Oil and gas pipelines in the black caspian seas region

Parkhomchik Potential Oil Pipeline Projects in the Black Sea: Caspian Region.. Ishin Experience of Azerbaijan in Construction of Main Oil and Gas Pipelines in the Caspian Sea Region: Env

Oil and Gas

Pipelines in the Black-Caspian Seas Region

Sergey S Zhiltsov

Igor S Zonn

Andrey G Kostianoy Editors

The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry 51

Series Editors: Damià Barceló · Andrey G Kostianoy

The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Founded by Otto Hutzinger

Editors-in-Chief: Damia` Barcelo´ l Andrey G Kostianoy Volume 51

Advisory Board:

Jacob de Boer, Philippe Garrigues, Ji-Dong Gu,

Kevin C Jones, Thomas P Knepper, Alice Newton, Donald L Sparks

Oil and Gas Pipelines in the Black-Caspian Seas Region

Volume Editors: Sergey S Zhiltsov
Igor S Zonn

Andrey G Kostianoy

With contributions by

A Aliyev
L Barbagelata
G.V Georgiev
O.G Grishicheva

R Huseynzade
A.V Ishin
E.A Kostianaia
A.G Kostianoy
L.A Parkhomchik
A.V Semenov
A.G Semerdjiev

D.M Soloviev
S.S Zhiltsov
I.S Zonn

P.P Shirshov Institute of Oceanology

Russian Academy of Sciences

Moscow

Russia

Igor S ZonnSoyuzvodprojectEngineering Research Production Center forWater Management, Land Reclamationand Ecology

MoscowRussia

ISSN 1867-979X ISSN 1616-864X (electronic)

The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry

ISBN 978-3-319-43906-8 ISBN 978-3-319-43908-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43908-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016955168

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission

or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland

Prof Dr Damia` Barcelo´

Department of Environmental Chemistry

Prof Dr Andrey G Kostianoy

P.P Shirshov Institute of OceanologyRussian Academy of Sciences

36, Nakhimovsky Pr

117997 Moscow, Russiakostianoy@gmail.com

Advisory Board

Prof Dr Jacob de Boer

IVM, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Prof Dr Philippe Garrigues

University of Bordeaux, France

Prof Dr Ji-Dong Gu

The University of Hong Kong, China

Prof Dr Kevin C Jones

University of Lancaster, United Kingdom

Prof Dr Thomas P Knepper

University of Applied Science, Fresenius, Idstein, Germany

Prof Dr Alice Newton

University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Prof Dr Donald L Sparks

Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware, USA

v

Also Available Electronically

The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry is included in Springer’s eBook

package, the book series may be bought on a subscription basis

of Environmental Chemistry, we offer free access to the electronic volumes of theSeries published in the current year via SpringerLink If you do not have access, youcan still view the table of contents of each volume and the abstract of each article onSpringerLink (www.springerlink.com/content/110354/)

You will find information about the

– Editorial Board

– Aims and Scope

– Instructions for Authors

– Sample Contribution

at springer.com (www.springer.com/series/698)

All figures submitted in color are published in full color in the electronic version onSpringerLink

Aims and Scope

and solid knowledge about environmental topics from a chemical perspective.Presenting a wide spectrum of viewpoints and approaches, the series now coverstopics such as local and global changes of natural environment and climate;anthropogenic impact on the environment; water, air and soil pollution; remediationand waste characterization; environmental contaminants; biogeochemistry; geo-ecology; chemical reactions and processes; chemical and biological transformations

as well as physical transport of chemicals in the environment; or environmentalmodeling A particular focus of the series lies on methodological advances inenvironmental analytical chemistry

vii

Series Preface

Environ-mental Chemistry in 1980 and became the founding Editor-in-Chief At that time,environmental chemistry was an emerging field, aiming at a complete description

of the Earth’s environment, encompassing the physical, chemical, biological, andgeological transformations of chemical substances occurring on a local as well as aglobal scale Environmental chemistry was intended to provide an account of theimpact of man’s activities on the natural environment by describing observedchanges

While a considerable amount of knowledge has been accumulated over the last

Environmental Chemistry, there are still many scientific and policy challengesahead due to the complexity and interdisciplinary nature of the field The serieswill therefore continue to provide compilations of current knowledge Contribu-

Handbook of Environmental Chemistry grows with the increases in our scientificunderstanding, and provides a valuable source not only for scientists but also forenvironmental managers and decision-makers Today, the series covers a broadrange of environmental topics from a chemical perspective, including methodolog-ical advances in environmental analytical chemistry

In recent years, there has been a growing tendency to include subject matter ofsocietal relevance in the broad view of environmental chemistry Topics includelife cycle analysis, environmental management, sustainable development, andsocio-economic, legal and even political problems, among others While these

Hand-book of Environmental Chemistry, the publisher and Editors-in-Chief have decided

to keep the handbook essentially a source of information on “hard sciences” with aparticular emphasis on chemistry, but also covering biology, geology, hydrologyand engineering as applied to environmental sciences

The volumes of the series are written at an advanced level, addressing the needs

of both researchers and graduate students, as well as of people outside the field of

ix

“pure” chemistry, including those in industry, business, government, researchestablishments, and public interest groups It would be very satisfying to seethese volumes used as a basis for graduate courses in environmental chemistry.

Envi-ronmental Chemistry provides a solid basis from which scientists can share theirknowledge on the different aspects of environmental problems, presenting a widespectrum of viewpoints and approaches

The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry is available both in print and onlinevia www.springerlink.com/content/110354/ Articles are published online as soon

as they have been approved for publication Authors, Volume Editors and

Chemistry by the scientific community, from whom suggestions for new topics tothe Editors-in-Chief are always very welcome

Damia` Barcelo´Andrey G KostianoyEditors-in-Chief

Introduction 1Sergey S Zhiltsov

Andrey G Kostianoy, Igor S Zonn, and Evgeniia A Kostianaia

Hydrocarbon Potential of the Caspian Region 37Sergey S Zhiltsov, Igor S Zonn, and Aleksandr V Semenov

Oil and Gas Production in the Black Sea Shelf 51Igor S Zonn and Sergey S Zhiltsov

Investigation of the Hydrocarbon Potential in the Black Sea Region:

First Results 67Sergey S Zhiltsov and Igor S Zonn

Pipeline Architecture of the Black Sea–Caspian Sea Region:

Geographical and Political Issues 75Igor S Zonn

Russia’s Policy Toward the Pipeline Transport in the Caspian Region:Results and Prospects 85Sergey S Zhiltsov

EU Policy in Shaping the Pipeline Architecture in the Caspian Region 95Sergey S Zhiltsov

Chinese Pipeline Projects in the Caspian Region 105Sergey S Zhiltsov and Olga G Grishicheva

xi

Iranian Direction of Hydrocarbon Transport: Present State

and Difficulties 117Igor S Zonn and Aleksander V Semenov

Export of Hydrocarbons from Turkmenistan: Results

and Perspectives 125Igor S Zonn, Sergey S Zhiltsov, and Aleksandr V Semenov

Kazakhstan Pipeline Policy in the Caspian Region 139Lidiya A Parkhomchik

Potential Oil Pipeline Projects in the Black Sea: Caspian Region 153Sergey S Zhiltsov

Multilateral Cooperation in the Black Sea Region in the Energy Field 163Andrey V Ishin

Experience of Azerbaijan in Construction of Main Oil and Gas

Pipelines in the Caspian Sea Region: Environmental Aspects 169Rafiga Huseynzade and Azer Aliyev

The Bulgarian Gas Transmission System: Status Quo and Vision

for Future Development 197Georgi V Georgiev and Angel G Semerdjiev

Environmental Risks in Production and Transportation

of Hydrocarbons in the Caspian–Black Sea Region 211Igor S Zonn and Andrey G Kostianoy

Satellite Monitoring of Dzhubga-Lazarevskoye-Sochi Offshore

Gas Pipeline Construction 225Andrey G Kostianoy, Evgeniia A Kostianaia, and Dmitry M Soloviev

Co.L.Mar.: Subsea Leak Detection with Passive Acoustic Technology 261Luigi Barbagelata and Andrey G Kostianoy

Conclusions 279Igor S Zonn

Index 285

Sergey S Zhiltsov

Abstract This book takes together and systematizes the information about thepipeline projects that were accomplished or discussed beginning from the late1980s to the mid-second decade of the twenty-first century in the Black Sea andCaspian Sea regions Using the abundant data available on this issue, the authorsinvestigated the state and perspectives of oil and gas production in the countries ofthe Black Sea and Caspian Sea regions and described numerous projects, each ofwhich made its own weighty contribution into the development of the pipelinetransport in this part of the world This book is intended for specialists in interna-tional relations in the field of energy, regional relations, for experts studying thesocioeconomic and political development of the countries of the Black Sea andCaspian Sea regions

Keywords Black Sea region, Caspian region, Hydrocarbon resources, Pipelineprojects, Production

S.S Zhiltsov et al (eds.), Oil and Gas Pipelines in the Black-Caspian Seas Region,

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 51: 1–6, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_393,

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, Published online: 25 July 2015

1

primitive hand-dug wells The industrial drilling was started in 1848 near Bakuwhich was 11 years earlier than the first well bored abroad, i.e., in the USA.

In the years to follow, the petroleum industry progressed at a quick pace In

1874, the Partnership of Nobel Brothers was established that launched the struction of oil pipelines that connected oil fields with the refineries in Baku In

con-1877, the construction of the oil pipeline near Baku was completed In 1883,

A Rothschild created the Caspian and Black Sea Oil Industry and Trade Societythat became the key oil product exporter

The history of the oil industry in Tsarist Russia and later on in the USSR wasclosely connected with Azerbaijan – the former republic of the Soviet Union In1888–1901, Azerbaijan was the first in the world by oil production – 11.5 milliontons (USA produced only one million tons) In the early twentieth century, the Bakuoil region accounted for 95% of the total oil production in Russia or nearly 50% ofthe world production The construction of pipelines is also connected withAzerbaijan In 1906, the Baku–Batumi kerosene pipeline was put into operation.Azerbaijan pioneered oil extraction from the Caspian Sea shelf and constructedone of the first oil pipelines And it was in the territory of Azerbaijan that themodern oil industry of the USSR was shaped and developing further it expanded toSiberia The history of oil production in Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan also takes itsorigin in the late nineteenth–early twentieth centuries

In the Soviet time, Azerbaijan was the main oil producer In the late 1930s, theoil production exceeded 20 million tons; in 1941, it was 23.5 million tons Theproblems of exploration, production, and export of hydrocarbons to the markets inthe Soviet republics located on the Caspian Sea – Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, andTurkmenistan – were regulated by the plans developed by the central government.The hydrocarbon resources that were extracted in the oil fields of the Caspiancountries were used to cover the needs in oil and natural gas within the SovietUnion The hydrocarbon deposits in the Caspian countries were treated as apotential reserve that could be used only in the far future

In the 1940s–1950s, the Caspian Sea shelf was in the focus of attention Thattime, the oil field Neftyanye Kamni (Oil Rocks) located 50 km eastward of Bakuwas discovered However, the offshore oil production was unable to recompensethe drop of production in land oil fields that were gradually depleting Meanwhilethe oil production remained high which required the construction of the Baku–Novorossiysk oil line

The Black Sea shelf exploration started rather late – in the 1970s when the mainoil and gas fields were surveyed For several decades, about dozens of hydrocarbondeposits were discovered in the Black Sea But here the Black Sea countries facedsignificant difficulties, first of all, geological conditions and aggressive hydrogensulfide environment Perhaps this explained the slow pace of oil and gas fielddevelopment in the Black Sea shelf As a result, until the late twentieth century,there was no industrial-scale development of hydrocarbon resources The role of theBlack Sea region was mostly limited by the trade, economic, and transportationactivities The hydrocarbon production was developed, but only locally, while thevolumes of oil and gas transit across the Black Sea were insignificant

After breakdown of the USSR, the situation has changed drastically whichentailed geopolitical transformation of the vast Eurasian space One of the conse-quences was a changed role of oil and natural gas available in the former SovietRepublics The Caspian hydrocarbons became an important element of the foreign

Caspian states, primarily Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan, not onlyinfluenced enormously the formation of new international relations in the Caspianregion, but caused the radical change of the energy flows and their direction – fromnorth–south to east–west

The role of the Black Sea region also changed radically After significantpotential hydrocarbon reserves were found in the Caspian Sea shelf, this regionbecame the focus of attention of Western countries and oil and gas companies.The transit potential of this region has grown enormously This region becamethe “bridge” for hydrocarbon transit from the Caspian region to the Europeancountries In respect of the Caspian region and Central Asian countries, the BlackSea region took the transit position and in this scheme the Caspian countries playedthe role of the crude hydrocarbon base for export pipelines that would bringhydrocarbons to the European market Finally, the states located on the shores ofthe Black and Caspian Seas came to be regarded as the unified Black Sea–CaspianSea region

The new stage in development of the Black Sea–Caspian Sea region started fromthe second half of the 1990s when new assessments of the hydrocarbon reserveswere made public This involved revision of the adopted notions on the geography

The greatest attention was focused as before on the Caspian littoral states –Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan The enormous oil and gas depositsfound in these countries made it possible to attract foreign investments into theirdevelopment; they also gave a new impetus to the discussion of numerous pipeline

Publication of the figures about fantastic energy reserves was the main reasonwhy this region found itself in the focus of the world politics and was turned into theobject of the geopolitical struggle between the regional and non-regional states

economic growth and amplification of their influence in the international energymarket with the growing volumes of oil and gas production

Following the Caspian countries that pioneered development of the hydrocarbonpotential, the Black Sea countries came to pay greater attention to the oil and gas

Sea enhanced the depletion of land energy deposits, many of which were alreadyworked out by the 1990s Thus, Ukraine, Romania, and Bulgaria had land fieldswhere hydrocarbons were produced But appearance of new technologies foroffshore drilling permitted to develop plans on the increase of the oil and gasproduction in the Black Sea shelf

In the recent decade, regardless of the available difficulties, the attention to theBlack Sea–Caspian Sea region was sustainably growing The oil companies

endeavored to get attached to hydrocarbon fields in the Caspian and Black Seacountries The new pipeline projects, many of which would cross the Black Sea,were discussed actively The representatives of the Western states were energeti-cally seeking for lobby groups in the governments of these countries which would

the Black Sea states that took a beneficial transit position

In the 1990s, different assessments of the hydrocarbon resources available in theBlack Sea–Caspian Sea region appeared which enhanced significantly the interest

in the countries of this region to development and implementation of new pipelineprojects However, by the beginning of the second decade of the twenty-firstcentury, only a small number of such projects were actually realized, but manyprojects on oil export to the foreign markets remained relevant

Russia, for which the Black Sea–Caspian Sea region is of special interest,influences greatly the situation with oil and gas production and their export to theforeign markets In the recent decades, the Russian policy in the Black Sea regionrelated to construction of pipelines took into account the changing geopoliticalsituation and requirements of European countries in additional volumes of oil andnatural gas These factors were vital for development and implementation of newpipeline projects [7]

In the early 1990s, the USA and EU focused great attention on the BlackSea–Caspian Sea region The key target of the US and European policy was todiversify the routes of hydrocarbon export to the foreign markets Many visits andconferences were organized to attain this goal They discussed perspectives of the

With the progress of hydrocarbon development in the Caspian region, China alsostarted showing interest to the Caspian hydrocarbons With time, the energy policy

of Beijing took a clear-cut shape and acquired the comprehensive nature TheChinese policy passed several stages: from acquiring access to the oil and gas fields

in the countries of this region to construction of export pipelines for energy supply

to Beijing Meanwhile, the Caspian countries, primarily Turkmenistan and stan, were seeking to develop further the cooperation with China Chinese invest-ments into development of oil and gas fields and implementation of pipelineprojects helped the Caspian countries to increase the oil and gas production and

Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan focused attention on the Iranian route of carbon transit Numerous projects of pipelines that should pass across the Iranianterritory were developed, but only a few of them were realized due to complicatedrelationships among Iran and Western countries Nevertheless, the beneficial geo-graphical position of Iran keeps this country in the focus of attention on the part ofthe Caspian countries

hydro-Oil and gas extraction and transit are accompanied by deteriorating mental situation in the Black Sea–Caspian Sea region In this context, the priorityshould be given to development of the systems to detect leakages and accidents inthe hydrocarbon production and transit facilities The issues of environmental

environ-security should not be the headache of particular companies or enterprises, butshould become the interstate goal for the Black Sea–Caspian Sea region.

Possessing considerable oil and gas reserves, the countries of the Black Sea–Caspian Sea region continue to play the key role in formation of new export flows.The dynamics of their development will depend on the growth of oil and gasproduction that remains the key factor for development of the Black Sea–CaspianSea region

This book represents a comprehensive investigation of the hydrocarbon andtransit potential of the Black Sea–Caspian Sea region It covers a wide range ofissues faced by the Caspian and Black Sea states in pursuance of their energypolicy

This book may become a springboard for pushing further the study of the energyand geopolitical issues encountered by the countries of the Black Sea–Caspian Searegion

5 Guseinov VA (2006) The geopolitical role of the Mediterranean-Caspian region In: Shmelev

NP, Guseinov VA, Yazkov AA (eds) The Mediterranean – Black Sea – Caspian: between Great Europe and Great Near East Publishing House “Granitsa”, Moscow, pp 9–21

6 Dzhuvarly TCh (2001) The Azerbaijan ’s oil: search for the resultant Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State M Issue 4, pp 379–434

7 Grinevetsky SR, Zhiltsov SS, Zonn IS (2007) The Black Sea node International Relations, Moscow, pp 58–86

8 Zhiltsov SS, Zonn IS (2014) Caspian region: new pipeline architecture MSRU, Moscow, pp 8–10

9 Sultanov BC (2013) The Caspian region: relevant development issues (expert ’s view) tive monograph Kazakhstan Institute of Strategic Research, Almaty, pp 49–62

of the Black-Caspian Seas Region

Andrey G Kostianoy, Igor S Zonn, and Evgeniia A Kostianaia

Abstract Existing and planned oil and gas pipelines cross or should cross theCaspian and Black Seas, the Caucasus, Mountains in Turkey and Iran, the KarakumDesert, and numerous rivers Analysis of natural factors causing emergency situa-tions becomes the key issue in assessment of environmental risks In the CaspianSea, such natural factors include storms, ice conditions in the Northern Caspian, sealevel change, surges, extreme waves, coastal zone flooding, and hazardous geolog-ical and geomorphological conditions, such as earthquakes, gas saturated zones,etc In the Black Sea, these are big depths, hydrosulfide layer deeper than 100 m,unstable sediments on the continental slope and earthquakes Mountains inAzerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, Iran, Turkmenistan, and Russia represent naturalbarriers for construction and exploitation of pipelines This chapter briefly reviews

S.S Zhiltsov et al (eds.), Oil and Gas Pipelines in the Black-Caspian Seas Region,

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 51: 7–36, DOI 10.1007/698_2016_462,

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016, Published online: 26 May 2016

7

main geographic characteristics in the Black-Caspian Seas Region which impede construction of land and offshore oil and gas pipelines

Keywords Earthquakes, Geography, Ice cover, Oil and gas pipelines, Plains, Rivers, Sea level, Storm surges, The Black Sea, The Caspian Sea, The Caucasus, The Pontic Mountains, The Sea of Azov, The Tauri Mountains, Wind and waves

Contents

1 Introduction 8

2 The Caspian Sea 11

2.1 General Characteristics 11

2.2 Sea Level Variability 14

2.3 Ice Cover 15

2.4 Wind and Waves 18

2.5 Storm Surges 21

2.6 Seismic Activity 22

3 The Caucasus and Other Mountains 24

4 The Black Sea 27

5 The Sea of Azov 30

6 Conclusions 31

References 34

1 Introduction

The Caspian Sea Region is rich in hydrocarbons Various national and international organizations estimate oil reserves to be 2–40 billion tons and gas reserves – 2–12

Administration (EIA) provide more realistic figures of 6.5 billion tons of oil and 8.3 TCM of natural gas in proved and probable reserves within the Caspian Sea and

crude oil and lease condensate and 36% of natural gas Most offshore oil reserves are located in the Northern Caspian Sea, while most offshore natural gas reserves

are located relatively far from main export markets in Europe, Africa, and Asia, which requires expensive transport infrastructure, such as oil and gas land and offshore pipelines, oil and gas sea terminals, and tanker fleet The ability of the Caspian Sea countries to export greater volumes of Caspian crude oil and natural gas depends, in particular, on how quickly they can build additional export pipeline infrastructure It also depends on whether expensive new pipeline projects can attract sufficient investments, and in its turn, investments depend, in particular,

on specific geographic conditions around the Caspian Sea, which can be a hin-drance for oil and gas pipeline construction and exploitation

Figure1 shows existing and planned oil and gas pipelines in the Caspian andBlack Seas Region, Turkey, and the Middle East Crude oil goes to Europeanmarkets via the following main pipelines:

1 “Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan” (BTC) transports oil from the ACG, Shah Deniz andTengiz oil fields in Kazakhstan to Baku by tankers, then via Azerbaijan andGeorgia to Turkey;

2 “Caspian Pipeline Consortium” (CPC) transports oil from the Tengiz oil field inKazakhstan to the Russian Port of Novorossiysk on the Black Sea;

3 “Uzen-Atyrau-Samara” transports oil from the Tengiz oil field in Kazakhstan toRussia (before the CPC this was the main export line in Kazakhstan);

4 “Baku-Novorossiysk” transports oil from the Sangachal oil field in Azerbaijan tothe Russian Port of Novorossiysk on the Black Sea;

5 the planned “Kazakhstan Caspian Transportation System” (KCTS) will transportoil from the Kashagan and Tengiz oil fields in Kazakhstan to Azerbaijan; oilwould be transported through the future “Eskene-Kuryk” Pipeline on the KazakhCaspian Coast to an oil terminal where it would sail to Azerbaijan and from there

on through the BTC Pipeline to international markets via the East-West EnergyCorridor [3]

Fig 1 Oil and gas pipelines and oil fields in the Caspian and Black Seas Region, Turkey, and the Middle East ( http://ic.pics.livejournal.com/sobiainnen/6146988/453138/453138_original.jpg ) Source: Rekacewicz Philippe ( http://mondediplo.com/_Philippe-Rekacewicz_ ), Geographer Car- tographer and Journalist, Le Monde diplomatique, http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/

There are other less important oil pipelines, such as “Baku-Supsa” (also known

as the “Western Route Export Pipeline” and “Western Early Oil Pipeline”), whichtransports oil from the Azeri-Chirag-Gyuneshli oil fields in Azerbaijan to theGeorgian Port of Supsa located on the Black Sea Coast near Batumi Some oilproducts are exported from the Russian Port of Tuapse located on the Black SeaCoast

Caspian natural gas goes to European markets via the following main pipelines:(1) the “Central Asia Center” (CAC) gas pipeline system, built between 1960 and

1988 in the USSR, carries gas from the Dauletabad gas field and the Caspian SeaCoast fields in Turkmenistan via Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to Russia where itlinks with the Russian gas pipeline network; (2) “Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum” (BTE, the

“South Caucasus Pipeline” (SCP)) runs parallel to BTC and supplies natural gas toGeorgia and Turkey from the Caspian Shah Deniz field in Azerbaijan; (3) “BlueStream” is a major offshore gas pipeline that crosses the Black Sea and carries gas

mention the “Dzhubga-Lazarevskoe-Sochi” offshore gas pipeline located alongthe Russian Coast on the Black Sea, 172 km long This pipeline is aimed to supplygas to the City of Sochi and other recreation villages on the Black Sea Coast

Turkmenbashi in Turkmenistan and Baku in Azerbaijan, “Blue Stream 2” betweenRussia and Turkey, “South Stream” between Russia and Bulgaria, and

“TurkStream” between Russia and Turkey

Crude oil goes to East Asian markets via the “Kazakhstan-China” pipeline,which transports oil from the Tengiz and Zhanazhol oil fields in Kazakhstan toChina The pipeline, about 2,200 km long, connects the Port of Atyrau in Kazakh-

the “Turkmenistan-China” gas pipeline from eastern natural gas fields (Galkynysh,Bagtyyarlyk, etc.) in Turkmenistan via Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to China cross-ing the border at Khorgos The pipeline is being enlarged to receive natural gas

Crude oil goes to South Asian markets via “Iran Oil Swap.” Oil coming fromKazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan (UAE-based Turkmenistan producerDragon Oil) is sold through the Iranian Port of Neka The “Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India” (TAPI) gas pipeline, about 1,700 km long, is underconstruction [3]

the Caspian and Black Seas, the Caucasus, mountains in Turkey and Iran, theKarakum Desert, and numerous rivers Analysis of natural factors causing emer-gency situations becomes the key issue in assessment of environmental risks In theCaspian Sea, such natural factors include storms, ice conditions in the NorthernCaspian, sea level change, surges, extreme waves, coastal zone flooding, andhazardous geological and geomorphological conditions, such as earthquakes, gas

deeper than 100 m, unstable sediments on the continental slope and earthquakes

Mountains in Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, Iran, Turkmenistan, and Russia sent natural barriers for construction and exploitation of pipelines as well.The aim of this chapter is to briefly review the main geographic characteristics inthe Black-Caspian Seas Region, which impede construction of land and offshore oiland gas pipelines.

repre-2 The Caspian Sea

2.1 General Characteristics

The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed water body in the world located inside a

level is about 28 m below the level of the World Ocean Due to large interannualvariations of the sea level, its surface and volume are not stable At the present

1,025 m The Caspian Sea extends over 1,030 km from the north to the south and

is 200–400 km wide in different places As to its bottom topography, the sea is

Fig 2 Oil and gas infrastructure in the Black-Caspian Seas Region in March 2001 Solid green lines – oil pipelines Solid red lines – gas pipelines Dashed green and red lines – pipelines under construction or planned pipelines ( http://www.parstimes.com/images/caspian_sea_oil_gas.jpg ) Bottom topography is shown by blue colors in the seas

Fig 3 Satellite view of the Caspian Sea on 6 September 2015 (MODIS-Aqua, true color)

divided into three parts: the Northern Caspian, the Middle Caspian, and theSouthern Caspian The shallow-water Northern Caspian has depths less than 15–

20 m The Mangyshlak Ridge separates it from the Derbent Basin of the MiddleCaspian with a maximum depth of 788 m Southward, the underwater ApsheronRidge with sea depths of 160–180 m separates the Derbent Basin from the South

between the Northern and Middle Caspian runs along the line Chechen Island–CapeTyub Karagan, while the boundary between the Middle and Southern Caspian runsalong the line Zhiloy Island–Cape Kuuli Thus, water volumes in these three parts

of the Caspian Sea differ significantly and amount to 0.5, 33.9, and 65.6% of thetotal sea volume, respectively The large size, meridional extent, specific bottomtopography, and quite different landscapes (plains, mountains, deserts) of theCaspian Sea define different physical, geographical, and climatic conditions and

past, its water surface was several meters to several dozen cm lower than in theCaspian Sea, so water from the Caspian Sea flows through a narrow strait into thebay, where it evaporates Thus, Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay is one of the saltiest water

The floor of the Northern Caspian is a shallow-water plain with numerousislands and extinct river channels In the bottom topography, one can trace branchedancient channels of the Volga, Ural, and Terek Rivers In the eastern part of theNorthern Caspian, the Uralskaya Borozdina Trough has a depth of up to 10 m In thebottom topography of the Middle Caspian, principal morphological elements arethe shelf, the slope, and the floor The depression in the Middle Caspian isasymmetric – its western part features a narrow shelf and a steep slope, while theeastern part is characterized by a wide shelf and a gentle slope The width of thewestern shelf of the Middle Caspian ranges from 130 km in its northern partadjacent to the Mangyshlak Ridge to 15 km off the Samur River Further southward,the shelf becomes wider again (up to 60 km) The edge of the shelf is located atdepths from 70 to 110 m The width of the eastern shelf varies from 50 to 130 km.The upper part of the continental slope is separated from the shelf by a bend In themiddle part of the sea, the western slope has a width of 20–60 km The eastern slope

The western shelf of the Southern Caspian is 15–60 km wide, and its outer edge

is located at depths from 60 to 150 m In the northern part of the western shelf, thereare numerous islands and banks, whose origin is mostly related to mud volcanism.The eastern shelf of the Southern Caspian is significantly wider and reaches 190 km

in width The outer edge of the shelf is located at depths 100–130 m Off thesouthern coast of the Caspian Sea, the shelf is very narrow (5–10 km) and steep Onthe western part of the continental slope, there is a series of rises up to 500 m inheight Their feet lie at depths of 700–800 m The tops of many subsea mountainsare crowned by mud volcanoes The eastern slope of the Southern Caspian Basin,similar to its eastern slope, is rather steep and features a stepwise profile The foot of

the slope is located at depths of 750–800 m The southern slope of the basin isdistinguished by greater inclination angles and significant fragmentation Thedeepwater Southern Caspian Basin features a more complicated structure than theDerbent Basin Its central part is occupied by an abyssal plain, where submarinerises alternate with depressions The tops of these rises are frequently represented

Thus, big depths, the sharp continental slope, and mud volcanism represent atechnical problem for pipeline construction

2.2 Sea Level Variability

Interannual and decadal variations of precipitation over the Caspian Sea catchment

and reached 7 m The lowest sea level was observed in the sixth–seventh centuries;

instrumental sea level observations, which started in the Caspian Sea in 1,830, hasshown that, from the beginning of the twentieth century till 1929, the sea level was

2 m This fall was caused by a strong drought in the Volga River watershed area,which resulted in a significant decrease of its runoff to the sea In the 1950s,humidity in the Caspian Sea Basin increased However, in those years, majorwater reservoirs on the Volga River were constructed, which required large watervolumes This led to stabilization of the Caspian Sea level in the 1950s–1960s Inthe 1970s, a new level decrease was observed due to the decrease in the Volga Riverrunoff and an increase in evaporation from the sea surface In 1977, the sea level fell

during the twentieth century, the total range of the level decrease was 3 m This sea

due to drying of the shallow Northern Caspian Starting from 1978, an unexpectedrapid sea level rise began, and in 1995 the sea reached its maximum level of

[9,13,14]

After that, the Caspian Sea level was decreasing from summer 1995 till winter2001/2002, then it was rising till summer 2005 with a rate of about 10 cm/year, thenagain it was decreasing till winter 2009/2010 with a rate of 8.5 cm/year, and it

Also, the amplitude of seasonal variations of the Caspian Sea level is about 30–

Significant changes in the Caspian Sea level of about 1–3 m (both negative andpositive), which have been observed during the past 100 years, correspondingly

lead to coast desiccation or flooding Figure5shows the extent of the coastline areathat might be flooded in various places of the Caspian Sea if the sea level rises by

1, 2, or 5 m in comparison to the sea level of 2,000 In the Northern Caspian Sea,tenths of kilometers of the inland territory can be flooded Both desiccation andflooding may be considered as negative factors for coastal and offshore pipelinesfor several reasons First, in the case of the sea level rise, coastal pipelines,compressor stations, and other infrastructure will be permanently (for years andeven decades) flooded by salt seawater and corroded Additionally, they will bemechanically affected by moving ice, which is established in the Northern CaspianSea every winter Secondly, in the case of the sea level decrease, offshore pipelines,which are not normally buried at the bottom, might mechanically be affected by

2.3 Ice Cover

In winter, the weather in the Northern and Middle Caspian is affected by thecontinental polar air related to the influence of the Siberian Anticyclone and byArctic air masses propagating from the Kara and Barents Seas In winter (January–

part of its area is covered with fixed and fast ice 40–100 cm thick The southernboundary of the mean ice propagation runs approximately over the shelf edge in theNorthern Caspian forming an arc from Chechen Island to Kulaly Island and further

Fig 4 Seasonal and interannual variability of the Caspian Sea level based on satellite altimetry data of TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1/Jason-2 acquired in 1993–2012 Yellow fields show periods when the sea level was rising The dashed black lines show local trends (and trend values in black) and the dashed blue line shows a general trend (and value) for the whole period 1993–2012 [ 15 ]

fast ice zone In mild winters, ice formation begins in the middle of November inshallow-water northeastern regions of the sea; then ice is developed off the entire

In the Middle Caspian Sea, ice usually covers a small area, but in mild winters, itmay completely be absent In the Middle Caspian Sea, ice appears in Decemberstarting from shallow-water bays and bights of the eastern coast In January itappears in the region of Makhachkala on the western coast In warm winters, iceformation in nearshore zones begins 10–20 days later than in moderate winters Inthe open sea, this delay may be a month In severe winters, ice formation in theNorthern Caspian Sea starts 20–30 days earlier than usual Off the eastern coast ofthe Northern Caspian, ice formation is possible as early as at the end of October,while off its western coast, it may start at the end of November In the NorthernCaspian, maximum thickness of fast ice is observed in the northeastern part inJanuary (40–50 cm), while in the western part of the area and off the Volga RiverDelta, it reaches its maximum in February (20–30 cm) In very cold winters,thickness of fast ice may reach 80–90 and 60–70 cm, respectively Hummocks

During severe winters, wind-driven transport of great masses of floating ice isobserved along the western coast of the Caspian Sea to the south up to the Apsheron

Fig 5 The Caspian coastline vulnerable to flooding (GRID-Arendal, http://www.grida.no/

Diag-nostic Analysis for the Caspian Sea, Caspian Environment Programme, 2002

Peninsula Under these extreme weather conditions, ice can block access to the Port

of Makhachkala and threaten marine infrastructure

From the second half of February, intensive destruction of the ice cover begins.First, nearshore areas of the Middle Caspian are released from ice, followed by thenorthwestern part of the sea, open regions of the Middle Caspian, and, lastly, theextreme northeast The final release of the sea from ice occurs at the end of March–beginning of April In mild winters, the northern part of the sea is free from ice asearly as in the middle of March, while during severe winters, processes of ice coverdestruction are decelerated and the complete release from ice is shifted toward the

Fig 6 Satellite view of the ice cover in the Northern Caspian Sea on 3 March 2007 Terra, band 1, 2, RGB combination)

(MODIS-Stamukhi (pressure ice ridge) is a characteristic phenomenon in the NorthernCaspian, which represents a considerable danger to offshore oil and gas pipelines.Stamukha (plural in Russian, stamukhi) is an accumulation of sea ice grounded atthe bottom It is formed because of interaction between fast ice and drifting packice Wind, currents, and tides contribute to this phenomenon Stamukhi occur alongthe coasts and shoals with water depths of less than 20 m They can build up iceridges as high as 10 m above the waterline and can be grounded for several meters

in the seabed Due to winds, currents, and the floating ice pressure, stamukhi canmove Thus, they may pose a considerable risk to submarine oil and gas pipelines,

Stamukhi can easily move, break, or even cut pipelines in the Northern CaspianSea

2.4 Wind and Waves

In shallow waters of the Northern Caspian Sea, strong wind and waves can also beproblematic for pipelaying operations and, subsequently, to the stability of apipeline due to erosion of the bottom and coastline Coastal erosion due to waveactions leads to landfalls which can damage pipelines The Caspian Sea windregime is defined by three principal factors: regional atmospheric processes, topog-raphy of the coasts (orography), and local atmospheric circulation induced by thethermal difference between the land and the sea During the year, the most stablewinds of northerly and southeasterly directions dominate over the Caspian Sea.Throughout the year, northerly winds are observed in 40% of the cases; in summer,they dominate and almost 50% of the winds are northwesterly Southwesterly windsare observed in 36% of the cases; in winter and spring, they are more frequent(about 40%) The average annual share of calm days with the wind speed less than

When northwesterly and southeasterly winds dominate, their speed is about 5–

9 m/s (moderate winds); in summer the wind speed increases Observations of

Fig 7 Stamukha action on

the subsea pipeline ( https://

(>25 m/s) occur very rarely, about once in a few years The mean annual windspeed over the whole area of the Caspian Sea is 5.7 m/s The greatest mean windspeed (6–7 m/s) is observed in the Middle Caspian Sea with the local maximum of8–9 m/s in the region of the Apsheron Peninsula In the Southern Caspian Sea,where strong winds are rarely observed, the mean annual wind speed is 3–4 m/s.

per year In the Northern Caspian and on the eastern coasts of the Middle Caspian,30–40 stormy days are observed every year The greatest storm activity is observednear the Apsheron Peninsula (50–60 days/year) due to the specific orographiceffect Dominating northwesterly winds flowing over the Caucasian Mountainsacquire the northerly direction and reach a speed of 20–25 m/s These events arecalled “Baku Nords.” The mean annual wind speed in the Northern Caspian is

for shipping activities, offshore oil/gas platforms operations, and pipelaying in the

parameters in the Southern Caspian Sea in front of the Cheleken Peninsula from

According to general wind fields dominating over the Caspian Sea, in the openregions of the sea, waves mostly propagate from the north or northwest (32%) orfrom the southeast and south (36%) More rarely (about 12%), waves of theopposite directions are observed In approximately 20% of the cases at low windspeeds, waves are weak and unsteady In the open part of the sea, large swells areobserved, coming most often from the north or northwest Waves corresponding towind speeds less than 10 m/s are the most frequent, while those corresponding tospeeds greater than 25 m/s are the rarest The wave height with a 5% probabilityFig 8 Seasonal and interannual variability of the wind speed (m/s) westward of the Cheleken Peninsula in 1993–2011 [ 15 ]

does not exceed 3 m (see Fig.9) Storm waves usually develop in winter and springunder northerly strong winds (20 m/s) Strong long-term storms mostly occur in theopen areas of the Middle Caspian, where they feature mostly northwesterly andsoutheasterly directions Wave field patterns are also affected by the orographicfactor: the storm activity is displaced toward the western coast of the MiddleCaspian, and, generally, waves off the eastern coasts of the sea are twice as weak

Again, in the northerly storms, the greatest waves are observed in the region ofthe Apsheron Archipelago; they most frequently occur in winter In the region ofthe Neftyanye Kamni oil rigs, the wave height may reach 9–10 m during extremeevents Most often, off the Apsheron Peninsula, waves of 2 m high are observed.Off the Turkmenian Coast, moderate and strong northwesterly winds (5–15 m/s)induce waves up to 1 m high, while under storm winds, their height may reach 2–

part of the Middle Caspian, in the Makhachkala–Derbent Region, and off theMangyshlak Peninsula, where the wave height with a 5% probability may reach6–7 m A similar wave height is observed in the open part of the Middle CaspianSea at southeasterly storms Easterly winds even of greatest speeds induce waves

In the Northern Caspian, wave development is restricted by small depths Mostoften (about 70%), northwesterly, easterly, and southeasterly waves are observed.Wave heights increase with the depth growth from the north to the south At windspeeds of 15–20 m/s, the wave height with a 5% probability increases from 0.5 moff the Volga River Delta to 4 m over the shelf edge at the boundary with the MiddleCaspian The calmest season in the North Caspian is summer, when windless

Fig 9 Seasonal and interannual variability of the wave height (m) westward of the Cheleken Peninsula in 1993–2011 [ 15 ]

2.5 Storm Surges

In the enclosed Caspian Sea, the coupled action of the atmospheric pressure andwind on the sea surface may cause sharp local oscillations of the sea level known asstorm surges Their magnitude (height) is defined as the sea level deviation at agiven point from its mean monthly value In some areas of the Northern CaspianSea, surges may reach significant values and cause damage to the coastal zoneenvironment This is because surge onsets and subsequent level offsets may result

in the delivery of pollutants from the adjacent land used for industrial or agricultural

30–50 km, what has to be taken into account when constructing oil and gas

regions in blue color

General characteristics of surge onsets and offsets (height, duration, rate of thesea level change) depend on the characteristics of the wind field and local physicaland geographical conditions in the coastal zone Thus, surges are best manifested inshallow coastal zones of the sea, in its bays and bights The highest onsets arecharacteristic for the shallow-water Northern Caspian Sea, where in extreme cases,surges can reach 3–4 m in height In the Middle and Southern Caspian Sea, surgesare smaller – 30–100 cm The frequency of strong storm surge events varies fromone to five times per year in different regions of the sea Their duration varies fromfew hours to 2.5 days, and the rate of the sea level change may be considerable Inwinter, the ice cover in the Northern Caspian Sea may reduce onset and offsetamplitudes [9]

Development of storm surges in the Northern Caspian Sea is favored by smallsea depths and low inclination angles of the bottom in the nearshore area Thesoutheasterly and easterly winds, which are frequent in the Northern Caspian, cause

a surge onset off the western and northwestern coasts and in the Volga River Deltaand an offset off the eastern coast of the sea, while northwesterly and westerly

Caspian, the greatest onsets were recorded off the Kaspiiskii settlement (4–5 m); inits eastern part – near the Zhilaya Kosa settlement (2.5 m) The maximum offsetswere noted near the Volga–Caspian Floating Lighthouse (2.3 m) and off

Due to the flatness of the bottom and shores in and around the Northern CaspianSea, strong storm surge onsets lead to flooding of vast land areas, while duringoffsets, great shallow-water areas are dried up The width of the flooded zones reach30–50 km and that of the dried band is 10–15 km In the eastern part of the NorthernCaspian, onsets more than 40 cm in height are registered 5–20 times per year Atwinds up to 15 m/s, the sea level rise reaches 50–80 cm, while winds up to 25 m/scause a rise of 90–150 cm and more, depending on duration of the surge event Inthe eastern part of the Middle Caspian, the greatest offsets are caused by north-westerly winds, while the highest onsets occur at southeasterly winds Off theMangyshlak Peninsula and in the region of the Bekdash settlement, the amplitude

of these oscillations exceeds 1 m Off the northern coast of the Apsheron Peninsula,strong and durable northwesterly winds cause an onset effect, while southerlywinds result in offsets Their maximum amplitudes reach 70 and 60 cm, respec-tively In the Southern Caspian Sea from Astara in the west to Turkmenbashi in theeast, heights of onsets caused by winds from the northerly sector reach 50–80 cm.

At southeasterly winds, the offset magnitude in the region of Turkmenbashi and

unique geodynamics of the region associated with peculiarities in the geological

1139, 1667 (80,000 fatalities), 1669, 1828, 1842, 1859, 1872, 1902, 1999, 2000,

Krasnovodsk (present Turkmenbashi, Turkmenistan) on the eastern side of the

Azerbaijan and destroyed Shemakha, which at that time was the capital ofShemakha Governorate Damage from the earthquake was so extensive that thecapital was relocated to Baku on the coast of the Caspian Sea In 2012, scientistsfrom the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA) and the National Academy

of Sciences of Azerbaijan showed that the region may be affected by anotherdevastating earthquake of a magnitude similar to the one observed in 1859 Geo-logical deformation of the land can lead to an earthquake, threatening the City ofBaku, oil rigs, oil platforms in the sea, petroleum reserves, oil and gas pipelines, andthe Caspian Sea environment Recently, it was also found that observed significant

If we look at a wider area around the Black and Caspian Seas and only at

been registered during the last 10 years in the geographical frame shown in

or 5 every month Their geographical distribution shows that the maximum ofseismic activity is located in Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Turk-menistan If we compare locations of existing and planned oil and gas pipelines in

some of them correspond with the bands of the highest seismic activity in theregion For instance, this directly concerns the oil pipelines “Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan”

(BTC), “Baku-Novorossiysk,” “Baku-Supsa,” and the planned “KazakhstanCaspian Transportation System” (KCTS) and gas pipelines “Baku-Tbilisi-Erzu-rum” (BTE) and the planned “Trans-Caspian” between Turkmenbashi in Turkmen-istan and Baku in Azerbaijan This also concerns “Iran Oil Swap” and the planned

Fig 10 Seismicity (M > 3) in the Caspian and Black Seas Region from 1960 to 2 March 2016

3 The Caucasus and Other Mountains

Mountains represent natural barriers to oil and gas pipeline construction and

Seas and around the Southern Caspian The major mountain system in the area isthe Caucasus, which occupies a territory between the Black, Azov, and Caspian

in the north to the border of Georgia and Armenia with Turkey and to the border of

mountain system of the Greater Caucasus is divided lengthwise into western(to Mount Elbrus), central (from Mount Elbrus to Mount Kazbek), and eastern

The mountain system of the Greater Caucasus has an axial zone which sponds to the water divide and lateral ranges (the peaks – Mount Elbrus 5,642 m andMount Kazbek 5,033 m) The Pre-Caucasus begins on the northern slope of theGreater Caucasus and extends to the Kuma-Manych Depression It separates theStavropol Upland (rising to 831 m) from the Kuban-Priazov and Terek-KumaLowlands To the south of the Greater Caucasus, there are the Kolkhida (in thewest) and Kura-Araks (in the east) Lowlands separating the Trans-CaucasianHighland that consists of the folded ridges of the Lesser Caucasus (Mount Gyamysh3,724 m) and volcanic Armenian Highland (the highest peak, Mount Aragats4,090 m), in the southeast – the folded Talysh Mountains (height to 2,492 m) and

The Caucasus rivers belong to the basins of the Caspian (Kura, Araks, Sulak,Terek, and Kuma), Black (Rioni, Inguri), and Azov (Kuban) Seas Among thelakes, the largest is Sevan in Armenia On the southern slope of the GreaterCaucasus, on northern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus, and in the Talysh Mountains,

Fig 11 Seismicity (M > 4.5) in the Caspian and Black Seas Region from February 2006 to March

2016 ( http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/map/ )

subtropical forest landscapes are dominating They are represented by broad-leavedand coniferous forests The highlands of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and theArmenian Highland are covered by Alpine low-grass meadows, in the most

Fig 12 Topography around the Caspian Sea Region UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library Retrieved on 16 February 2016 from http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/the-caspian-sea- drainage-basin

continental areas – by meadow steppes On the highest ridges, glacial andperpetual-snow landscapes are found Among the plain landscapes in the

Other mountains in Turkey, Iran, and Turkmenistan may also pose a threat to

and mountains The central part of the country is occupied by the vast AnatolianPlateau (800–1,500 m high on average) The volcanic area Kappadokia is situatedeastward of Lake Tuz The northern areas of the plateau reveal high seismicity:devastating earthquakes frequently occur along the so-called Anatolian fault

highlands with volcanoes and picturesque valleys The highest point of the country

is dead volcano Greater Ararat (or Agri Dagi 5,137 m) near the border withArmenia Western (Aegean) Anatolia consists of mountains, plateaus, and valleys.The largest of them is the valley of the Greater Menderes Mountains are extendinglatitudinally (the highest point is Mount Uludag, or Smaller Olympus, 2,543 m) Inthe north, Asia Minor is confined by the Pontic Mountains – a range of mountainsthat stretches along the southern shore of the Black Sea Its length is about1,000 km, its width – up to 130 km The ranges of the Pontic Mountains running

in parallel are broken by longitudinal valleys and chains of hollows, and they are cutthrough by narrows made by the Kyzyl-Irmak and Ishil-Irmak Rivers The PonticMountains rise as high as the permanent snow line Their highest point is MountKachkar (3,937 m) The Western Pontic Mountains are of medium height TheTauri Mountains (Toros) are located in the southern margins of Asia Minor Morecompact and high ridges of the Central Tauri (to 3,734 m high) are cut by valleys Inthe east, the Tauri stretch in several parallel ridges (Northern, Internal, and Arme-nian Tauri), 2,000–3,000 m high The Mediterranean Coast of Asia Minor is

The Alborz is a mountain system in the north of Iran that runs along the southerncoast of the Caspian Sea It runs as far as the Talysh Mountains, merging with them

in the west, and as far as the Nishapursky Mountains in the east Their length isabout 900 km, and their width is up to 120 km They consist of several parallelridges composed largely of limestone and sandstones and have steep slopes andmore or less flattened tops Their maximum height is 5,632 m at the dead volcanoDamavand, the conical top of which is covered by permanent snow The mountainsare cut through by the Sefidrud River gorge Thorn pillow-like bushes prevail here,while northern slopes have thick broad-leaved forests covering an area of 1.9 mil-lion ha, or 53% of the forests of Iran A number of small rivers, which originate in

Certain parts of northwestern Iran belong to the Armenian Highlands which adjoin

it topographically with other parts of neighboring Turkey, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.The Zagros Mountains, which have a series of parallel ridges, cross the country fromnorthwest to southeast Many peaks in the Zagros Mountains exceed 3,000 m, and inthe south-central region of Iran, there are at least five peaks that are over 4,000 m Insoutheastern Iran, the average elevation of peaks declines to under 1,500 m Thecentral part of Iran consists of several closed plateaus of about 900 m high that are

collectively referred to as the Central Plateau The eastern part of the plateau iscovered by two salt deserts – Dasht-e Kavir (the Great Salt Desert) and Dasht-e Lut.The Kopet Dag is a mountain range directed southeastward from the SouthernCaspian Sea along the border between Iran and Turkmenistan It extends for about

650 km to the Harirud (Tejen) River flowing from Afghanistan to Turkmenistan.The highest peak (2,940 m) of the Kopet Dag in Turkmenistan is located southwest

of Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan Mount Quchan (Kuh-e Quchan) with3,191 m is the highest point in the Iranian part The westernmost foothills of theKopet Dag Mountains are known as the Kyurendag Ridge The Kopet Dag isundergoing tectonic transformation and is a subject to severe earthquakes

1948 in Ashgabat when the number of deaths directly in Ashgabat was huge – 36–

37 thousand people, i.e., one half of the city population was killed

4 The Black Sea

The Black Sea is located westward of the Caspian Sea and washes the coasts ofRussia, Ukraine, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Georgia, and Abkhazia The sea islinked via the Bosporus Strait with the Sea of Marmara and by the Kerch Strait –

Fig 13 Satellite view of the Black Sea

volume of water 555,000 km3, the mean depth 1,315 m, the maximum depth

The eastern coast of the Black Sea from Anapa to Sukhumi is predominantlyhigh Here, folded spurs of the Greater Caucasus come close to the sea, formingupright cliffs The mountains reach the maximum height near Sochi (up to3,000 m), then the height is gradually reduced (to 1,000 m), and around the KodoriRiver, the mountains are located considerably far from the coastline The largeaccumulative Kolkhida Lowland is situated between the Kodori River mouth andKobuleti town at the sea South of Kobuleti, the coast becomes mountainous again,and in Batumi area, the height of some ranges exceeds 1,500 m In the southeasternpart of the coast, mountain spurs are terminated by steep ledges overlooking the sea

At present, the Caucasian Black Sea Coasts are subject to washout over the greaterpart of their length The Inguri, Rioni, and Chorokh Rivers and a lot of rivulets fallinto the sea on the Black Sea Coast of the Caucasus, but their runoff isinsignificant [19]

The southern coasts of the Black Sea are steep and upright, formed by highnorthern slopes of the Pontic Mountains, strung along the coastline Westward, themountains gradually decrease in height, and near the Bosporus Strait, the maximumheight is 300 m Main segments of sediment accumulation are confined to themouth of major rivers: Kizilirmak (length 1,350 km), Sakarya (824 km), andYesilirmak (418 km) To the west of the Bosporus Strait, the shore is relativelylow Here, from Kaliakra Cape, the folded structure of the Balkan Mountains(jutting out into the sea in this segment of the Black Sea Coast), upright, adjoinsthe sea [19]

The shelf, continental slope, and deepwater basin are distinguished in the seabedrelief The shelf accounts for up to 25% of the seabed total area and, on average, is

in the northwestern part of the sea, all of which is within the shelf zone Near themountainous eastern and southern coasts of the sea, the shelf is narrow, just a fewkilometers, while in the southwestern part of the sea, it is a bit wider (dozens ofkilometers) The continental slope occupying up to 40% of the seabed area roughlygoes down to the depths of 2,000 m The slope is quite steep and is dissected byunderwater valleys and canyons The bottom of the basin (35%) is almost a flatplain [19]

Interannual variations of the Black Sea level are about 1–20 cm/year depending

on time periods, but the average rate of the sea level rise for 1993–2012 is 0.8 cm/year This is almost a triple value in comparison with the World Ocean level risedue to global climate change Seasonal variations of the sea level are mainlyproduced by differences of the river runoff input during the year Thus, duringthe warm season of the year, the sea level is higher, during the cold season lower.The value of variations is most significant where the impact of river water is

Wind-effect fluctuations of the sea level in the Black Sea are maximal: thesehave to do with the impact of steady winds Such fluctuations are most frequentduring the autumn–winter period in the western and northwestern parts of the sea,

where they are likely to exceed 1 m Near the Crimean and Caucasian Coasts,positive and negative surges hardly ever exceed 30–40 cm and they usually last 3–5days [19].

Depending on the nature of winds, considerable waves develop during theautumn–winter season in the northwestern, northeastern, and central parts of thesea Prevalent waves are 0.5–1 m high, but in open-water areas, the maximum waveheight during very strong storms may be as high as 10 m The calmest are southernareas of the sea, where strong waves are rare, and waves higher than 3 m are hardlyever observed The Novorossiysk Bora (or Nord-Ost) is the most known localstrong, gusty cold wind streaming down onto the Black Sea Coast from theadjoining not very high mountain range The Bora usually occurs in autumn andwinter The Bora is formed when cold Arctic air masses reach southern regions ofRussia and accumulates in front of the low range, when it begins flowing over thepasses at a high downward speed under the impact of the pressure gradient andgravity Sometimes, its velocity exceeds 40 m/s, with some gusts moving at a speed

In cold winters, ice in the Black Sea is only formed in the narrow strip of thenorthwestern part of the sea (0.5–1.5% of the sea total area) In very severe winters,fast ice along the western coasts stretches to as far as Constanta, and ice floes maydrift to as far as the Bosporus Over the last 150 years, only five such cases havebeen recorded Ice formation, as a rule, starts in mid-December and becomes quitecommon in February Depending on severity of winters, the duration of the iceperiod may reach 130 days and ice thickness – up to 50 cm In 1948–1985, the mostsevere winters were recorded in 1953/1954 (when it was possible to walk on iceacross Novorossiysk Bay and Sevastopol Bay) and in 1984/1985 The warmestwinters were recorded in 1965/1966, 1969/1970, and 1970/1971 Taking intoconsideration the observed rise of air temperature over the Black Sea Region, wecan expect in the nearest future a decrease in ice formation in the northwestern andnortheastern parts of the sea However, this regional warming does not excludeoccurrence of extreme events with a sharp drop of air temperature, like in February

2012, when ice covered the sea near Kerch, Yevpatoria, Novorossiysk, Odessa, andConstanta [21]

Another specific risk to oil and gas pipelines in the Black Sea is related tohydrogen sulfide, which is a very poisonous, corrosive, flammable, and explosivegas Unlike other seas, in the Black Sea, only the upper mixed layer of about 50 mdeep is saturated with oxygen With depth, the oxygen content begins to quicklydecline, and at a depth of 100–150 m, the oxygen content is equal to zero At thesame depth, there emerges hydrogen sulfide, its quantity growing with a depth of 8–

10 mg/L at the depth of 1,500 m, and, further to the bottom, the content becomesstable In the centers of two major cyclonic gyres, where upwelling of waters isobserved, the upper boundary of the hydrogen sulfide zone is closer to the surface

sulfide corrosion, due to the presence of hydrogen sulfide inside (e.g., in oil) oroutside (e.g., in the sea water) pipelines, can deteriorate metal, concrete, or mortar

5 The Sea of Azov

only 7 m with the maximum value of 14 m The maximum length of the sea is

by the very narrow (up to 3 km) and shallow (up to 18 m) Kerch Strait Shipping isvery busy in the strait, which includes passage of ships along the strait and acrossthe strait between Port Kavkaz and Kerch in the Crimea Every 3–5 years, the strait

is covered by ice in winter A bridge of 19 km long across the Kerch Strait will bebuilt by the end of 2018

The climate of the Sea of Azov is continental It is characterized by cold wintersand dry and hot summers In the autumn–winter period, the weather is determined

by the influence of a spur of the Siberian Anticyclone with domination of easterlyand northeasterly winds with a speed of 4–7 m/s Enhancement of this spur causesstrong winds of up to 15–20 m/s, which are accompanied by invasions of cold airmasses from the north The mean monthly temperature in January ranges from –1 to

is formed in Taganrog Bay (northeasternmost part of the sea) by the beginning of

Fig 14 Satellite view on the Sea of Azov on March 19, 2012 (MODIS-Terra)