A STUDY ON THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF AN ENGLISH FAIRY TALE a SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

A STUDY ON THE MEANING AND STRUCTUREOF AN ENGLISH FAIRY TALE A SYSTEMIC... ABSTRACT In this thesis I will study the meaning and structure of a chosen fairy-tale as seen from the systemic

A STUDY ON THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE

OF AN ENGLISH FAIRY TALE A SYSTEMIC

I certify that this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgement anymaterial previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; and that to mybest of my knowledge it does not contain any material previously published or written

by other people where due reference is not made in the text

Nguyễn Thị Lan

ABSTRACT

In this thesis I will study the meaning and structure of a chosen fairy-tale as seen from the systemic functional perspective Systemic functional grammar is a powerful analytical tool for analyzing a text with the transitivity system, the mood, the thematic pattern and the cohesion Also, a fairy-tale may be very familiar with a lot of people because they are told so many times when they are just little boys and girls and until they are mature already; therefore the analysis of the meaning and the structure of a fairy-tale is useful in some ways

I would like first to express my deep gratitude to Prof Dr Hoàng Văn Vân, mysupervisor, for his untiring and benevolent assistance granted to me throughout theprocess of my writing His practical advice, useful suggestions and critical feedbackhave been generous and beneficial, without which I would not have been able tocomplete this thesis

I am greatly indebted to my teachers at Viet Nam National University – Hanoiand Thai Nguyen University of Education and Training for their valuable teaching andtheir profound knowledge that have enlightened me and guided my research

I would further like to thank my colleagues at Hung Nhan Upper-SecondarySchool for their help and kind encouragement during the research period

Finally, I especially wish to thank all my family members for their love, supportand understanding while I was writing this thesis

Hanoi 9/ 2011

Nguyễn Thị Lan

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 Rationale of the study 1

1.2 Aims of the study 2

1.3 Scope of the study 2

1.4 Methods of the study 2

1.5 Design of the study 2

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 3 2.1 Introduction 3

2.2 Systemic functional grammar 3

2.2.1 Introduction to systemic functional grammar 3

2.2.2 Clause and clause complex 4

2.2.3 The transitivity system 6

2.2.4 The mood structure 12

2.2.5 The thematic structure 14

2.2.6 Cohesion 15

2.3 Theoretical backgrounds of fairy tales 20 2.3.1 What is fairy tales? 20

2.3.2 History of English fairy tales 21

2.3.3 Features of English fairy tales 21

CHAPTER 3 THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF THE FAIRY-TALE “CINDERELLA” 24 3.1 Introduction 27

3.2 The chosen text 29

3.3 Contextual configuration of the text 29

3.4 Clause and clause complex analysis 30

3.5 The transitivity pattern of the text 37

3.6 The mood pattern of the text 38

3.7 The thematic pattern of the text 39

3.8 The cohesion of the text 39

3.9 The structure of the fairy tale text 41

CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION 43 4.1 Recapitulation 43

4.2 Implications for the study 43

4.3 Suggestions for further study 44

APPENDIXES

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale of the study

There are many different approaches to describe the grammar of a language Oneapproach sees grammar as a set of rules which specify all the possible grammaticalstructures of the language where grammatical and ungrammatical sentences aredistinguished clearly and so, its main concern is the forms of grammatical structuresrather than with their meanings or their uses in contexts, therefore, the analysis ofsentences isn’t connected to real world sources

Another approach sees language as a system of communication and analysesgrammar to discover by what means it allows speakers and writers to make andexchange meanings Its main focus is not a clear distinction between grammatical andungrammatical forms but on the appropriateness of a form for a particularcommunicative purpose in a particular context In this approach, the function ofstructures is not concerned with their constituents and their meanings in context.Grammarians who are interested in this kind of description is likely to use data fromauthentic texts

The two approaches are clearly different from each other: the former approachrefers to grammatical analysis and it is often called formal while the later one is calledfunctional However, they are certainly exclusive

For me, I find functional grammar very useful and interesting because it offers us

an analytic tool of looking at the whole text Functional grammar is a complex butcomprehensive model Although it has been studied by many famous linguists in theworld, such as M A K Halliday (1961, 1967, 1970, 1978, 1985, 1994), it has not beenstudied much in Vietnam Up to now, there have been only two grammarians studying

the functional approach: Cao Xuân Hạo (1991) with the work Tiếng Việt – Sơ thảo ngữ pháp chức năng and Hoàng Văn Vân (2002) with Ngữ pháp kinh nghiệm của cú Tiếng Việt –Mô tả theo quan điểm chức năng hệ thống

Being a teacher of English, I want to contribute something to this field I would

like to choose “A study on the meaning and structure of an English fairy tale: a systemic functional analysis” for my thesis, using Halliday’s functional grammar as the

theoretical framework

1.2 Aims of the study

This thesis attempts to study the meaning and the structure of an English fairytale as seen from the systemic functional perspective

1.3 Scope of the study

This study does not mention all aspects of meaning and structure of the fairy talebut only some precious features are discussed They are the transitivity, the mood, thetheme pattern and the cohesion of the text

1.4 Methods of the study

The methods used in the study are descriptive and analytic

Descriptive method is concerned with the description of main areas of functionalgrammar and analytic method is concerned with the analysis of the text

1.5 Design of the study

This thesis is divided into 4 chapters:

- Chapter 1: Introduction – presents the rationale of the study, the aims, the scope,the methods and the design of the study

- Chapter 2: Literature Review provides the theoretical background of the study.Its focus is on introducing important concepts in systemic functional linguisticsrelevant to the topic of the study and knowledge surrounding the kind of fairytales

- Chapter 3: The meaning and structure of an English fairy tale Cinderella –

analyzes the fairy tale as seen from the systemic functional point of view

- Chapter 4: Conclusion – summarizes the results of the study, suggests someimplications for discourse analysts, students and teachers of discourse analysisand then presents some suggestions for further research

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter we will present background knowledge on systemic functionalgrammar and overview some aspects of this theory (the transitivity system, the moodstructure, the thematic structure and cohesion)

2.2 Systemic functional grammar

2.2.1 Introduction to systemic functional grammar

Systemic functional grammar is a grammatical model developed by M.A.K

Halliday In his book An introduction to Functional Grammar (1994), Halliday

explained that his grammar is called functional because “the conceptual framework onwhich it is based is a functional one rather than a formal one It is functional in threedistinct although closely related senses: in its representation (1) of texts, (2) of thesystem, and (3) of the elements of linguistic structures” (Halliday, 1994) According toHalliday, language is functional in sense that it is designed to account for how language

is used and language has evolved to satisfy human needs Therefore, the fundamentalcomponents of meaning in language are functional components and each element in alanguage is explained by reference to its function in the total linguistic system.Halliday’s grammar model is also called systemic because he developed the detailedsystem networks named mood type for many areas of English grammar

Hoang Van Van states that systemic functional grammar owns “a very rich pool

of analytical instruments which help researchers tackle not only phonological but alsogrammatical (syntax), semantic and discoursal problems of a text” (Hoang Van Van2006: 161) This theory encompasses all levels of language: phonology, lexico-grammar,semantics and context of situation where language occurs In terms of phonology, itstudies the resources of intonation, rhythm, and syllabic and phonemic articulation

Lexico-grammar includes lexis or vocabulary and grammar in a unified system.Semantics is concerned with the system of meaning Unlike other grammatical theories,this theory develops a model for contextual analysis which consists of three components

or parameters: field, tenor, and mode His model can be represented as follows:

 Field: refers to what it is happening, to the nature of the social action that

is taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which thelanguage features as some essential components?

 Tenor: refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statusesand roles: what kind of role relationships of one kind or another, both of thetypes of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue and the whole cluster

of socially significant relationships in which they are involved?

 Mode: refers to what part the language is playing, what it is that the participantsare expecting the language to do for them in that situation: the symbolicorganization of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context,including the channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two?)and also the rhetorical mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of suchcategories as persuasive, expository, didactic and the like

(Halliday in Halliday and Hasan 1989: 12)

2.2.2 Clause and clause complex

2.2.2.1 Clause complex

In Halliday’s theory of functional grammar, a sentence can be interpreted as aclause complex: a Head clause together with other clauses that modifying it There is thesame kind of relationship between sentence and clause as there is between group andword: the sentence has evolved by expansion outwards from the clause However, wecan not account for all of sentence structure simply in terms of Head + Modifier becausethere are a lot of kinds of modifying and also other similar relationships

With the notion of clause complex, we are able to account in full for thefunctional organization of sentences A sentence can be defined as a clause complex.The clause complex will be the only grammatical unit which we shall recognized abovethe clause Therefore, there is no need to bring in the term “sentence” as a distinctgrammatical category.

The relations between clauses are interpreted in terms of the “logical” component

of the linguistic system: the functional-semantic relations that make up the logic ofnatural language There are two systemic dimensions in the interpretation: one isinterdependency including parataxis and hypotaxis which is general to all complexes-word, group, phrase and clause alike, and the other is the logico-system of expansionand projection, which is specifically an inter-clausal relation

2.2.2.2 Types of relationship between clauses

2.2.2.2.1 Type of interdependency

In this type, the relation of modifying, whereby one element ‘modifies’ another,

is not the only relationship that may obtain between the members of a complex Whereone element modifies another, the status of the two is unequal; the modifying element isdependent on the modified But two elements may be joined together on an equalfooting, neither being dependent on the other

Hypotaxis:

The general term for the modifying relation is Hypotaxis Hypotaxis is therelation between a dependent element and its dominant, the element on which it isdependent The dominant element is free, but the dependent element is not

Hypotaxis will be represented by the Greek letter notation already used formodification on the structure of the group

Parataxis:

Parataxis is the relation between two like elements of equal status, one initiatingand the other continuing Paratactic structures are presented by a numerical notation 1 2

3… Both the initiating and the continuing element are free, in the sense that each couldstand as a functioning whole

2.2.2.2.2 Type of logico-semantic relation

In this type of semantic relation, there is a wide range of different semantic relations any of which may hold between a primary and a secondary member

logico-of a clause nexus and it is possible to group these into a small number logico-of general types,based on the two fundamental relationships of Expansion and Projection

Expansion: the secondary clause expands the primary clause, by elaborating it,

extending it, or enhancing it

Projection: the secondary clause is projected through the primary clause, which

instates it as a locution or an idea

Within the general categories of expansion and projection, we recognized first ofall a small number of subtypes: three of expansion, and two of projection The namesthese, with suggested notation, are as follows:

(1) Expansion:

- enhancing x ( is multiplied by)

(2) Projection:

These symbols combine with those for parataxis and hypotaxis:

Elaborating: one clause expands another by elaborating on it (or some portion of

it): restating in other words, specifying in greater detail, commenting, or exemplifying

Extending: one clause expands another by extending beyond it: adding some new

element, giving an exception to it, or offering an alternative

Enhancing: one clause expands another by embellishing around it, qualifying it

with some circumstantial feature of time, place, cause, or condition

Locution: one clause is projected through another, which presents it as a locution,

a construction of wording

Idea: one clause is projected through another, which presents it as an idea, a

construction of meaning

2.2.3 The transitivity system

According to Halliday (1970), language has three functions: ideational,interpersonal, and textual Each of the three metafunctions is about a different aspect ofthe world, and is concerned with different mode of meaning of clauses and all thesefunctions are reflected in the structure of the clause The ideational metafunction, whichincludes experiential function and logical function is about the natural world, includingour own consciousness, and is concerned with clause as representation Theinterpersonal metafunction is about the social world, especially the relationship betweenspeaker and hearer, and is concerned with clause as exchange and the third metafunction textual metafunction is about the verbal world, and is concerned with clause asmessages

Experiential meanings are realized through the system of TRANSITIVITY andthe transitivity construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process types

In the transitivity system of English, six process types are recognized: Material, Mental, Verbal, Behavioural, Relational, and Existential.

2.2.3.1 Material process

Material process is the process of doing or action/ event such as running,walking, catching, kicking, etc The basic meaning of material process is that someentity does something or undertakes some actions, so to realize this type of process we

often ask question “What did X do?”

There may be one, two or even three participants in this process but there must

be an obligator one which is Actor The Actor is the doer of the action When a processhas only one participant (Actor), it is called intransitive When there are twoparticipants, the process is called transitive and these transitive clauses are probed by

“What did X do to Y?” and in this case, these roles are referred to respectively as Actor

and Goal (one that is affected by the action) In some material processes, there appearsthe third participant which is called Receiver, which is the one benefiting from theprocess The following examples reflects the material process

(e1)

(e2)

(e3)

The representation of a material process can come either the active form or thepassive form The examples above are in active form and the following example is inactive form

(e4)

2.2.3.2 Mental process

Mental process is the process of sensing such as thinking, loving It is dividedinto four main types: cognition (thinking, knowing, realizing), perception (hearing,sensing, feeling), affection (loving, hating, adoring, pampering) and desideration(wanting, desiring, wishing) In this process, we do not talk about what we are doing but

about what we think or feel Therefore, we do not probe mental process by asking “What did X do to Y?” but we often ask “What do you think/ feel/ know about X?” In mental

processes, there are often two participants: Sensor (one who senses, feels, thinks, orwants ) and Phenomenon (one that is sensed, felt, thought of, and wanted)

(e5)

Possessive: “X has a”

Each of these comes in two modes: attributive and identifying

Attributive: “a is an attributive of X”

Identifying: “a is the identify of X”

When a relational process is in the attributive mode, it has one participantreferred to Carrier and the quality or the thing showing that the Carrier belongs to a class

of things, which is usually realized by an adjective or an indefinite nominal group, isusually referred to as Attribute The participants in identifying process are called Tokenand Value or sometimes they are called Identified and Identifier

2.2.3.4 Behavioural process

Behavioural process is the process of physiological and psychological behavioursuch as crying, breathing, drinking, coughing, laughing, and dreaming Hallidaydescribes this process semantically as a “half way house” between mental and materialprocess The meanings it realizes are midway between the material on the one hand andthe mental on the other hand They are in part about action, but it is action that has to beexperienced by a conscious being Usually there is only one participant in a behaviouralprocess which is called Behaver, and typically a conscious being, and not a lifelessthing

For example,

(e8)

We can say “She laughed” but not “The door laughed” or “The tree laughed”.

Behavioural process can contain a second participant that is like a Range (a restatement

of the process) This participant is called Behaver

For example,

If the second participant is not a restatement it is called a Phenomenon

(e10)

2.2.3.5 Verbal process

Verbal process is the process of saying such as saying, telling, talking, speaking.The typical participants in this process are Sayer (the one who does the verbalization),Receiver (the one to whom the saying is addressed, Target (the one that the verbalization

is directed to), and the Verbiage (the message itself)

For example,

(e11)

As with all processes, Circumstance can occur in verbal process, mostly is manner (e12)

2.2.3.6 Existential process

Existential process is the process of existing, indicating that something or some

natural force exists It has normally one participant called Existent and some

circumstantial elements In an existential clause, the subject “There” is often used

although it does not receive any functional label in an existential process

(e13)

Process: existential Existent Circumstance

These process types can be summarized in the table below:

Process type Category meaning Participants

Actor, Goal, Recipient

Table 1: Process types, their meanings and key participants

(Source: Halliday 1994: 143)

2.2.4 The mood structure

An obvious thing is that people use their language to communicate with eachother, to exchange information, or to influence their behaviour and get something done.When one uses a language he plays a role such as questioner or an informant The roles

of “questioner” and “informant” tend to alternate between the interlocutors engaged in aconversation And the language here has an interpersonal metafunction

Interpersonal metafunction is concerned with the interaction between speakerand hearer or writer and reader The functions within this component include giving ordemanding information, expressing intention, expressing attitude, etc These functionshave more to do with social interaction than with content It is concerned with the clause

as exchange

As an exchange or an interactive event, a clause consists of two components: theMood and the Residue The Mood is “the component that is bandied” (Halliday 1994:72) Its function is to carry the argument forward The Mood comprises of twofunctional elements: the Subject and the Finite The Subject is a nominal group and theFinite is a verb element which has the function of making the proposition finite TheResidue is the remainder of the clause It consists of three functional components: thePredicator, the Complement, and the Adjunct The Predicator is presented in all non-elliptical major clauses, and it is realized by a verbal group; the Complement is anelement within the Residue that has the potential of being Subject, and is typicallyrealized by a nominal group; and the Adjunct is an element that has not got the potential

of being a subject, and it is realized by an adverbial group or a prepositional phrase.For example,

(e14)

As we know all the roles of speech are traced back to a form of either giving ordemanding and these roles are simultaneously related to the two general things ofcommodity negotiated between people goods-&-services, or information, for examplegiving information is a statement and demanding goods-&-service makes up acommand, etc Giving information is typically realized by a declarative clause;demanding goods-&-services is typically realized by an imperative clause anddemanding information is typically realized by an interrogative clause Therefore, wehave different types of Mood which are represented in the figure below:

Mood indicative interrogative

declarative

imperative inclusive

exclusive

Figure 1 A fragment of the Mood system in English

Also we have different types of Modality such as ability (e.g., I can swim), possibility (e.g., Can I have an English book, please?), supposition (e.g., He must be the thief), permission (e.g., May I go out?), etc

2.2.5 The thematic structure

As mentioned above, textual metafunction is about the verbal world and it isconcerned with clause as message When we look at the clause from the perspective ofwhat is being talked about we are turning to examine aspects which can only be properlyunderstood by looking at the clause in its context in the rest of the language around it

Seeing language from the point of view of the textual metafunction, we aretrying to see how speakers build up their messages in a way which makes them fitsmoothly into the unfolding language event The speaker’s organization of the clause asmessage is represented through the thematic structure Thematic structure “gives theclause its character as message” (Halliday 1994: 37), and thus creates relevant to the

context Relevant to the realization of the system of theme are two elements: Theme andRheme.

The Theme serves as the departure of the message, which coincides with theinitial elements of the clause in English The Rheme is the remainder of the message.The theme can be realized by a nominal group, an adverbial group or a prepositionalphrase It may be single or multiple, marked or unmarked When the Theme “consists oftwo or more groups or phrases forming a single structure element”, it is single (Halliday1994: 40) On the contrary, a multiple theme is the one that has a further internalstructure of its own Here we distinguish between Topical theme, Textual theme andInterpersonal theme A topical theme is the one that is conflated with an experientialelement of the clause It means that the theme ends with the first constituent that is eitherparticipant, circumstance, or process A textual theme is any combination of

continuative (yes, no, now), structure (and, but ), conjunctive (also, next, finally…) And within interpersonal theme, we may have a modal, the finite verbs (in Yes/No

interrogative clause) and also a vocative element

In the declarative clause, an unmarked theme “is the mapping of theme ontosubject” (Halliday 1994: 43) And a marked theme “is something other than the subject”(Halliday 1994: 44) such as Complement, Adjunct, or even Predicator

Below are some examples to illustrate the thematic structure of the clause

Well but then Ann surely wouldn’t the best idea be to join

2.2.6 Cohesion

2.2.6.1 The concept of cohesion

The concept of cohesion is a semantic one which refers to relations of meaningthat exists within the text, and that defines it as a text Cohesion occurs where theinterpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another The onepresupposes the other, in the sense that it can not be effectively decoded except byrecourse to it When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements,the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into atext

There are four ways by which cohesion is created in English: by reference,ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical organization We will mention these types of cohesion

in the next parts

2 2.6.2 Reference

According to Halliday, “a participant or circumstantial element introduced at oneplace in the text can be taken as a reference point to something that follows” Referenceexpresses the relationship of identity which exists between units in discourse Reference

can be divided into anaphoric reference, cataphoric reference, exophoric reference, personal reference, demonstrative reference, and comparative reference.

Anaphoric Reference is the item(s) that “point backwards to the preceding text.”

(Halliday 1994: 312)

For example,

This lady is a professor She works in a large university in New York.

Cataphoric reference is a cohesive device which points the reader or listener

forwards –it draws us further into the text in order to identify the elements to which thereference items refer

For example,

He coughed all night The boy has been got a cold.

Exophoric reference is “a mean of linking ‘outwards’ to some person or object in

the environment” (Halliday 1994: 312)

E.g.: The spaceship flew around the new planet several times

Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation,

through the category of person

E.g The two astronauts put on their space suits.

Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale of

proximity It is expressed through determiner: this, that, these, those and adverbs here, there.

Comparative reference is expressed through adjectives and adverbs and serves to

compare items within a text in terms of identity or similarity Any expression such as the same, another, similar, different, as small, smaller, less small, and related adverbs such

as likewise, differently, equally, presumes some standard of reference in the preceding

text According to Halliday (1994) comparative reference “set up a relation of contrast.”

E.g He then bought a smaller house

2.2.6.3 Substitution

According to Halliday and Hasan (1997), substitution is “a relation betweenlinguistic item, such as words and phrases” It refers to the process or result of replacingone item by another at a particular place in discourse There are three types ofsubstitution: nominal substitution, verbal substitution, and clausal substitution

Nominal substitution is the use of a substitute word to replace the Head of a

corresponding nominal group The noun which is functioned as the Head is always a

countable noun In English, nominal substitution is often realized by items such as one, ones and same

For example,

I like the blue hat I do not like the red one

Verbal substitute in English is do This functions as head of a verbal group, in the

place that is occupied by the lexical verb Its position is always at the end of the group

E.g They don’t like this shirt but I do.

Clausal substitution is the one “in which what is presupposed is not an element

with in the clause but an entire clause” (Halliday and Hasan 1997: 130) The words are

used as clausal substitute are so and not

E.g She said it would rain the following day but I didn’t think so

Will it rain tomorrow? – I think not

2.2.6.4 Ellipsis

Another form of cohesion is ellipsis Ellipsis can be thought of as the omission of

an item within the text Like substitution, ellipsis can be studied in terms of nominalellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis

Nominal ellipsis, at the experiential level, is typically realized by the structure of

“Deictic + Numerative + Epithet + Classifier + Thing” (Halliday 1994: 180), for example, the two floppy cotton hats When the Thing is omitted, the Head will be taken

on by the one of the other element

E.g - I like the blue shirt.

- I like the green + ( 0)

Verbal ellipsis means ellipsis with in the verbal group.

E.g – What are you doing?

– ( 0 ) watching TV.

Clausal ellipsis is related to the question–answer process in dialogue There are two kinds: Yes/No ellipsis and Wh –elipsis Besides, there may be ellipsis of the whole

clause or just one part of it

E.g – Mary broken this teapot

– Did she? She didn’t tell me ( 0).

2.2.6.5 Conjunctive cohesion

Conjunction is different from reference, substitution and ellipsis in that it is not adevice for reminding the reader or listener of previously mentioned entities, actions, andstates of affairs Conjunction is a type of cohesion that “constitutes a cohesive bondbetween two clauses (Halliday 1994: 180) In English, four types of conjunction arerecognized: adversative, additive, temporal, and causal Each of them will be discussed

Additive

The additive relation is often expressed by and at the beginning of new sentence

is somewhat different from coordination proper, although it is no doubt derivable from

it The coordination holds the structural relations within a sentence and additive relation

holds the relation within or between sentences However, when we are consideringcohesive relations, we can group both of the two types that appears structurally in the

form of coordination, the “and” type and the “or” type under the heading of additive.

The distinction between these two is not of primary significance for purposes of textualcohesion; and in any case, it is not the same distinction as that which is found betweenthem in coordination The position of the two related items are interchangeable in mostcases

by simple temporal markers such as then, next, after that, subsequently, then, at the same time, earlier, before, then/that, previously, simultaneously.

With complex temporal relation, the meaning is more specific, often inconjunction with some additional elements Temporal relation may be immediate,interrupted, repetitive, specific, durative, terminal, and punctiliar These relations are

realized by conjunctives such as at once, on which, just before, after a time, next time,

on another occasion, this time, meanwhile, by this time, until then, at this moment/point, presently, the previous moment and so on.

Conclusive relation differs from those mentioned above in the sense that it is one–directional, for example, the event is subsequent to all events in a particular passage In

English this type of temporal relation is realized by conjunctive such as finally, at last, in the end, eventually, to conclude with, to sum up with, in short, to resume, to get back to the point, etc.

Causal

The causal relation in English is expressed by so, thus, hence, therefore,

nevertheless, however, consequently, accordingly and a number of expressions like as a result, in consequence, because of that, etc The causal relation must consist of two

elements: cause and effect Logically, a cause precedes an effect, but sometimes people start with the effect and then find its root in the cause And parallel to the causal

relationship, there is a conditional relation with the formula “if a, then b, or b if a”

2.2.6.6 Lexical cohesion

When “the selection of items that are related in some way to those that have gonebefore’ lexical cohesion occurs (Halliday 1994: 330) Halliday and Hasan (1997)classify lexical cohesion into two main types: reiteration and collocation Underreiteration there are five subtypes: repetition, synonymy, antonymy, superordinate, andgeneral word

Repetition refers to the same lexical item with the same meaning happening more

than one in the same discourse/text For example: Yesterday, I met a boy The boy is atthe same age with my son

Synonymy refers to the choice of a lexical item that in some sense bears the same meaning or nearby the same meaning with a preceding one For example, Last night I was woken up by a loud sound It is the noise of trotting horses.

Antonymy refers to the lexical items which are opposite in meaning

E.g I often get up late in the morning but my parents often get up early

Superordinate can be understood to be synonyms of some higher level of

generality In this type of cohesion, there are two other items which are particularvariants of synonymy: hyponymy and meronymy Hyponymy present a specific/generalrelationship The relation between the two lower terms is that of co-hyponym Forexample:

Vehicle: car, bus, motorbike, coach

Tree: oak, pine,