, Khanga)

Michael M J FischerMassachusetts Institute ofTechnology

Hasan Husayn

Joyce Burkhalter FlueckigerEmory University

Vernacular Islam

Allen J FrankIndependent Scholar

Reform: Muslim Communities of the Russian Empire

Anne-Sophie FroehlichDer Spiegel, Germany

Modernization, Political: anism and Democratization

Authoritari-Osman M GalalUniversity of California, Los Ange-les, School of Public Health

Medicine

Patrick FrankeMartin-Luther-Universität,Germany

Minorities: Dhimmis

Patrick D GaffneyUniversity of Notre Dame

Khutba Masjid

Gene GarthwaiteDartmouth College

Khan

F Gregory Gause IIIUniversity of Vermont, Burlington

Ba
th Party Saudi Dynasty Socialism

Claudia GazziniPrinceton University

Abd al-Hamid Ibn Badis Fez

Madani,
Abbasi Zaytuna

Najib GhadbianUniversity of Arkansas

Islamic Jihad

Behrooz Ghamari-TabriziGeorgia State University

Abd al-Karim Sorush Mojtahed-Shabestari, Mohammad Motahhari, Mortaza

Shari
ati,
Ali

Robert GleaveUniversity of Bristol, England

Akhbariyya Ayatollah (Ar Ayatullah) Ghayba(t)

Hilli,
Allama Hilli, Muhaqqiq al- Hisba

al-Hojjat al-Islam Imamate Marja
al-Taqlid Minorities: Offshoots of Islam Muhtasib

Abd al-Hamid Kishk (Shaykh)

Abd al-Nasser, Jamal

Muhammad
Ali, Dynasty of

Sadat, Anwar

al-Sebastian Günther

University of Toronto, Canada

Rashid, Harun

University of California, Los

Ange-les, School of Public Health

Medicine

Perween Hasan

Dhaka University, Bangladesh

South Asian Culture and Islam

Sohail H Hashmi

Mount Holyoke College, MA

Abd al-Rahman Kawakibi

Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad Ibn

Abduh, Muhammad

Afghani, Jamal al-Din

Banna, Hasan

Rida, Rashid Shaltut, Mahmud Qutb, Sayyid Wahhabiyya

Mona HassanPrinceton University

Baghdad

Jane HathawayOhio State University

Eunuchs

Christer HedinStockholm University, Sweden

Da
wa

Robert W HefnerBoston University

Muhammadiyya (Muhammadiyah)

Marcia HermansenLoyola University, Chicago

Biography and Hagiography Biruni, al-

Genealogy Mahdi Masculinities Miracles Rahman, Fazlur Wali Allah, Shah

Annie C HigginsUniversity of Chicago

Kharijites, Khawarij

Carole HillenbrandUniversity of Edinburgh, Scotland

Sultanates: Ayyubid

Konrad HirschlerUniversity of London, England

Historical Writing

Qamar-ul HudaBoston College

Ghazali, Muhammad Organization of the Islamic Conference

al-Orientalism

Aaron HughesUniversity of Calgary, Canada

Andalus,

al-
Asabiyya Heresiography Science, Islam and

Amir HussainCalifornia State University,Northridge

Rushdie, Salman

Shams C InatiVillanova University, Pennsylvania

Ibn Sina Wajib al-Wujud

Torsten JansonLund University, Sweden

Da
wa

Rasool Ja
fariyanIndependent Scholar

Hosayniyya Mashhad Qom

R Kevin JaquesIndiana University, Bloomington

Ahl al-Hadith Ibn Khaldun Islamicate Society Islamic Society of North America Religious Beliefs

Shirk Traditionalism

Shamil JeppieUniversity of Cape Town, SouthAfrica

Haron, Abdullah Mahdist State, Mahdiyya

Charlotte JirousekCornell University, Ithaca, NY

Clothing

David L JohnstonYale University

Fasi, Muhammad
Allal Ikhwan al-Muslimin Islamic Salvation Front

al-Shalahudin KafrawiBinghamton University, NY

Murjiites, Murjia Mu
tazilites, Mu
tazila

Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi

International Institute of Islamic

Thought and Civilization,

Free University of Berlin, Germany

Ghannoushi, Rashid

al-Hukuma al-Islamiyya, al- (Islamic

Capitalism Property Riba

Charles KurzmanUniversity of North Carolina,Chapel Hill

Liberalism Modernism Modern Thought Secularism, Islamic

John C LamoreauxSouthern Methodist University,Dallas

Dreams

Bruce B LawrenceDuke University

Internet Networks, Muslim

Oliver LeamanUniversity of Kentucky

Greek Civilization Ibn Rushd

David LelyveldWilliam Paterson University,Wayne, NJ

Ahmad Khan, (Sir) Sayyid Aligarh

Iqbal, Muhammad

Franklin D LewisEmory University

Persian Language and Literature Rumi, Jalaluddin

Roman LoimeierUniversity of Bayreuth, Germany

Abu Bakr Gumi Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi

Uthman Dan Fodio

Mazyar LotfalianBerkeley

Abu ‘l-Hasan Bani-Sadr Bazargan, Mehdi Fadlallah, Muhammad Husayn Najaf

F Ghislaine LydonUniversity of California, LosAngeles

Sahara

Akbar MahdiOhio Wesleyan University

Youth Movements

Mohamed MahmoudTufts University, MA

Muhammad
Ahmad Ibn Abdullah

Javed MajeedEnglish Scholar

Modernity

Margaret MalamudNew Mexico State University, LasCruces

Khirqa

Jamal MalikUniversity of Erfurt, Germany

Colonialism Jama
at-e Islami Jam
iyat-e
Ulama-e Hind Jam
iyat-e
Ulama-e Islam Jam
iyat-e
Ulama-e Pakistan Maududi, Abu l-A
la

Louise MarlowWellesley College, MA

Political Thought

Richard C MartinEmory University

bin Ladin, Usama Disputation Maslaha Pilgrimage: Ziyara Qa
ida, al- Wazir

Herbert W MasonBoston University

Hallaj,

al-Adeline MasquelierTulane University, LA

Zar

Philip MattarU.S Institute of Peace, Washing-ton D.C

Husayni, Hajj Amin Intifada

al-Rudi MattheeUniversity of Delaware

Abbas I, Shah Empires: Safavid and Qajar

Bab, Sayyed
Ali Muhammad

Aminah Beverly McCloud

DePaul University, Chicago

Divorce Mahr Marriage Nikah Polygamy

Majid MohammadiState University of New York,Stony Brook

Hashemi-Rafsanjani,
Ali-Akbar Hojjatiyya Society

Khamanei, Sayyed
Ali Khoi, Abo l Qasem Komiteh

Pasdaran Sadr, Muhammad Baqir al- Sadr, Musa al-

Mahmood MonshipouriQuinnipiac University, CN

Secularization

Ebrahim MoosaDuke University

Ethics and Social Issues Ghazali, al-

Qadi (Kadi, Kazi)

Parviz MorewedgeRutgers University, NewBrunswick, NJ

Falsafa Kalam Knowledge

Harald MotzkiUniversity of Nijmegen, TheNetherlands

Hadith

Hassan MwakimakoUniversity of Nairobi, Kenya

Material Culture Sultanates: Modern Yahya bin
Abdallah Ramiya (Shaykh)

Azim NanjiInstitute of Ismaili Studies, Lon-don, U.K

Aga Khan Akhlaq Ikhwan al-Safa Khojas Nizari

Seyyed Hossein NasrGeorge Washington University

Ishraqi School Mulla Sadra

Gordon D NewbyEmory University

Arabia, Pre-Islam Judaism and Islam

Andrew J NewmanUniversity of Edinburgh, Scotland

Sadr

Jorgen S NielsenUniversity of Birmingham,England

Europe, Islam in European Culture and Islam

A Rashied OmarNotre Dame, IN

Conflict and Violence

Irfan A OmarMarquette University,Milwaukee, WI

Humor

M Sait ÖzervarliCenter for Islamic Studies, Istan-bul, Turkey

Abd al-Jabbar Abu ‘l-Hudhayl al-
Allaf Ash
arites, Ash
aira Baqillani, al- Maturidi, al- Nazzam, al-

James PavlinRutgers University, NewBrunswick, NJ

Ibn Taymiyya

John R PerryUniversity of Chicago

Nader Shah Afshar Zand, Karim Khan

Daniel C PetersonBrigham Young University, UT

Allah Fatwa Identity, Muslim

David PinaultSanta Clara University, CA

Muharram Shi
a: Imami (Twelver)

L i s t o f C o n t r i b u t o r s

Karen C Pinto

University of Alberta, Canada

Cartography and Geography

Randall L Pouwels

University of Arkansas

Mazru
i

Avril A Powell

School of Oriental and African

Studies, University of London,

Rasul Bakhsh Rais

Quaid-i Azam University, Pakistan

Jinnah, Muhammad
Ali

Pakistan, Islamic Republic of

Translation

E M SartainAmerican University in Cairo,Egypt

Suyuti,

al-Irene SchneiderUniversity of Halle, Germany

Pluralism: Legal and Ethno-Religious

Warren C SchultzDePaul University, Chicago

Crusades Nizam al-Mulk Saladin Sultanates: Mamluk

Florian SchwarzRuhr University Bochum, Germany

Bukhara, Khanate and Emirate of

Michael SellsHaverford College, PA

Mi
raj

Mansur SefatgolUniversity of Tehran, Iran

Mollabashi Wazifa

Christopher ShackleSchool of Oriental and AfricanStudies, University of London,England

Urdu Language, Literature, and Poetry

Sa’diyya ShaikhTemple University, PA

Aisha

William ShepardUniversity of Canterbury,Christchurch, New Zealand

Khalid, Khalid Muhammad

Reeva Spector SimonColumbia University

HAMAS Hizb Allah

Susan A SpectorskyCity University of New York

Ibn Hanbal

Diana SteigerwaldCalifornia State University, LongBeach

Ali Azhar, al- Karbala

Devin J StewartEmory University

Shi
a: Early

Paula StilesUniversity of St Andrews, Scotland

Marwa, Muhammad Shar
it Shangalaji, Reza-Qoli Shaykhiyya

Siba
i, Mustafa

al-Nancy L StockdaleUniversity of Central Florida

Iran, Islamic Republic of Khomeini, Ruhollah Nationalism: Arab

Claudia StodteDer Spiegel, Germany

Liberation Movement of Iran Modernization, Political: Authoritari- anism and Democratization

Liyakatali TakimIndependent Scholar

Ja
far al-Sadiq Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya

Amin TarziMonterey Institute of InternationalStudies, CA

Mujahidin Taliban

Osman TastanAnkara University, Turkey

Law Mazalim

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Balkans, Islam in the

Berna Turam

McGill University, Canada

Nur Movement

A Uner Turgay

McGill University, Canada

Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal

Gasprinskii, Isma
il Bay

Nahdlatul Ulama (NU)

Southeast Asia, Islam in

Southeast Asian Culture and Islam

Ahmad Ibn Idris

John O VollGeorgetown University

Islam and Islamic Mahdi, Sadiq al- Republican Brothers Salafiyya

Tajdid Turabi, Hasan al- West, Concept of in Islam

Peter von SiversUniversity of Utah

Abd al-Qadir, Amir

John WalbridgeIndiana University, Bloomington

Bahaallah Bahai Faith Libraries Madrasa Suhrawardi, al-

Elizabeth Warnock FerneaUniversity of Texas, Austin

Childhood

Earle WaughUniversity of Alberta, Canada

Dhikr

Mark WegnerTulane University, LA

Succession

David WesterlundUppsala University, Sweden

Da
wa

Brannon M WheelerUniversity of Washington

Abu Hanifa Body, Significance of Madhhab

Prophets

Gerard WiegersLeiden University, TheNetherlands

Devotional Life

Ibadat Qibla Ritual

Quintan WiktorowiczRhodes College, TN

Reform: Southeast Asia

Neguin YavariColumbia University

Atabat

Muhammad Qasim ZamanBrown University

Caliphate Imam Mamun, al- Mihna Rashidun

Synoptic Outline of Entries

This outline provides a general overview of the conceptual structure of the Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World The outline is organized under nine major categories, which are further

split into twenty-five subcategories The entries are listed alphabetically within each category or subcategory For ease of reference, the same entry may be listed under several categories

Biographies: Political and other

Public Figures

Abbas I, Shah

Abd al-Qadir, Amir

Abd al-Rahman Kawakibi

Abd al-Hamid Kishk (Shaykh)

Abd al-Karim Sorush

Abd al-Nasser, Jamal

Abd al-Razzaq al-Sanhuri

Abu l-Qasem Kashani

Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi

Ahmad Khan, (Sir) Sayyid

Fasi, Muhammad
Allal

al-Gasprinskii, Isma
il Bay

Isma
il I, Shah

Jevdet Pasha

Kemal, Namik

Khalid, Khalid Muhammad

Mahdi, Sadiq al-

Mansa Musa

Marwan

Mosaddeq, Mohammad

Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi

Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj

Nader Shah Afshar

Biographies: Religious and Cultural Figures

Abu Bakr GumiAbu HanifaAbu ’l-Hasan Bani-SadrAbu ’l-Hudhayl al-
AllafAfghani, Jamal al-DinAga Khan

Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Gran

Ahmad ibn Idris

Aisha

AliBab, Sayyed
Ali MuhammadBahaallah

Bamba, AhmadBanna, Hasan al- Baqillani, al- Basri, Hasan al-Bazargan, Mehdi

Biruni, al- Bukhari, al- Fadlallah, Muhammad Husayn Farrakhan, Louis

Fatima Ghannoushi, Rashid al-Ghazali, al-

Ghazali, Muhammad Ghazali, Zaynab al-Hajj Salim Suwari, al- Haj
Umar al-Tal, al-Hallaj, al-

al-Haron, Abdullah Hasan

Hashemi-Rafsanjani,
Ali-AkbarHusayn

Husayn, Taha Husayni, Hajj Amin al-Khidr, al-

Karaki, Shaykh
AliHilli,
Allama al- Hilli, Muhaqqiq al-Ibn
Arabi Ibn Battuta Ibn Hanbal Ibn Khaldun Ibn Maja Ibn Rushd Ibn Sina Ibn Taymiyya Iqbal, Muhammad Ja
far al-Sadiq Jamil al-Amin, ImamJinnah, Muhammad
AliKhamanei, Sayyed
AliKhan, Reza of BareillyKhoi, Abol Qasem

Malik, Ibn Anas

Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir

Muhammad, Warith Deen

Muhammad Ahmad Ibn
Abdullah

Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya

Sadr, Muhammad Baqir

Sadr, Musa

Thaqafi, Mukhtar

Turabi, Hasan

al-Tusi, Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan

(Shaykh al-Ta
ifa)

Tusi, Nasir al-Din

Umar

Umm Kulthum

Uthman ibn
Affan

Yusuf Ali,
Abdullah

Culture: Arts, Architecture, and

Dome of the Rock

Khanqah (Khanaqah, Khanga)

Manar, Manara

Material Culture

MihrabTa
ziyaVernacular Islam

Culture: Disciplines and Fields of Knowledge

Akhlaq AstrologyAstronomy FalsafaKalamLawMedicineMusicTasawwufScience, Islam and

Culture: Concepts

Asabiyya

Ada Adab KnowledgeMadhhabSadr

Culture: Language and Literature

Arabic LanguageArabic LiteratureBiography and Hagiography Grammar and LexicographyPersian Language and LiteratureTranslation

Urdu Language, Literature, andPoetry

Vernacular Islam

Culture: Regional

African Culture and IslamAmerican Culture and Islam Central Asian Culture and Islam East Asian Culture and Islam European Culture and Islam South Asian Culture and IslamSoutheast Asian Culture and Islam

Culture: Other

Dreams EducationIdentity, Muslim Humor in IslamLibrariesRawza-Khani

Family, Ethics and Society

Childhood Conflict and Violence Divorce

EducationEthics and Social Issues

Ethnicity Eunuchs Feminism Gender HaremHealing Homosexuality Hospitality and IslamHuman Rights Mahr

MarriageMasculinitiesMaslahaNikahPolygamyPurdahWomen, Public Roles ofVeiling

Geography: Regions

Americas, Islam in the Africa, Islam inBalkans, Islam in the Central Asia, Islam in East Asia, Islam in Europe, Islam in South Asia, Islam inSoutheast Asia, Islam inUnited States, Islam in theWest, Concept of

Geography: Countries, Cites and Locales

Andalus, al- Arabia, Pre-Islam Baghdad

Bukhara, Khanate and Emirate ofCairo

Ethiopia Fez Holy CitiesIran, Islamic Republic of Kano

LebanonMashhadNajafPakistan, Islamic Republic ofQom

SaharaTimbuktuToubaZanzibarZaytuna

Groups, Organizations, Schools, and Movements: Political

Arab League Awami League Ba
th Party Communism

S y n o p t i c O u t l i n e o f E n t r i e s

Intifada

Khojas

Komiteh

Nahdatul Ulama (NU)

Organization of the Islamic

Groups, Organizations, Schools,

and Movements: Religious

Education LibrariesReligious InstitutionsWaqf

History: Periods, Dynasties, Governments

Arabia, Pre-IslamAyyubids Bukhara, Khanate and Emirate ofColonialism

Empires: Abbasid Empires: ByzantineEmpires: Mongol and Il-Khanid Empires: Mogul

Empires: Ottoman Empires: Safavid and Qajar Empires: SassanianEmpires: Timurid Empires: UmayyadExpansion Hijra Hijri Calendar Khiva, Khanate ofMahdist State, MahdiyyaModernity

MonarchyMoravidsMuhammad
Ali, Dynasty ofRashidun

Sultanates: DelhiSultanates: GhaznavidSultanates: MamlukSultanates: ModernSultanates: SeljukTribe

History: Catalysts of Change

Globalization Greek Civilization Internet

Liberation Movement of IranTerrorism

MihnaNetworks, MuslimSuccessionTajdidTravel and Travelers

Law

AdaLawMazalimMuftiMuhtasibPropertyQanun

RibaShari
aTaqlid

Politics and Society

Military RaidMinorities: DhimmisMinorities: Offshoots of IslamModernization

MonarchyNationalismPan-ArabismPan-IslamPan-TuranismPasdaran Pluralism: Legal and Ethno-Religious

Pluralism: PoliticalPolitical IslamPolitical OrganizationPolitical ThoughtPolygamyReform: Arab Middle East andNorth Africa

Reform: IranReform: Muslim Communities ofthe Russian Empire

Reform: South AsiaReform: Southeast AsiaRepublican BrothersRevolution: Classical IslamRevolution: Islamic Revolution inIran

Revolution: ModernSaudi DynastySecularizationSuccessionTanzimatVelayat-e Faqih

Religion: Groups, Movements, and Sects

Ahl al-Bayt Ahl al-Hadith Ahl al-Kitab Ahl-e Hadis / Ahl al-HadithAkhbariyya

Babiyya Bahai FaithBedouin Fundamentalism Futuwwa Hojjatiyya SocietyIshraqi SchoolIslamic Salvation Front Jam
iyat-e
Ulama-e Hind Jam
iyat-e
Ulama-e Islam Jam
iyat-e
Ulama-e Pakistan Jama
at-e Islami

Kharijites, Khawarij

Niyabat-e
ammaProphetsQiblaQuranRibaShirkSilsilaSunnaTafsirTaqiyyaTaqlidTasawwufTa
ziya (Ta
ziye)Wahdat al-WujudWajib al-WujudWazifa

Zar

Religion: Institutions

Azhar, CaliphateDeobandHisbaKhanqa (Khanaqa, Khanga)Madrasa

al-Masjid

Religion: Places and Sites

Atabat Dome of the Rock Hojjatiyya SocietyHoly CitiesHosayniyyaImamzadah Jami

KarbalaMashhadMihrabMinbarNajaf

Religion: Practices and Rituals

Adhan Bid
a

CircumcisionDa
wa Devotional Life Dhikr

Dietary Laws Disputation Du
a Fatwa Fitna

IbadatIjtihad KhutbaMartyrdomMuharramNawruzPilgrimage: HajjPilgrimage: ZiyaraRitual

Religion: Relations with Muslims

Non-Christianity and Islam Conversion

Crusades GlobalizationHinduism and Islam Islam and Other Religions Judaism and IslamManicheanism

Religion: Titles and Offices

Ayatollah (Ar Ayatullah) Hojjat al-Islam

Imam Islam and Islamic Islamicate Society Khan

MahdiMarja
al-TaqlidMolla

MollabashiQadi (Kadi, Kazi)Saint

SayyidSharifShaykh al-IslamWazir

List of Maps

Maps accompany the following entries, and are located on the provided pages.

Africa, Islam in 15 Arabia, Pre Islam 52 Balkans, Islam in 102 Balkans, Islam in 103 Crusades 163 Europe, Islam in 237 Expansion 243 Ibn Battuta Volume one color insert Law 408 Law 410 Muhammad 478 Networks 509 South Asia, Islam in 639 Southeast Asia, Islam in 646 Sultanates: Ayyubids 659

1

ABBAS I, SHAH (1571–1629)

Shah
Abbas I, the fifth ruler of the Safavid dynasty, ruled Iran

from 1587 until 1629, the year of his death Shah
Abbas came

to power at a time when tribal unrest and foreign invasion had

greatly reduced Iran’s territory Once on the throne he set

out to regain the lands and authority that had been lost by his

immediate successors His defeat of the Uzbeks in the

north-east and the peace he made with the Ottoman Empire, Iran’s

archenemy, enabled Shah
Abbas to reform Iran’s military

and financial system He diminished the military power of the

tribes by creating a standing army composed of slave soldiers

who were loyal only to him These so-called ghulams (military

slaves) were mostly Armenians and Georgians captured

dur-ing raids in the Caucasus In order to increase the revenue

needed for these reforms the shah centralized state control,

which included the appointment of ghulams to high

adminis-trative positions

With the same intent he fostered trade by reestablishing

road security and by building many caravan series throughout

the country Under Shah
Abbas, Isfahan became Iran’s

capital and most important city, endowed with a new

com-mercial and administrative center grouped around a splendid

square that survives today His genius further manifested

itself in his military skills and his astute foreign policy He

halted the eastward expansion of the Ottomans, defeating

them and taking Baghdad in 1623 To encourage trade and

thus gain treasure, he welcomed European merchants to the

Persian Gulf He also allowed Christian missionaries to settle

in his country, hopeful that this might win him allies among

European powers in his anti-Ottoman struggle Famously

down to earth, Shah
Abbas was a pragmatic ruler who could

be cruel as well as generous Rare among Iranian kings, he is

today remembered as a ruler who was concerned about his

own people

A detail from a miniature painting of
Abbas I (1571–1629)

appears in the volume one color plates.

See also Empires: Safavid and Qajar.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Matthee, Rudolph P The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600–1730 Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Uni-

versity Press, 1999

Savory, Roger Iran under the Safavids Cambridge, U.K.:

Cambridge University Press, 1980

Bahaal-of his teachings Born in Tehran on 23 May 1844, he grew up

in the household of a father committed to the teachings of theBabi movement and consequently shared his father’s fate ofexile and intermittent imprisonment until the Young Turkrevolution of 1909

As a result,
Abd al-Baha received little formal educationand had to manage the affairs of his father’s household at avery early age Despite these setbacks, he demonstrated anatural capacity for leadership and a prodigious knowledge ofhuman history and thought

Abd al-Baha corresponded with and enjoyed the respect

of a number of the luminaries of his day, including theRussian author Leo Tolstoy and the Muslim reformer Mu-hammad
Abduh He left behind a small portion of what is alarge corpus of still-unexplored writings that include socialcommentaries, interpretations, and elaborations of his fa-ther’s works, mystical treatises, and Quranic and biblicalexegeses

A b d a l - H a m i d I b n B a d i s

Upon his release from house imprisonment in 1909,
Abd

al-Baha traveled to North Africa, Europe, and North

Amer-ica advocating a number of reforms for all countries,

includ-ing the adoption of a universal auxiliary language, global

collective security, mandatory education, and full legal and

social equality for women and minorities He also warned of a

coming war in Europe and called for a just system of global

government and international courts where disputes between

nations could be resolved peacefully

Abd al-Baha died on 28 November 1921 According to

his will and testament, his eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi

Rabbani, became the head of the Bahai community and the

sole authorized interpreter of his grandfather and

Abd al-Hamid Ibn Badis was the leader of the Islamic

reformist movement in Algeria and founder of the Association

des Uléma Musulmanes Algériens (AUMA) He was born in

1889 in Constantine, where he also died in 1940 After

receiving a traditional education in his hometown, Ibn Badis

(locally referred to as Ben Badis) studied at the Islamic

University of Zaytuna, in Tunis, from 1908 to 1912 In the

following years he journeyed through the Middle East,

par-ticularly in Egypt and Saudi Arabia, where he came into

contact with modernist and reformist currents of thought

spreading within orthodox Sunni Islam

Ibn Badis became the most prominent promoter of the

Islamic reformist movement in Algeria, first through his

preaching at the mosque of Sidi Lahdar in his hometown,

and, after 1925, through his intensive journalistic activity He

founded a newspaper, Al-Muntaqid (The critic), which closed

after a few months Immediately afterwards, however, he

began a new and successful newspaper, Al-Shihab (The

me-teor), which soon became the platform of the reformist

thinking in Algeria, until its closure in 1939 Through the

pages of Al-Shihab, Ibn Badis spread the Salafiyya movement

in Algeria, presented his Quranic exegesis, and argued the

need for Islamic reform and a rebirth of religion and religious

values within a society that, in his view, had been too

influ-enced by French colonial rule He further argued that the

Algerian nation had to be founded on its Muslim culture and

its Arab identity, and for this reason he is also considered a

precursor of Algerian nationalism He promoted the free

teaching of Arabic language, which had been marginalized

during the years of French rule, and the establishment of free

schools for adults, where traditional Quranic studies could

be taught

In May 1931 he founded the AUMA (also Association ofAlgerian Muslim Ulema), which gathered the country’s lead-ing Muslim thinkers, initially both reformist and conserva-tive, and subsequently only reformist, and served as its presidentuntil his death Whereas the reformist programs promoted

through Al-Shihab had managed to reach an audience limited

to the elite educated class of the country, the AUMA becamethe tool for a nationwide campaign to revive Islam, Arabic,and religious studies, as well as a center for direct social andpolitical action Throughout the country he founded a net-work of Islamic cultural centers that provided the means forthe educational initiatives he advocated and the establish-ment of Islamic youth groups He also spearheaded a cam-paign against Sufi brotherhoods, accusing them of introducingblameworthy innovations to religious practice, and also ofcooperating with the colonial administration He played animportant political role in the formation of the AlgerianMuslim Congress in 1936, which arose in reaction to thevictory of the Popular Front in France, and was activepolitically in the country until his premature death in 1940.Thanks to his activities as leader of the AUMA and to his

writing in Al-Shihab, Ibn Badis is considered by some to be

the most important figure of the Arab-Islamic cultural revival

in Algeria during the 1930s

See also Reform: Arab Middle East and North Africa;

al-he was appointed imam at a Cairo mosque

A b d a l - K a r i m S o r u s h

Kishk ran afoul of the Nasser regime in 1965 He claimed

he was instructed to denounce Sayyid Qutb, refused, and

subsequently was arrested and tortured in prison In the early

1970s, cassette recordings of his sermons and lessons began

to proliferate throughout Egypt; by the late 1970s he was

arguably the most popular preacher in the Arab world

Attendance at his mosque skyrocketed, reaching 100,000 for

Friday sermons by the early 1980s In September 1981 he was

arrested as part of Anwar al-Sadat’s crackdown on political

opponents, and was in prison when Sadat was assassinated

Upon his release he regained his following He published his

autobiography, The Story of My Days, in 1986 He died a

decade later, in 1996

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jansen, Johannes J G The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat’s

Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East New

York and London: Macmillan, 1986

Kepel, Gilles Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and

Pharaoh Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of

Califor-nia Press, 1993

Joel Gordon

ABD AL-JABBAR (935–1025)

Abd al-Jabbar was a Mu
tazilite theologian and Shafi
ite

jurist, known as Qadi
Abd al-Jabbar b Ahmad al-Hamadani

He was born in Asadabad in Iran about 935, studied kalam

with Abu Ishaq al-
Ayyash in Basra, and associated with the

prominent Mu
tazilite scholar Abu
Abdullah al-Basri in

Baghdad
Abd al-Jabbar was appointed as chief judge of Rayy

with a great authority over other regions in northern Iran by

the Buyid wazir Sahib b
Abbad in 977 Following his

dismissal from the post after the death of Ibn
Abbad, he

devoted his life to teaching In 999 he made a pilgrimage to

Mecca through Baghdad, where he spent some time He

taught briefly in Kazvin (1018–1019) and died in 1025 in Ray

As the teacher of the well-known Mu
tazilites of the

eleventh century, such as Abu Rashid al-Nisaburi, Ibn

Mattawayh, Abu ’l-Husayn al-Basri, and as the master of

Mu
tazilism in its late period,
Abd al-Jabbar elaborated and

expanded the teachings of Bahshamiyya, the subgroup named

after Abu Hashim al-Jubbai He synthesized some of the

Mu
tazilite views with Sunni doctrine on the relation of

reason and revelation, and came close to the Shi
ite position

on the question of leadership (imama) He is also a significant

source of information on ancient Iranian and other

monothe-istic religions

Abd al-Jabbar wrote many works on kalam, especially on

the defense of the Quran, and on the Prophet of Islam Some

of his books, including most of his twenty-volume work

al-Mughni, have been published Commentaries on two of his

lost books, Sharh al-usul al-khamsa by Qiwam al-Din Mankdim and al-Muhit bi’l-taklif by Ibn Mattawayh, are also available.

See also Kalam; Mutazilites, Mutazila.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Frank, Richard M “The Autonomy of the Human Agent

in the Teaching of
Abd al-Gabbar.” Le Museon 95

Brill, 1976

M Sait Özervarli

ABD AL-KARIM SORUSH (1945– )

Abd al-Karim Sorush is the pen-name of Hassan Haj-FarajDabbagh Born in 1945 in Tehran, Sorush attended AlaviHigh School, an alternative school that offered a rigorouscurriculum of Islamic studies in addition to the state-mandated,standardized education in math and sciences He studiedIslamic law and exegesis with Reza Ruzbeh, one of thefounders of the school He attended Tehran University, and

in 1969 graduated with a degree in pharmacology He ued his postgraduate education in history and philosophy ofscience at Chelsea College in London In 1979 he returned toIran after the revolution, and soon thereafter was appointed

contin-by Ayatollah Khomeini to the Cultural Revolution Council

He resigned from this controversial post in 1983

In his most celebrated book, Qabz va Bast-i Teorik-i Shari
at (The theoretical constriction and expansion of the shari
a), Sorush developed a general critique of dogmatic

interpretations of religion He argued that, when turned into

a dogma, religion becomes ideological and loses its ity He held that religious knowledge is inevitably historicaland culturally contingent, and that it is distinct from religion,the truth of which is solely possessed by God He posited thatculture, language, history, and human subjectivity mediatethe comprehension of the revealed text Therefore, humanunderstandings of the physical world, through science, forinstance, and the changing nature of the shared values ofhuman societies (such as citizenship and social and politicalrights) inform and condition religious knowledge

universal-There was a contradiction between Sorush’s ing of epistemological problems of human knowledge, which

understand-he saw as logical and methodical, and his emphasis on tunderstand-he

A b d a l - N a s s e r , J a m a l

historical contingencies of the hermeneutics of the divine

text This contradiction was resolved in his later writing in

favor of a more hermeneutical approach In his early work, he

was influenced by analytical philosophy and skepticism of a

post-positivist logic, whereas in his later writings he adopted

a more hermeneutical approach to the meaning of the sacred

text In his earlier work he put forward epistemological

questions about the limits and truthfulness of claims

regard-ing knowledge, but in two important later books, Siratha-yi

mustaqim (1998, Straight paths) and Bast-e tajrubih-e Nabavi

(1999, The expansion of the prophetic experience), he

em-phasized the reflexivity and plurality of human

understand-ing In his plural usage of the Quranic phrase “straight

paths,” Sorush offered a radical break with both modernist

and orthodox traditions in Islamic theology

In the 1990s, Sorush emerged as one the most influential

Muslim thinkers in Iran His theology contributed to the

emergence of a generation of Muslim reformers who

chal-lenged the legitimization of the Islamic Republic’s rule based

on divine sources rather than on democratic principles and

popular consent

See also Iran, Islamic Republic of; Khomeini, Ruhollah.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sadri, Mahmoud, and Sadri, Ahmad, eds Reason, Freedom, &

Democracy in Islam: Essential Writings of
Abdolkarim Soroush.

Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000

Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi

ABD AL-NASSER, JAMAL

(1918–1970)

The Egyptian leader who dominated two decades of Arab

history, Jamal
Abd al-Nasser was born 15 January 1918, the

son of a postal official Raised in Alexandria and Cairo, he

entered the military academy and was commissioned in 1938

Thereafter, he joined a secret Muslim Brotherhood cell,

where he met fellow dissidents with whom he later founded

the Free Officers On 23 July 1952 the Free Officers seized

power; within a year they outlawed political parties and

established a republic In 1954, they dismissed the figurehead

president Muhammad Najib (Naguib) and repressed all

op-position Elected president in June 1956, Nasser ruled until

his death Under his leadership Egypt remained a one-party

state The ruling party changed names several times; the Arab

Socialist Union, formed in 1962, survived until 1978 when

Nasser’s successor, Anwar al-Sadat, abolished it

A charismatic leader, Nasser drew regional acclaim and

international notoriety for his championship of pan-Arabism

and his leadership role in the Non-Aligned Movement His

popularity soared during the 1956 Suez Crisis, sparked by

Egypt’s nationalization of the Suez Canal Company Thetripartite British-French-Israeli invasion failed to topple hisregime and solidified his reputation Frustrated with the pace

of social and economic reform, in the early 1960s Nasserpromoted a series of socialist decrees nationalizing key sec-tors of industry, agriculture, finance, and the arts Egypt’srelations with the Soviet bloc improved, but Nasser neverturned entirely away from the West In regional affairs theyears after Suez were marked by a series of setbacks TheUnited Arab Republic (1958–1961) ended with Syria’s cessa-tion, and the Yemeni civil war (1962–1967) entangled Egyp-tian troops in a quagmire

Many contend that Nasser never recovered from thedisastrous defeat by Israel in June 1967 Yet he changed theface of Egypt, erasing class privileges, narrowing social gaps,and ushering in an era of optimism If Egyptians fault hisfailure to democratize and debate the wisdom of Arab social-ism or the state’s secular orientation, many still recall hispopulist intentions When he died suddenly of a heart attack

on 28 September 1970, millions accompanied his coffin tothe grave

See also Nationalism: Arab; Pan-Arabism.

During the early nineteenth century,
Abd al-Qadir governed

a state in Algeria His family, claiming descent from

Muham-mad, led a Qadiriyya brotherhood center (zawiya) in western

Algeria In 1831 the French conquered the port of Oran fromthe Ottomans Fighting broke out in the Oranais amongthose tribes formerly subjected to Turkish taxes and thoseprivileged to collect them The Moroccan sultan, failing topacify the tribes on his border, designated
Abd al-Qadir’sinfluential but aging father as his deputy He, in turn, hadtribal leaders proclaim his son commander of the faithful

(amir al-muminin) in 1832.

The highly educated and well-traveled new amir ated two treaties with France (1834–1837) Happy to cede thejob of tribal pacification to an indigenous leader, the Frenchacknowledged him as the sovereign of western Algeria
Abdal-Qadir received French money and arms with which he

negoti-
A b d a l - R a z z a q a l - S a n h u r i

organized an administration, diplomatic service, and supply

services, including storage facilities, a foundry, and textile

workshops, for a standing army of six thousand men

Unfor-tunately, frequent disputes, and even occasional battles,

punc-tured the treaties The final rupture came when
Abd

al-Qadir began expanding into eastern Algeria In response, the

French decided on a complete conquest of Algeria and

destroyed
Abd al-Qadir’s state (1839–1847), exiling him to

Damascus During his exile, the amir immersed himself in

religious studies He reemerged briefly into the public eye

when riots shook Damascus in July 1860 It was then that

Muslim resentment against perceived advantages enjoyed by

Christians under the Ottoman reform edict of 1839 exploded

into widespread killings and lootings Virtually alone among

the notables of Damascus,
Abd al-Qadir shielded Christians

from Muslim attackers

See also Tasawwuf.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aouli, Smạ; Redjala, Ramdane; and Zoummeroff, Philippe

Abd el-Kader Paris: Fayard, 1994.

Danziger, Raphael Abd al-Qadir and the Algerians: Resistance

to the French and Internal Consolidation New York: Homes

& Meier, 1977

Peter von Sivers

ABD AL-RAHMAN KAWAKIBI

(1849?–1902)

An Arab nationalist and reformer,
Abd al-Rahman Kawakibi

was born in Aleppo, Syria, where he was educated and worked

as an official and journalist until being forced by Ottoman

opposition to relocate to Cairo in 1898 He joined the circle

of Arab intellectuals surrounding Muhammad
Abduh and

Rashid Rida Kawakibi’s ideas are elaborated in two books,

Tabai
istibdad (Characteristics of tyranny) and Umm

al-qura (Mother of cities) In the first, he argues that the

Muslims’s political decline is the result of their straying from

original Islamic principles and the advent of mystical and

fatalist interpretations Such passivity, he argues, plays into

the hands of despotic rulers, who historically have benefited

from false interpretations of Islam The book was a

condem-nation of the rule of the Ottoman Turks, and particularly of

the sultan
Abd al-Hamid II A revival of Islamic civilization

could come only after fresh interpretation of law (ijtihad),

educational reforms, and sweeping political change,

begin-ning with the institution of an Arab caliphate in the place of

the Ottoman Turks The theme of renewed Arab leadership

in the Muslim umma is developed in the second book The

title is taken from a Quranic reference to Mecca, where

Kawakibi places a fictional conference of representatives

from various Muslim countries aimed at charting the reform

of Muslim peoples

See also Modernization, Political: Administrative,

Mili-tary, and Judicial Reform; Modernization, Political: Authoritarianism and Democratization; Moderniza- tion, Political: Constitutionalism; Modernization, Political: Participation, Political Movements, and Parties.

1921, he was awarded a scholarship to study law at theUniversity of Lyon in France In France, he wrote twodoctoral dissertations, one on English law and the other onthe subject of the caliphate in the modern age In 1926, al-Sanhuri returned to Egypt where he became a law professor

at the National University (now the Cairo University), andeventually became the dean of the law faculty Because of hisinvolvement in politics, and defense of the Egyptian Consti-tution, he was fired from his post in 1936, and left Egypt tobecome the dean of the Law College in Baghdad

After one year, he returned to Egypt where he held severalhigh-level cabinet posts before becoming the president of theCouncil of State in 1949 Initially, al-Sanhuri supported themovement of the Free Officers who overthrew the Egyptianmonarch in 1952, but because of al-Sanhuri’s insistence on areturn to civilian democratic rule and his defense of civilrights, he was ousted from his position and persecuted After

1954, al-Sanhuri withdrew from politics and focused hisefforts on scholarship and modernizing the civil codes ofseveral Arab countries Al-Sanhuri heavily influenced thedrafting of the civil codes of Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Libya, andKuwait One year before his death in Egypt, al-Sanhuricompleted a huge multivolume commentary on civil law,

called al-Wasit fi sharh al-qanun al-madani, which is still