Tài liệu Wiley IFRS 2018 internation and application of IFRS standards

Tài liệu Wiley IFRS 2018 internation and application of IFRS standards Tài liệu Wiley IFRS 2018 internation and application of IFRS standards Tài liệu Wiley IFRS 2018 internation and application of IFRS standards Tài liệu Wiley IFRS 2018 internation and application of IFRS standards Tài liệu Wiley IFRS 2018 internation and application of IFRS standards Tài liệu Wiley IFRS 2018 internation and application of IFRS standards Tài liệu Wiley IFRS 2018 internation and application of IFRS standards Tài liệu Wiley IFRS 2018 internation and application of IFRS standards

Interpretation and

IFRS

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Patrick Kuria

This edition contains interpretations and application of the IFRS Standards, as approved by theInternational Accounting Standards Board (Board) for issue up to 31 December 2017, that are required

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www.wiley.com.ISBN: 978-1-119-46150-0 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-119-46152-4 (epdf) ISBN: 978-1-119-46151-7 (epub) ISBN: 978-1-119-46153-1 (obook)Printed in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall, UK

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1 Introduction to International Financial Reporting Standards 1

5 Statements of Profit or Loss and Other Comprehensive Income,

14 Consolidations, Joint Arrangements, Associates and Separate Financial

18 Current Liabilities, Provisions, Contingencies and Events After the

7 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates, and Errors 119

26 Income Taxes 767

30 Accounting and Reporting by Retirement Benefit Plans 853

36 First-Time Adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards 935

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Salim Alibhai, FCCA, CPA (K), is an audit partner at PKF Kenya and heads the IT

assurance including methodology function across the Eastern Africa PKF memberfirms

Erwin Bakker, RA, is international audit partner of PKF Wallast in the Netherlands, and

acts as audit partner, mainly for international (group) audits He serves as chairman of theIFRS working group of PKF Wallast and is a member of the Technical Bureau of PKFWallast in the Netherlands

T V Balasubramanian, FCA, CFE, CFIP, is a senior partner in PKF Sridhar &

Santhanam LLP, Chartered Accountants, India, and previously served as a member ofthe Auditing and Assurance Standards Board of the ICAI, India He is a part of the technicalteam of thefirm engaged in transition to Ind AS (the converged IFRS Standards)

Kunal Bharadva, FCCA, CPA (K), ACA, is a senior manager at PKF Kenya and is

responsible for technical training across the Eastern Africa PKF memberfirms

Asif Chaudhry, FCCA, CPA (K), MBA, is an audit partner at PKF Kenya and heads the

technical and quality control functions across the Eastern Africa PKF memberfirms He isalso a member of the Kenyan Institute’s Professional Standards Committee and the PKFInternational Africa Professional Standards Committee

Danie Coetsee, CA (SA), is Professor of Accounting at the University of Johannesburg,

specializing in financial accounting He is the chair of the Financial Reporting TechnicalCommittee of the Financial Reporting Standards Council of South Africa

Chris Johnstone is a member of the ICAEW and also holds ICAEW’s Diploma in IFRS.She is the Audit Senior Technical Manager at Johnston Carmichael She joined JohnstonCarmichael in 2014 having previously worked at Baker Tilly and MacIntyre Hudson inLondon She is also a member of the Accounting and Auditing Technical Committee of thePKFfirms in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland

Patrick Kuria, CPA (K), is an audit partner at PKF Kenya and specializes in the audits of

financial services and the not-for-profit sector

Christopher Naidoo, CA (SA), member of the South African Institute of Chartered

Accountants, serves as the international accounting and assurance technical specialist at PKFInternational Ltd He also serves on PKF’s International Professional Standards Committee(IPSC) and PKF’s Assurance Strategy Group (ASG) on accounting and assurance projects

Edward Rands, FCA, is the Risk and Professional Standards partner at PKF Cooper

Parry He leads thefirm’s technical team, which is responsible for maintaining and updatingaccounting knowledge and for dealing with complex problems and queries as they arise Healso chairs the Accounting and Auditing Technical Committee of the PKFfirms in the UnitedKingdom and Republic of Ireland

Darshan Shah, FCCA, CPA (K), CPA (U), ACA, is an audit partner at PKF Kenya and

heads the technical training function across the Eastern Africa PKF memberfirms

Candice Unsworth, CA (SA), is a technical manager at PKF International Ltd and serves

on PKF’s International Professional Standards Committee (IPSC) She qualified at PKFDurban before moving to the technical division of PKF International in 2015

Minette van der Merwe, CA (SA), is PKF South Africa’s IFRS technical expert responsiblefor the interpretation and application of IFRS within the Southern African region

vii

Santosh Varughese, CA (Germany), Tax Advisor (Germany), CPA (US), is one of the

senior partners at PKF Germany and is based in Frankfurt He is the head of the IFRS Center

of Excellence of PKF in Germany One of his operative focuses is on audits for large listedcompanies

Paul Yeung, CPA, served as the Technical Writer of the Education and Training

Department of the Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants and is a TechnicalDirector of PKF Hong Kong

INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL

REPORTING STANDARDS

Introduction 1 Appendix C: IFRS for SMEs 17 Origins and Early History of the IASB 3 Definition of SMEs 18

The Current Structure 6 IFRS for SMEs is a Complete,

Self-Contained Set of Requirements 19

Process of IFRS Standard Setting 7

Modifications of Full IFRS made in

Convergence: The IASB and Financial

Reporting in the US 9

Disclosure Requirements under IFRS

The IASB and Europe 12

Appendix A: Current International Maintenance of the IFRS for SMEs 24Financial Reporting Standards SME Implementation Group 24(IAS/IFRS) and Interpretations Implications of the IFRS for SMEs 24(SIC/IFRIC) 14 Application of the IFRS for SMEs 25

Appendix B: Projects Completed Since

Previous Issue (July 2016 to June 2017) 16

INTRODUCTION

The mission of the IFRS Foundation and the International Accounting Standards Board(IASB) is to develop International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) that bring transpar­ency, accountability and efficiency to financial markets around the world They seek to serve thepublic interest by fostering trust, growth and long-term stability in the global economy.The motivation for the convergence of historically dissimilarfinancial reporting stan­dards has been, in the main, to facilitate the freeflow of capital so that, for example, investors

in the US would become more willing to finance business in, say, China or the CzechRepublic Access tofinancial statements which are written in the same “language” would help

to eliminate a major impediment to induce investor confidence, sometimes referred to as

“accounting risk,” which adds to the more tangible risks of making such cross-borderinvestments Additionally, permission to list a company’s equity or debt securities on anexchange has generally been conditional on makingfilings with national regulatory authori­ties These regulators tend to insist either on conformity with local Generally AcceptedAccounting Practice (GAAP) or on a formal reconciliation to local GAAP These proceduresare tedious and time-consuming, and the human resources and technical knowledge to carrythem out are not always widely available, leading many would-be registrants to forgo theopportunity of broadening their investor bases and potentially lowering their costs of capital.There were once scores of unique sets offinancial reporting standards among the moredeveloped nations (“national GAAP”) The year 2005 saw the beginning of a new era in the

1

have adopted IFRS Indeed, at the time of writing, more than 130 countries now require or permitthe use of IFRS China has moved its national standards significantly towards IFRS All othermajor economies, such as Japan and the United States, have either moved towards IFRS inrecent years or established time lines for convergence or adoption in the near future.

2007 and 2008 proved to be watershed years for the growing acceptability of IFRS In 2007,one of the most important developments was that the US Securities and Exchange Commission(SEC) dropped the reconciliation (to US GAAP) requirement, which had formerly applied toforeign private registrants Since then, those reporting in a manner fully compliant with IFRS(i.e., without any exceptions to the complete set of standards imposed by IASB) have no longerbeen required to reconcile net income and shareholders’ equity to the amounts which wouldhave been presented under US GAAP In effect, the SEC was acknowledging that IFRS wasfully acceptable as a basis for accurate, transparent, meaningfulfinancial reporting

This easing of US registration requirements for foreign companies seeking to enjoy thebenefits of listing their equity or debt securities in the US led understandably to a call bydomestic companies to permit them also to choose freely betweenfinancial reporting under

US GAAP and IFRS By late 2008 the SEC appeared to have begun the process ofacceptance, first for the largest companies in those industries having (worldwide) thepreponderance of IFRS adopters, and later for all publicly held companies However, anew SEC chair took office in 2009, expressing a concern that the move to IFRS, if it were tooccur, should perhaps take place more slowly than had previously been indicated

It had been highly probable that non-publicly held US entities would have remainedrestricted to US GAAP for the foreseeable future, both from habit and because no other set ofstandards would be viewed as being acceptable However, the American Institute of CertifiedPublic Accountants (AICPA), which oversees the private-sector auditing profession’s stan­dards in the US, amended its rules in 2008 to fully recognise IASB as an accounting standard-setting body (giving it equal status with the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)),meaning that auditors and other service providers in the US could now issue opinions (orprovide other levels of assurance, as specified under pertinent guidelines) which affirmed thatIFRS-basedfinancial statements conformed with “generally accepted accounting principles.”This change, coupled with the promulgation by IASB of a long-sought standard providingsimplified financial reporting rules for privately held entities (described later in this chapter),might be seen as increasing the likelihood that a more broadly-based move to IFRS will occur

in the US over the coming years

The historic 2002 Norwalk Agreement—embodied in a Memorandum of Understanding(MoU) between the US standard setter, FASB, and the IASB—called for “convergence” ofthe respective sets of standards, and indeed a number of revisions of either US GAAP orIFRS have already taken place to implement this commitment The aim of the Boards was tocomplete the milestone projects of the MoU by the end of June 2011

Despite this commitment by the Boards, certain projects such asfinancial instruments(impairment and hedge accounting), revenue recognition, leases and insurance contractswere deferred due to their complexity and the difficulty in reaching consensus views Theconverged standard on revenue recognition, IFRS 15, wasfinally published in May 2014,

Despite the progress towards convergence described above, the SEC dealt a blow tohopes of future alignment in its strategic plan published in February 2014 The documentstates that the SEC“will consider, among other things, whether a single set of high-qualityglobal accounting standards is achievable,” which is a significant reduction in its previouslyexpressed commitment to a single set of global standards This leaves IFRS and US GAAP asthe two comprehensivefinancial reporting frameworks in the world, with IFRS gaining moreand more momentum.

The completed MoU with FASB (and with other international organisations andjurisdictional authorities) has been replaced by a MoU with the Accounting StandardsAdvisory Forum (ASAF) The ASAF is an advisory group to the IASB, which was set up in

2013 It consists of national standard setters and regional bodies with an interest infinancialreporting Its objective is to provide an advisory forum where members can constructivelycontribute towards the achievement of the IASB’s goal of developing globally accepted high-quality accounting standards FASB’s involvement with the IASB is now through ASAF

ORIGINS AND EARLY HISTORY OF THE IASB

Financial reporting in the developed world evolved from two broad models, whoseobjectives were somewhat different The earliest systematised form of accounting regulationdeveloped in continental Europe in 1673 Here a requirement for an annual fair valuestatement offinancial position was introduced by the government as a means of protectingthe economy from bankruptcies This form of accounting at the initiative of the state tocontrol economic participants was copied by other states and later incorporated into the 1807Napoleonic Commercial Code This method of regulating the economy expanded rapidlythroughout continental Europe, partly through Napoleon’s efforts and partly through awillingness on the part of European regulators to borrow ideas from each other This“codelaw” family of reporting practices was much developed by Germany after its 1870 unification,with the emphasis moving away from market values to historical cost and systematicdepreciation It was used later by governments as the basis of tax assessment when taxes

on business profits started to be introduced, mainly in the early twentieth century.This model of accounting serves primarily as a means of moderating relationships betweenthe individual entity and the state It serves for tax assessment, and to limit dividend payments,and it is also a means of protecting the running of the economy by sanctioning individualbusinesses which are notfinancially sound or are run imprudently While the model has beenadapted for stock market reporting and group (consolidated) structures, this is not its main focus.The other model did not appear until the nineteenth century and arose as a consequence

of the industrial revolution Industrialisation created the need for large concentrations ofcapital to undertake industrial projects (initially, canals and railways) and to spread risksbetween many investors In this model, thefinancial report provided a means of monitoringthe activities of large businesses in order to inform their (non-management) shareholders.Financial reporting for capital markets purposes developed initially in the UK, in a common-law environment where the state legislated as little as possible and left a large degree of

US governments saw this reporting framework as appropriate for income tax purposes, and

in this tradition, while thefinancial reports inform the assessment process, taxation retains aseparate stream of law, which has had little influence on financial reporting

This second model of financial reporting, sometimes referred to as the Anglo-Saxonfinancial reporting approach, can be characterised as focusing on the relationship betweenthe business and the investor, and on the flow of information to the capital markets.Government still uses reporting as a means of regulating economic activity (e.g., theSEC’s mission is to protect the investor and ensure that the securities markets run efficiently),but thefinancial report is aimed principally at the investor, not the government

Neither of the two approaches to financial reporting described above is particularlyuseful in an agricultural economy, or to one that consists entirely of microbusinesses, in theopinion of many observers Nonetheless, as countries have developed economically (or asthey were colonised by industrialised nations) they have tended to adopt variants of one or theother of the two models

IFRS are an example of the second, capital market-oriented, system of financialreporting rules The original international standard setter, the International AccountingStandards Committee (IASC) was formed in 1973, during a period of considerable change inaccounting regulation In the US, the FASB had just been created, in the UK the AccountingStandards Committee had recently been set up, the EU was working on the main plank of itsown accounting harmonisation plan (the Fourth Directive), and both the UN and theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) were shortly to createtheir own accounting committees The IASC was launched in the wake of the 1972 WorldAccounting Congress (a five-yearly get-together of the international profession) after aninformal meeting between representatives of the British profession (the Institute of CharteredAccountants in England and Wales—ICAEW) and the American profession (the AmericanInstitute of Certified Public Accountants—AICPA) A rapid set of negotiations resulted in theprofessional bodies of Canada, Australia, Mexico, Japan, France, Germany, the Netherlandsand New Zealand being invited to join with the US and UK to form the international body.Due to pressure (coupled with afinancial subsidy) from the UK, the IASC was established inLondon, where its successor, the IASB, remains today

In thefirst phase of its existence, the IASC had mixed fortunes Once the InternationalFederation of Accountants (IFAC) was formed in 1977 (at the next World Congress ofAccountants), the IASC had tofight off attempts to make it a part of IFAC It managed toresist, coming to a compromise where IASC remained independent but all IFAC memberswere automatically members of IASC, and IFAC was able to nominate the membership ofthe standard-setting Board

IASC’s efforts entered a new phase in 1987, which led directly to its 2001 reorganisation,when the then-Secretary General, David Cairns, encouraged by the US SEC, negotiated anagreement with the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) IOSCOwas interested in identifying a common international“passport” whereby companies could

be accepted for secondary listing in the jurisdiction of any IOSCO member The concept wasthat, whatever the listing rules in a company’s primary stock exchange, there would be a

accounting methods then in wide use, effectively becoming a“lowest common denominator”set of standards The trend in national GAAP had been to narrow the range of acceptablealternatives, although uniformity in accounting had not been anticipated as a near-termresult The IOSCO agreement energised IASC to improve the existing standards by removingthe many alternative treatments which were then permitted under the standards, therebyimproving comparability across reporting entities The IASC launched its Comparability andImprovements Project with the goal of developing a“core set of standards” that would satisfyIOSCO These were complete by 1993, not without difficulties and spirited disagreementsamong the members, but then—to the great frustration of the IASC—the standards were notaccepted by IOSCO Rather than endorsing the standard-setting process of IASC, as washoped for, IOSCO appeared to want to cherry-pick individual standards Such a processcould not realistically result in near-term endorsement of IFRS for cross-border securitiesregistrations.

Ultimately, the collaboration was relaunched in 1995, with IASC under new leadership,and this began a further period of frenetic activity, where existing standards were againreviewed and revised, and new standards were created tofill perceived gaps in IFRS Thistime the set of standards included, among others, IAS 39, on recognition and measurement offinancial instruments, which was endorsed, at the very last moment and with great difficulty,

as a compromise—and purportedly interim—standard

At the same time, the IASC had undertaken an exercise to consider its future structure Inpart, this was the result of pressure exerted by the US SEC and also by the US private sectorstandard setter, the FASB, both of which were seemingly concerned that IFRS were not beingdeveloped by“due process.” While the various parties may have had their own agendas, infact the IFRS were in need of strengthening, particularly in the way of reducing the range ofdiverse but accepted alternatives for similar transactions and events The challenges pre­sented to IASC would ultimately serve to make IFRS stronger

If IASC was to be the standard setter endorsed by the world’s stock exchange regulators, itwould need a structure which reflected that level of responsibility The historical Anglo-Saxonstandard-setting model—where professional accountants set the rules for themselves—hadlargely been abandoned in the twenty-five years since the IASC was formed, and standardswere mostly being set by dedicated and independent national boards such as the FASB, and not

by profession-dominated bodies like the AICPA The choice, as restructuring becameinevitable, was between a large, representative approach—much like the existing IASCstructure, but possibly with national standard setters appointing representatives—or a small,professional body of experienced standard setters which worked independently of nationalinterests

The end of this phase of international standard setting, and the resolution of these issues,came about within a short period in 2000 In May of that year, IOSCO members voted toendorse IASC standards, albeit subject to a number of reservations (see discussion later in thischapter) This was a considerable step forward for the IASC, which itself was quicklyexceeded by an announcement in June 2000 that the European Commission intended toadopt IFRS as the requirement for primary listings in all member states This planned full

In July 2000, IASC members voted to abandon the organisation’s former structure,which was based on professional bodies, and adopt a new structure: beginning in 2001,standards would be set by a professional board,financed by voluntary contributions raised by

a new oversight body

THE CURRENT STRUCTURE

The formal structure put in place in 2000 has the IFRS Foundation, a Delawarecorporation, as its keystone (this was previously known as the IASC Foundation) The Trustees

of the IFRS Foundation have both the responsibility to raise funds needed tofinance standardsetting, and the responsibility of appointing members to the International Accounting Stan­dards Board (IASB), the IFRS Interpretations Committee (IFRIC) and the IFRS AdvisoryCouncil (AC) The structure was amended to incorporate the IFRS Foundation MonitoringBoard in 2009, renaming and incorporating the SME Implementation Group in 2010 as follows:

The Monitoring Board is responsible for ensuring that the Trustees of the IFRSFoundation discharge their duties as defined by the IFRS Foundation Constitution andfor approving the appointment or reappointment of Trustees The Monitoring Board consists

of the Board and the Growth and Emerging Markets Committees of the InternationalOrganization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), the European Commission (EC), theFinancial Services Agency of Japan (JFSA), the US Securities and Exchange Commission(SEC), the Brazilian Securities Commission (CVM), the Financial Services Commission ofKorea (FSC) and Ministry of Finance of the People’s Republic of China (China MOF) TheBasel Committee on Banking Supervision participates as an observer

the IFRS Foundation Members consist of user groups, preparers, financial analysts,academics, auditors, regulators, professional accounting bodies and investor groups.The IASB is an independent body that is solely responsible for establishing InternationalFinancial Reporting Standards (IFRS), including the IFRS for SMEs The IASB alsoapproves new interpretations.

The IFRS Interpretations Committee (formerly the International Financial ReportingInterpretations Committee)—IFRSIC—is a committee comprised largely of technical part­ners in audit firms but also includes preparers and users IFRIC’s function is to answertechnical queries from constituents about how to interpret IFRS—in effect, filling in thecracks between different requirements In recent times, it has also proposed modifications tostandards to the IASB, in response to perceived operational difficulties or the need to improveconsistency IFRIC liaises with the US Emerging Issues Task Force and similar bodies andstandard setters in order to preserve convergence at the level of interpretation

Working relationships are set up with local standard setters who have adopted orconverged with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), or are in the process ofadopting or converging with IFRS

PROCESS OF IFRS STANDARD SETTING

The IASB has a formal due process, which is currently set out in the IFRS Foundation

Due Process Handbook issued in February 2013 by the Due Process Oversight Committee

(DPOC), and updated in June 2016 to include thefinal IFRS Taxonomy due process.The DPOC is responsible for:

1 reviewing regularly, and in a timely manner, together with the IASB and the IFRSFoundation staff, the due process activities of the standard-setting activities of the IASB;

2 reviewing, and proposing updates to, the Due Process Handbook that relates to thedevelopment and review of Standards, Interpretations and the IFRS Taxonomy so as

to ensure that the IASB procedures are best practice;

3 reviewing the composition of the IASB’s consultative groups to ensure an appropriatebalance of perspectives and monitoring the effectiveness of those groups;

4 responding to correspondence from third parties about due process matters, incollaboration with the Director for Trustee Activities and the technical staff;

5 monitoring the effectiveness of the IFRS Advisory Council (“Advisory Council”), theInterpretations Committee and other bodies of the IFRS Foundation relevant to itsstandard-setting activities; and

6 making recommendations to the Trustees about constitutional changes related to thecomposition of committees that are integral to due process, as appropriate

As a minimum, a proposed standard should be exposed for comment, and thesecomments should be reviewed before issuance of a final standard, with debates open tothe public However, this formal process is rounded out in practice, with wider consultationtaking place on an informal basis

potential solutions Projects can also arrive on the current agenda outside that route.Once a project reaches the current agenda, the formal process is that the staff (a group ofabout 20 technical staff permanently employed by the IASB) drafts papers which are thendiscussed by IASB in open meetings Following that debate, the staff rewrites the paper, orwrites a new paper, which is then debated at a subsequent meeting In theory at least, there is

an internal process where the staff proposes solutions, and IASB either accepts or rejectsthem In practice, the process is more involved: sometimes (especially for projects such asfinancial instruments) individual Board members are delegated special responsibility for theproject, and they discuss the problems regularly with the relevant staff, helping to build thepapers that come to the Board Equally, Board members may write or speak directly to thestaff outside of the formal meeting process to indicate concerns about one matter or another.The due process comprises six stages: (1) setting the agenda; (2) project planning; (3)developing and publishing a Discussion Paper; (4) developing and publishing an ExposureDraft; (5) developing and publishing the IFRS; and (6) procedures after an IFRS is issued.The process also includes discussion of Staff Papers outlining the principal issues and analysis

of comments received on Discussion Papers and Exposure Drafts A pre-ballot draft isnormally subject to external review A nearfinal draft is also posted on the limited accesswebsite If all outstanding matters are resolved, thefinal ballot is applied

Final ballots on the standard are carried out in secret, but otherwise the process is quiteopen, with outsiders able to consult project summaries on the IASB website and attend Boardmeetings if they wish Of course, the informal exchanges between staff and Board on a day-to­day basis are not visible to the public, nor are the meetings where IASB takes strategic andadministrative decisions

The basic due process can be modified in different circumstances The Board may decidenot to issue Discussion Papers or to reissue Discussion Papers and Exposure Drafts.The IASB also has regular public meetings with the Capital Markets Advisory Com­mittee (CMAC) and the Global Preparers Forum (GPF), among others Special groups areset up from time to time An example was the Financial Crisis Advisory Group, which was set

up to consider how improvements in financial reporting could help enhance investorconfidence in financial markets in the wake of the financial crisis of 2008 Formal workinggroups are established for certain major projects to provide additional practical input andexpertise Apart from these formal consultative processes, IASB also carries outfield trials ofsome standards (examples of this include performance reporting and insurance), wherevolunteer preparers apply the proposed new standards The IASB may also hold some form

of public consultation during the process, such as roundtable discussions The IASB engagesclosely with stakeholders around the world such as investors, analysts, regulators, businessleaders, accounting standard setters and the accountancy profession

The revised IFRS Foundation Due Process Handbook has an introduction section dealing

with oversight, which identifies the responsibilities of the Due Process Oversight Committee.The work of the IASB is divided into development and maintenance projects Developmentsare comprehensive projects such as major changes and new IFRS Standards Maintenanceconsists of narrow scope amendments A research programme is also described that should

Although IASC and FASB were created almost contemporaneously, FASB largelyignored IASB until the 1990s It was only then that FASB became interested in IASC, whenIASC was beginning to work with IOSCO, a body in which the SEC has always had apowerful voice In effect, both the SEC and FASB were starting to consider the internationalfinancial reporting arena, and IASC was also starting to take initiatives to encouragestandard setters to meet together occasionally to debate technical issues of common interest.IOSCO’s efforts to create a single passport for secondary listings, and IASC’s role as itsstandard setter, while intended to operate worldwide, would have the greatest practicalsignificance for foreign issuers in terms of the US market It was understood that if the SECwere to accept IFRS in place of US GAAP, there would be no need for a Form 20-Freconciliation, and access to the US capital markets by foreign registrants would be greatlysimplified The SEC has therefore been a key factor in the later evolution of IASC Itencouraged IASC to build a relationship with IOSCO in 1987, and also observed that toomany options for diverse accounting were available under IAS SEC suggested that it would

be more favourably inclined to consider acceptance of IAS (now IFRS) if some or all of thesealternatives were reduced Shortly after IASC restarted its IOSCO work in 1995, the SECissued a statement (April 1996) to the effect that, to be acceptable, IFRS would need to satisfythe following three criteria:

1 It would need to establish a core set of standards that constituted a comprehensivebasis of accounting;

2 The standards would need to be of high quality, and enable investors to analyseperformance meaningfully both across time periods and among different companies;and

3 The standards would have to be rigorously interpreted and applied, as otherwisecomparability and transparency could not be achieved

IASC’s plan was predicated on its completion of a core set of standards, which wouldthen be handed over to IOSCO, which in turn would ask its members for an evaluation, afterwhich IOSCO would issue its verdict as to acceptability It was against this backdrop that theSEC issued a“concept release” in 2000 that solicited comments regarding the acceptability ofthe core set of standards, and whether there appeared to be a sufficiently robust complianceand enforcement mechanism to ensure that standards were consistently and rigorouslyapplied by preparers, whether auditors would ensure this and whether stock exchangeregulators would verify such compliance

This last-named element remains beyond the control of IASB, and is within the domain

of national compliance bodies or professional organisations in each jurisdiction The IASC’sStandards Interpretations Committee (SIC, which was later succeeded by IFRIC and thencethe IFRS Interpretations Committee (IFRSIC)) was formed to help ensure uniform inter­pretation, and IFRSIC has taken a number of initiatives to establish liaison channels withstock exchange regulators and national interpretations bodies—but the predominant respon­sibilities remain in the hands of the auditors, the audit oversight bodies and the stockexchange oversight bodies

the SEC welcomed various proposed changes to US GAAP to converge with IFRS.Relations between FASB and IASB have grown warmer since IASB was restructured,perhaps influenced by the growing awareness that IASB would assume a commandingposition in thefinancial reporting standard-setting domain The FASB had joined the IASBfor informal meetings as long ago as the early 1990s, culminating in the creation of the G4+1group of Anglophone standard setters (US, UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, withthe IASC as an observer), in which FASB was an active participant Perhaps the mostsignificant event was when IASB and FASB signed the Norwalk Agreement in October 2002,which set out a programme for the convergence of their respective sets offinancial reportingstandards The organisations’ staffs have worked together on a number of vital projects,including business combinations and revenue recognition, since the Agreement was signedand, later, supplemented by the 2006 and 2008 Memoranda of Understanding (MoU)between these bodies.

In June 2010, the Boards announced a modification to their convergence strategy,responding to concerns from some stakeholders regarding the volume of draft standards duefor publication in close proximity The strategy retained the June 2011 target date to completethose projects for which the need for improvement was the most urgent In line with thisstrategy, the Boards completed the consolidation (including joint arrangements) and fairvalue measurement project before the June 2011 target date The derecognition project wascancelled and only disclosure amendments were incorporated in the standard Projects onfinancial instruments, leases, revenue and insurance contracts were extended to createsignificant time for reconsultation after comments were received

With the end of the MoU with FASB, FASB has become a member of ASAF similarly toother standard setters The remaining outstanding MoU projects were thus completed asIASB projects and not joint projects

However, certain convergence problems remain, largely of the structural variety FASBoperates within a specific national legal framework, while IASB does not Equally, both havewhat they term“inherited” GAAP (i.e., differences in approach that have a long history andare not easily resolved) FASB also has a tradition of issuing very detailed, prescriptive(“rules-based”) standards that give bright-line accounting (and, consequently, audit) guid­ance, which are intended to make compliance control easier and remove uncertainties.Notwithstanding that detailed rules had been ardently sought by preparers and auditors alikefor many decades, in the post-Enron world, after it became clear that some of these highlyprescriptive rules had been abused, interest turned toward developing standards that wouldrely more on the expression of broad financial reporting objectives, with far less detailedinstruction on how to achieve them (“principles-based” standards) This was seen as beingsuperior to the US GAAP approach, which mandated an inevitably doomed effort toprescribe responses to every conceivable fact pattern to be confronted by preparers andauditors

This exaggerated rules-based vs principles-based dichotomy was invoked particularlyfollowing the frauds at US-based companies WorldCom and Enron, but before some of themore prominent European frauds, such as Parmalat (Italy) and Royal Ahold (the

reduces comparability The litigious environment in the US also makes companies andauditors reluctant to step into areas where judgements have to be taken in uncertainconditions The SEC’s solution is “objectives-based” standards, which are both soundlybased on principles and inclusive of practical guidance.

Events in the mid to late 2000s served to accelerate the pressure for full convergencebetween US GAAP and IFRS In fact, the US SEC’s decision in late 2007 to waivereconciliation requirements for foreign registrants complying with“full IFRS” was a clearindicator that the outright adoption of IFRS in the US could be on the horizon, and that theconvergence process might be made essentially redundant if not actually irrelevant The SEChas since granted qualifying US registrants (major players in industry segments, the majority

of whose worldwide participants already report under IFRS) the limited right to beginreporting under IFRS in 2009

In late 2008, the SEC proposed its so-called“roadmap” for a phased-in IFRS adoption,setting out four milestones which, if met, could have led to wide-scale adoption beginning in

2014 However, under new leadership, which assumed office in 2009, the SEC has shown that

it will act with less urgency on this issue, and achievement of the“milestones”—which include

a number of subjective measures such as improvement in standards and level of IFRS trainingand awareness among US accountants and auditors—leaves room for later balking atmaking thefinal commitment to IFRS Notwithstanding these impediments to progress, theauthors believe that there is ultimately an inexorable move toward universal adoption ofIFRS, and that the leading academic and public accounting (auditing) organisations must,and will, take the necessary steps to ensure that this can move forward For example, in the

US the principal organisation of academicians is actively working on standards for based accounting curricula, and the main organisation representing independent accountants

IFRS-is producing Web-based materials and live conferences to educate practitioners about IFRSmatters

While the anticipated further actions by the SEC will only directly promote or requireIFRS adoption by multinational and other larger, publicly held business entities, and later byeven small, publicly held companies, in the longer run, even medium- and smaller-sizedentities will probably opt for IFRS-basedfinancial reporting There are several reasons topredict this“trickle down” effect First, because some involvement in international trade isincreasingly a characteristic of all business operations, the need to communicate withcustomers, creditors and potential partners or investors will serve to motivate“one language”financial reporting Second, the notion of reporting under “second-class GAAP” rather thanunder the standards employed by larger competitors will eventually prove to be unappealing.And thirdly, IASB’s issuance of a one-document comprehensive standard on financialreporting by entities having no public reporting responsibilities (IFRS for SMEs, discussedlater in this chapter), coupled with formal recognition under US auditing standards thatfinancial reporting rules established by IASB are a basis for an expression of an auditor’sprofessional opinion, may actuallyfind enthusiastic support among smaller US reportingentities and their professional services providers, even without immediate adoptions amongpublicly held companies

international standard setter The EC did not participate in any way until 1990, when itfinally became an observer at Board meetings It had had its own regional programme ofharmonisation since the 1960s and in effect only officially abandoned this in 1995 when, in apolicy paper, it recommended to member states that they seek to align their rules forconsolidatedfinancial statements with IFRS Notwithstanding this, the Commission gaveIASB a great boost when it announced in June 2000 that it wanted to require all listedcompanies throughout the European Union (EU) to use IFRS beginning in 2005 as part of itsinitiative to build a single Europeanfinancial market This intention was made concrete withthe approval of the IFRS Regulation in June 2002 by the European Council of Ministers (thesupreme EU decision-making authority).

The EU decision was all the more welcome given that, to be effective in legal terms, IFRShave to be enshrined in EU statute law, creating a situation where the EU is in effect ratifying

as laws the set of rules created by a small, self-appointed, private-sector body This proved to

be a delicate situation, which was revealed within a very short time to contain the seeds ofunending disagreements, as politicians were being asked in effect to endorse something overwhich they had no control They were soon being lobbied by corporate interests that hadfailed to effectively influence IASB directly, in order to achieve their objectives, which in somecases involved continued lack of transparency regarding certain types of transactions oreconomic effects, such as fair value changes affecting holdings offinancial instruments Theprocess of obtaining EU endorsement of IFRS was at the cost of exposing IASB to politicalpressures in much the same way that the US FASB has at times been the target ofcongressional manipulations (e.g., over stock-based compensation accounting rules in themid-1990s, the derailing of which arguably contributed to the practices that led to variousbackdating abuse allegations made in more recent years)

The EU created an elaborate machinery to mediate its relations with IASB It preferred

to work with another private-sector body, created for the purpose, the European FinancialReporting Advisory Group (EFRAG), as the formal conduit for EU inputs to IASB.EFRAG was formed in 2001 by a collection of European representative organisations(for details seewww.efrag.org), including the European Accounting Federation (FEE) and aEuropean employer organisation (BUSINESSEUROPE) EFRAG in turn formed the smallTechnical Expert Group (TEG) that does the detailed work on IASB proposals EFRAGconsults widely within the EU, and particularly with national standard setters and theEuropean Commission to canvass views on IASB proposals, and provides input to IASB Itresponds formally to all Discussion Papers and Exposure Drafts

At a second stage, when a final standard is issued, EFRAG is asked by the EC toprovide a report on the standard This report is to state whether the standard has therequisite quality and is in conformity with European company law directives The EC thenasks another entity, the Accounting Regulatory Committee (ARC), whether it wishes toendorse the standard ARC consists of permanent representatives of the EU member stategovernments It should normally only fail to endorse IFRS if it believes they are not inconformity with the overall framework of EU law, and should not take a strategic orpolicy view However, the European Parliament also has the right to independently

intention to issue a standard on stock options, it received nearly a hundred comment lettersfrom US companies (who report under US GAAP, not IFRS), but only one from EFRAG,which in the early 2000s effectively represented about 90% of IASB’s constituents It ispossible, however, that EFRAG is seen at IASB as being only a single respondent, and if so,that people who have made the effort to work through EFRAG feel underrepresented Inaddition, EFRAG will inevitably present a distillation of views, so it is already filteringrespondents’ views before they even reach IASB The only recourse is for respondents tomake representations not only to EFRAG but also directly to IASB.

However, resistance to thefinancial instruments standards, IAS 32 and IAS 39, put thesystem under specific strain These standards were already in existence when the ECannounced its decision to adopt IFRS for European listed companies, and they had eachbeen exhaustively debated before enactment European adoption again exposed theseparticular standards to strenuous debate

Thefirst task of EFRAG and ARC was to endorse the existing standards of IASB Theydid this—but excluded IASs 32 and 39 on the grounds that they were being extensively revised

as part of IASB’s then-ongoing Improvements Project.

During the exposure period of the improvements proposals—which exceptionallyincluded roundtable meetings with constituents—the European Banking Federation, underparticular pressure from French banks, lobbied IASB to modify the standard to permitspecial accounting for macro-hedging The IASB agreed to do this, even though that meantthe issuance of another Exposure Draft and a further amendment to IAS 39 (which wasfinally issued in March 2004) The bankers did not like the terms of the amendment, and even

as it was still under discussion, they appealed to the French president and persuaded him tointervene He wrote to the EC in July 2003, saying that thefinancial instruments standardswere likely to cause banks’ reported earnings to be more volatile and would destabilise theEuropean economy, and thus that the proposed standard should not be approved He alsoargued that the Commission did not have sufficient input to the standard-setting process.This drive to alter the requirements of IAS 39 was intensified when the European CentralBank complained in February 2004 that the“fair value option,” introduced to IAS 39 as animprovement infinal form in December 2003, could be used by banks to manipulate their

prudential ratios (the capital to asset ratios used to evaluate bank safety), and asked IASB to

limit the circumstances in which the option could be used IASB agreed to do this, althoughthis meant issuing another Exposure Draft and a further amendment to IAS 39, which wasnotfinalised until mid-2005 When IASB debated the issue, it took a pragmatic line that nocompromise of principle was involved, and that it was reasonable that the principal bankregulator of the Board’s largest constituent by far should be accommodated The fact that theEuropean Central Bank had not raised these issues at the original Exposure Draft stage wasnot discussed, nor was the legitimacy of a constituent deciding unilaterally it wanted tochange a rule that had just been approved The Accounting Standards Board of Japan lodged

a formal protest, and many other constituents were not pleased at this development.Ultimately, ARC approved IAS 32 and IAS 39, but a“carve-out” from IAS 39 wasprescribed Clearly the EU’s involvement with IFRS is proving to be a mixed blessing for

A better observation is that this is merely part of a period of adjustment, with regulatorsand lobbyists both being uncertain as to how exactly the system does and should work, and

both testing its limits, but with some modus vivendi evolving over time However, it is a severe

distraction for IASB that financial instruments, arguably the area of greatest accountingcontroversy in the 1990s, are still causing concern to the present date, in part exacerbated by theworldwidefinancial crisis of 2007–2009 Some believe that financial instruments accountingissues should have been fully resolved years ago, so that IASB could give its undivided attention

to such crucial topics as revenue recognition, performance reporting and insurance contracts.The EC decision to impose “carve-outs” has most recently had the result that the USSEC’s historic decision to eliminate reconciliation to US GAAP for foreign private issuershas been restricted to those registrants thatfile financial statements that comply with “fullIFRS” (which implies that those using “Euro-IFRS” and other national modifications ofIFRS promulgated by the IASB will not be eligible for this benefit) Registrants using anydeviation from pure IFRS, and those using any other national GAAP, will continue to berequired to present a reconciliation to US GAAP Over time, it can be assumed that this willadd to the pressure to report under“full IFRS,” and that even the EU may eventually line upbehind full and complete adherence to officially promulgated IFRS In November 2009EFRAG decided to defer the endorsement of IFRS 9, although stating that in principle theyagreed with the management approach adopted in the standard EFRAG’s deferral arosebecause of its belief that more time should be taken to consider the outcome of other sections

of thefinancial instrument project and that the sections should be endorsed as a package.EFRAG published its final endorsement advice on IFRS 9 in September 2015, and thestandard wasfinally endorsed for use in the EU in November 2016

In June 2010 EFRAG issued a new Strategy for European Proactive Financial Reporting

Activities This strategy of proactive activities enhances EFRAG’s role in influencing

standard setting by early engagement with European constituents to provide effective andtimely input to the IASB’s work This demonstrates that EFRAG is positively committed tothe standard-setting process and it has duly become a member of ASAF

APPENDIX A: CURRENT INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS (IAS/IFRS) AND INTERPRETATIONS (SIC/IFRIC)

IFRS 1 First-Time Adoption of IFRS

IFRS 2 Share-Based Payment

IFRS 3 Business Combinations

IFRS 4 Insurance Contracts

IFRS 5 Non-current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations

IFRS 6 Exploration for and Evaluation of Mineral Resources

IFRS 7 Financial Instruments: Disclosures

IFRS 8 Operating Segments

IFRS 9 Financial Instruments (effective for accounting periods commencing on or after

1 January 2018 and will supersede IAS 39)

IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers (effective for accounting periods

commencing on or after 1 January 2018 and will supersede IAS 11, IAS 18,IFRIC 13, IFRIC 15, IFRIC 18 and SIC 31)

IFRS 16 Leases (effective for accounting periods commencing on or after 1 January 2019

and will supersede IAS 17, IFRIC 4, SIC 15 and SIC 27)IFRS 17 Insurance Contracts (effective for accounting periods commencing on or after 1

January 2021 and will supersede IFRS 4, IFRIC 4 and SIC 15)IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements

IAS 7 Statement of Cash Flows

IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors

IAS 10 Events after the Reporting Period

IAS 11 Construction Contracts

IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment

IAS 19 Employee Benefits

IAS 20 Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of Government AssistanceIAS 21 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates

IAS 23 Borrowing Costs

IAS 24 Related-Party Disclosure

IAS 26 Accounting and Reporting by Retirement Benefit Plans

IAS 27 Separate Financial Statements

IAS 28 Investments in Associates and Joint Ventures

IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies

IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation

IAS 33 Earnings per Share

IAS 34 Interim Financial Reporting

IAS 36 Impairment of Assets

IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets

IAS 38 Intangible Assets

IAS 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement

IAS 40 Investment Property

IAS 41 Agriculture

IFRIC 1 Changes in Existing Decommissioning, Restoration and Similar LiabilitiesIFRIC 2 Members’ Shares in Co-operative Entities and Similar Instruments

IFRIC 4 Determining whether an Arrangement contains a Lease

IFRIC 5 Rights to Interests arising from Decommissioning, Restoration and

Environmental Rehabilitation FundsIFRIC 6 Liabilities arising from Participating in a Specific Market—Waste Electrical and

Electronic EquipmentIFRIC 7 Applying the Restatement Approach under IAS 29, Financial Reporting in

Hyperinflationary Economies

IFRIC 9 Reassessment of Embedded Derivatives

IFRIC 10 Interim Financial Reporting and Impairment

IFRIC 16 Hedges of a Net Investment in a Foreign Operation

IFRIC 17 Distributions of Non-cash Assets to Owners

IFRIC 18 Transfer of Assets from Customers

IFRIC 19 Extinguishing Financial Liabilities with Equity Instruments

IFRIC 20 Stripping Costs in the Production Phase of a Surface Mine

IFRIC 21 Levies

IFRIC 22 Uncertainty over Income Tax Treatments

SIC 7 Introduction of the Euro

SIC 10 Government Assistance—No Specific Relation to Operating Activities

SIC 15 Operating Leases—Incentives

SIC 25 Income Taxes—Changes in the Tax Status of an Enterprise or its ShareholdersSIC 27 Evaluating the Substance of Transactions involving the Legal Form of a LeaseSIC 29 Disclosure—Service Concession Arrangements

SIC 31 Revenue—Barter Transactions Involving Advertising Services

SIC 32 Intangible Assets—Web Site Costs

APPENDIX B: PROJECTS COMPLETED SINCE PREVIOUS ISSUE (JULY 2016 TO JUNE 2017)

Applying IFRS 9 Financial September 2016 To provide guidance to 1 January 2018

IFRIC Interpretation 22 December 2016 Determine the exchange rate 1 January 2018

Consideration

IAS 40 Investment December 2016 Clarifies transfers to and from 1 January 2018

investment property

IFRS 17 Insurance May 2017 To provide a single principles­ 1 January 2021

for all types of insurancecontracts, includingreinsurance contracts that aninsurer holds

IFRIC Interpretation 23 June 2017 Clarify the treatment for tax 1 January 2019

Tax Treatments

entities purporting to adhere to officially mandated accounting standards should do so withabsolute faithfulness—was resolved on July 9, 2009 with the publication of the International

Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) for Small and Medium-Sized Entities (IFRS for SMEs) Notwithstanding the name, it is actually intended as an optional, somewhat

simplified and choice-limited comprehensive financial reporting standard for enterprisesnot having public accountability Many of the recognition and measurement principles in fullIFRS have been simplified, disclosures significantly reduced and topics not relevant to SMEs

omitted from the IFRS for SMEs The IASB carried out a comprehensive review of the IFRS

for SMEs which it completed in May 2015 resulting in limited amendments to the standard A

complete revised version of the standard was issued in December 2015 and is effective from 1January 2017 The IASB expects that revisions to the standard will be limited to once everythree years

A parallel debate on accounting for smaller entities raged in the UK, the US and inother national GAAP domains for decades In the US, a number of embryonic proposalshave been offered over at least the past 30 years, but no serious offering was forthcoming,largely because the idea of differential recognition or measurement standards for smallerentities was seen as conceptually unappealing, leaving the relatively trivial issue ofdifferential disclosures as the focus of discussion Apart from a limited number ofdisclosure topics, such as segment results and earnings per share, and some pensionobligation details, this proved not to be a very productive line of inquiry, and no sweepingchanges were ever adopted or even proposed

In the UK, the story was different A single, comprehensive standard, the Financial

Reporting Standard for Smaller Entities (FRSSE), was successfully implemented more than

20 years ago, and then revised several times, employing a periodic updating strategy, whichIASB has now emulated Rather than impose different recognition or measurementconcepts on smaller entities, the approach taken, in the main, was to slim down thestandards, eliminate much of the background and illustrative materials, and in some casesnarrow or eliminate the alternative methods that users of full UK GAAP could elect toapply, with some concomitant simplifications to informative disclosures Since this wasdeemed to have been successful in the UK, IASB determined to emulate it, beginning with aDiscussion Paper in 2004, and continuing through an early-2007 Exposure Draft and afinal standard in mid-2009

In August 2009, the UK Accounting Standards Board (ASB) issued a consultation paper

to adopt IFRS for SMEs in the UK Good support was received to adopt a standard based on the IFRS for SMEs as a second-tier standard FRSSE should be retained as an interim

measure for a third-tier standard The process culminated in the issue, in March 2013, of FRS

102 The Financial Reporting Standard applicable in the UK and Republic of Ireland, a standard based on IFRS for SMEs, which applies to second-tier entities with effect from

accounting periods commencing on or after January 1, 2015

The enthusiasm and support that was shown for the IFRS for SMEs project from

national accounting standard setters throughout the world stemmed mostly from the widelyacknowledged complexity of the full body of IFRS, and from the different statutory

financial statements in accordance with various national GAAP, resulting in lack ofcomparability across this sector of financial reporting entities Reportedly, more than 50different sets of standards govern private reporting in the 28 EU nations EFRAG has not

decided whether the IFRS for SMEs should be endorsed in Europe, although most countries

have responded positively to such an implementation

It had long been asserted, although often without solid evidence, that the complexity ofthe full body of IFRS (and, even more so, of full US GAAP) imposes a high and unwelcomecost on implementing and applying these standards, and that many or most external users ofthe resultingfinancial statements did not see value commensurate with the cost and effort

associated with their preparation Whether or not this is true, many now believe that the IFRS

for SMEs will provide companies with an easier transition to full IFRS, thus serving to

accomplish, in the longer term, a more thorough and broadly-based move towards universalreporting under a single set offinancial reporting standards

Opponents of a separate set of standards for SMEs believe that all entities should followthe same basic set of accounting principles for the preparation of general-purposefinancialstatements, whether that set of standards be IFRS or US GAAP Some have noted thatcomplexity in accounting is merely a symptom—the inevitable result of the ever-increasingcomplexity of transactional structures, such as the widespread use of“engineered” financialproducts Based on observations of the difficulties faced by companies implementing andapplying the full IFRS, others have concluded that the problem is not that SMEs need simpleraccounting, but that all reporting entities would benefit from reporting requirements that areless complex and more principles based Since this latter goal seemed to be perpetuallyunattainable, momentum ultimately shifted in favour of having a simplified stand-alone

standard for either smaller or non-public companies The IFRS for SMEs, available for use

by non-publicly accountable entities of any size, is the solution that has been offered by IASB

to this chronic problem

Because the IASB lacks the power to require any company to use its standards, the

adoption of the IFRS for SMEs is a matter for each country to decide The issue must be

resolved by a country’s government legislators and regulators, or by an independentstandards setter, or by a professional accountancy body Each country will need to establishcriteria to determine the eligibility of reporting entities seeking to qualify under the standard

as a“small or medium-sized” entity

The IFRS for SMEs is not immediately updated for any changes to full IFRS but, as

noted above, the IASB issued amendments in the first half of 2015 and then anticipatesupdating the standard every three years thereafter

De finition of SMEs

The IFRS for SMEs is intended for entities that do not have public accountability An

entity has public accountability—and therefore would not be permitted to use the IFRS for

SMEs—if it meets either of the following conditions: (1) it has issued debt or equity

securities in a public market; or (2) it holds assets in a fiduciary capacity, as one of itsprimary businesses, for a broad group of outsiders The latter category of entity wouldinclude most banks, insurance companies, securities broker/dealers, pension funds, mutual

reporting from fully conforming to such standards.

A subsidiary of an entity that employs full IFRS, or an entity that is part of aconsolidated entity that reports in compliance with IFRS, may report, on a stand-alone

basis, in accordance with the IFRS for SMEs, if the financial statements are so identified,

and if the subsidiary does not have public accountability itself If this is done, the standardmust be fully complied with, which could mean that the subsidiary’s stand-alone financialstatements would differ from how they are presented within the parent’s consolidatedfinancial statements; for example, in the subsidiary’s financial statements prepared in

accordance with IFRS for SMEs, borrowing costs incurred in connection with the

construction of long-lived assets would be expensed as incurred, but those same borrowingcosts would be capitalised in the consolidatedfinancial statements, since IAS 23 as mostrecently revised no longer provides the option of immediate expensing In the authors’view, this would not be optimal financial reporting, and the goals of consistency andcomparability would be better served if the stand-alone financial statements of thesubsidiary were also based on full IFRS

IFRS for SMEs is a Complete, Self-Contained Set of Requirements

The IFRS for SMEs is a complete and comprehensive standard, and accordingly

contains much or most of the vital guidance provided by full IFRS For example, it definesthe qualities that are needed for IFRS-compliantfinancial reporting (reliability, understand­ability, et al.), the elements offinancial statements (assets, liabilities, et al.), the requiredminimum captions in the required full set offinancial statements, the mandate for compara­tive reporting and so on There is no need for an entity reporting under this standard to referelsewhere (other than for guidance in IAS 39, discussed below), and indeed it would beimproper to do so

An entity having no public accountability, which elects to report in conformity with the

IFRS for SMEs, must make an “explicit and unreserved” declaration to that effect in the

notes to the financial statements As with a representation that the financial statementscomply with full IFRS, if this representation is made, the entity must comply fully with allrelevant requirements in the standard(s)

Many options under full IFRS remain under the IFRS for SMEs For example, a single

statement of comprehensive income may be presented, with profit or loss being an interme­diate step in the derivation of the period’s comprehensive income or loss, or alternatively aseparate statement of income can be displayed, with profit or loss (the “bottom line” in thatstatement) then being the opening item in the separate statement of comprehensive income.Likewise, most of the mandates under full IFRS, such as the requirement to consolidatespecial-purpose entities that are controlled by the reporting entity, also exist under theIFRS for SMEs.

Modi fications of Full IFRS made in IFRS for SMEs

Compared to full IFRS, the aggregate length of the standard, in terms of number ofwords, has been reduced by more than 90% This was achieved by removing topics deemed

According to the IASB, the set of standards in the IFRS for SMEs will be suitable for a

typical enterprise having 50 employees, and will also be valid for so-called micro-entitieshaving only a single or a few employees However, no size limits are stipulated in the

standard, and thus even very large entities could conceivably elect to apply IFRS for SMEs,

assuming they have no public accountability as defined in the standard, and that noobjections are raised by their various other stakeholders, such as lenders, customers, vendors

or joint venture partners

Omitted topics Certain topics covered in the full IFRS were viewed as not being relevant

to typical SMEs (e.g., rules pertaining to transactions that were thought to be unlikely tooccur in an SME context), and have accordingly been omitted from the standard This leavesopen the question of whether SMEs could optionally seek expanded guidance in the full

IFRS Originally, when the Exposure Draft of IFRS for SMEs was released, cross-references

to the full IFRS were retained, so that SMEs would not be precluded from applying any of the

financial reporting standards and methods found in IFRS, essentially making the IFRS for

SMEs standard entirely optional on a component-by-component basis However, in the final IFRS for SMEs standard all of these cross-references have been removed, with the exception

of a reference to IAS 39, Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement, thus making the IFRS for SMEs a fully stand-alone document, not to be used in conjunction with the full IFRS An entity that would qualify for use of the IFRS for SMEs must therefore make a decision to use full IFRS or the IFRS for SMEs exclusively.

Topics addressed in full IFRS, which are entirely omitted from the IFRS for SMEs, are as

follows:

• Earnings per share;

• Interim reporting;

• Segment reporting;

• Special accounting for assets held for sale;

• Insurance (since, because of public accountability, such entities would be precluded

from using IFRS for SMEs in any event).

Thus, for example, if a reporting entity concluded that its stakeholders wanted presen­tation of segment reporting information, and the entity’s management wished to provide that

to them, it would elect to preparefinancial statements in conformity with the full set of IFRS,

rather than under the IFRS for SMEs.

Only the simpler option included Where full IFRS provide an accounting policy choice,

generally only the simpler option is included in IFRS for SMEs SMEs will not be permitted

to employ the other option(s) provided by the full IFRS, as had been envisioned by theExposure Draft that preceded this standard, as all cross-references to the full IFRS have beeneliminated

The simpler options selected for inclusion in IFRS for SMEs are as follows, with the

excluded alternatives noted:

• For investment property, measurement is driven by circumstances rather than achoice between the cost and fair value models, both of which are permitted under

revaluation model set out in IAS 38, Intangible Assets, is not allowed.

• Immediate expensing of borrowing costs is required; the capitalisation modelstipulated under revised IAS 23 is not deemed appropriate for SMEs

• Jointly controlled entities cannot be accounted for under the proportionate consoli­

dation method under the IFRS for SMEs, but can be under full IFRS as they presently exist The IFRS for SMEs does permit the use of the fair value-through-earnings

method as well as the equity method, and even the cost method can be used when it isnot possible to obtain price or value data

• Entities electing to employ the IFRS for SMEs are required to expense development

costs as they are incurred, together with all research costs Full IFRS necessitatesmaking a distinction between research and development costs, with the formerexpensed and the latter capitalised and then amortised over an appropriate periodreceiving economic benefits

It should be noted that the Exposure Draft that preceded the original version of the

IFRS for SMEs would have required that the direct method for the presentation of

operating cash flows be used, to the exclusion of the less desirable, but vastly morepopular, indirect method Thefinal standard has retreated from this position and permitsboth methods, so it includes necessary guidance on application of the indirect method,which was absent from the draft

All references to full IFRS found in the original draft of the standard have beeneliminated, except for the reference to IAS 39, which may be used, optionally, by entities

reporting under the IFRS for SMEs The general expectation is that few reporting entities will

opt to do this, since the enormous complexity of that standard was a primary impetus to the

development of the streamlined IFRS for SMEs.

It is inevitable that somefinancial accounting or reporting situations will arise for which

the IFRS for SMEs itself will not provide complete guidance The standard provides a

hierarchy, of sorts, of additional literature upon which reliance could be placed, in theabsence of definitive rules contained in the IFRS for SMEs First, the requirements and

guidance that are set out for highly similar or closely related circumstances would be

consulted within the IFRS for SMEs Second, the Concepts and Pervasive Principles section

(Section 1.2) of the standard would be consulted, in the hope that definitions, recognitioncriteria and measurement concepts (e.g., for assets, revenues) would provide the preparerwith sufficient guidance to reason out a valid solution Third and last, full IFRS is identifiedexplicitly as a source of instruction Although reference to US (or other) GAAP is notsuggested as a tactic, since full IFRS permits preparers to consider the requirements ofnational GAAP, if based on a framework similar to full IFRS, this omission may not indicateexclusion as such

Recognition and measurement simplifications For the purposes of the IFRS for SMEs,

IASB has made significant simplifications to the recognition and measurement principlesincluded in full IFRS Examples of the simplifications to the recognition and measurementprinciples found in full IFRS are as follows:

to-maturity classifications under IAS 39 are not available, there will be no need

to deal with all of the“intent-driven” held-to-maturity rules, or related “taint­ing” concerns, with no need for an option to recognise changes in value ofavailable-for-sale securities in current profit or loss instead of as an item of othercomprehensive income

(1) The IFRS for SMEs requires an amortised cost model for most debt instru­

ments, using the effective interest rate as at initial recognition The effectiverate should consider all contractual terms, such as prepayment options.Investments in non-convertible and non-puttable preference shares andnon-puttable ordinary shares that are publicly traded or whose fair valuecan otherwise be measured reliably are to be measured at fair value withchanges in value reported in current earnings Most other basic financialinstruments are to be reported at cost less any impairment recognised.Impairment or uncollectability must always be assessed, and, if identified,recognised immediately in profit or loss; recoveries to the extent of lossespreviously taken are also recognised in profit or loss

(2) For more complex financial instruments (such as derivatives), fair valuethrough profit or loss is generally the applicable measurement method,with cost less impairment being prescribed for those instruments (such asequity instruments lacking an objectively determinable fair value) for whichfair value cannot be ascertained

(3) Assets which would generally not meet the criteria as being basicfinancialinstruments include (a) asset-backed securities, such as collateralised mort­gage obligations, repurchase agreements and securitised packages of receiv­ables; (b) options, rights, warrants, futures contracts, forward contracts andinterest rate swaps that can be settled in cash or by exchanging anotherfinancial instrument; (c) financial instruments that qualify and are desig­nated as hedging instruments in accordance with the requirements in thestandard; (d) commitments to make a loan to another entity; and (e)commitments to receive a loan if the commitment can be net settled incash Such instruments would include (a) an investment in another entity’sequity instruments other than non-convertible preference shares and non­puttable ordinary and preference shares; (b) an interest rate swap, whichreturns a cashflow that is positive or negative, or a forward commitment topurchase a commodity or financial instrument, which is capable of beingcash settled and which, on settlement, could have positive or negative cashflow; (c) options and forward contracts, because returns to the holder arenot fixed; (d) investments in convertible debt, because the return to theholder can vary with the price of the issuer’s equity shares rather than justwith market interest rates; and (e) a loan receivable from a third party thatgives the third party the right or obligation to prepay if the applicabletaxation or accounting requirements change

“passthrough testing” and “control retention testing” of IAS 39 can thus beomitted, unless full IAS 39 is elected for by the reporting entity For financialliabilities, derecognition is permitted only when the obligation is discharged,cancelled or expires.

c Simplified hedge accounting Much more simplified hedge accounting and less

strict requirements for periodic recognition and measurement of hedge effective­ness are specified than those set out in IAS 39

d Embedded derivatives No separate accounting for embedded derivatives is

3 All research and development costs are expensed as incurred (IAS 38 requires capital­

isation after commercial viability has been assessed)

4 The cost method or fair value through profit or loss of accounting for associates andjoint ventures may be used (rather than the equity method or proportionateconsolidation)

5 Simplified accounting for deferred taxes: The “temporary difference approach” for recognition of deferred taxes under IAS 12, Income Taxes, is allowed with a minor

modification Current and deferred taxes are required to be measured initially at therate applicable to undistributed profits, with adjustment in subsequent periods if theprofits are distributed

6 Less use of fair value for agriculture (being required only if fair value is readily

determinable without undue cost or effort)

7 Share-based payment: Equity-settled share-based payments should always be recognised

as an expense and the expense should be measured on the basis of observable marketprices, if available When there is a choice of settlement, the entity should account for thetransaction as a cash-settled transaction, except under certain circumstances

8 Finance leases: A simplified measurement of a lessee’s rights and obligations is

prescribed

9 First-time adoption: Less prior period data would have to be restated than under IFRS

1, First-time Adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards An

impracticability exemption has also been included

Because the default measurement offinancial instruments would be fair value throughprofit and loss under the IFRS for SMEs, some SMEs may actually be required to apply morefair value measurements than do entities reporting under full IFRS

Disclosure Requirements under IFRS for SMEs

There are certain reductions in disclosure requirements under IFRS for SMEs compared

to full IFRS, but these are relatively minor and alone would not drive a decision to adopt thestandard Furthermore, key stakeholders, such as banks, often prescribe supplemental

frequency of changes to standards To respond to these issues, IASB intends to update IFRS

for SMEs approximately once every three years via an “omnibus” standard, with the

expectation that any new requirements would not have mandatory application dates soonerthan one year from issuance Users are thus assured of having a moderately stable platform ofrequirements

SME Implementation Group

The mission of the SME Implementation Group (SMEIG) is to support the international

adoption of the IFRS for SMEs and monitor its implementation The SMEIG has two main

responsibilities:

• Consider implementation questions raised by users of the IFRS for SMEs, and

develop proposed guidance in the form of questions and answers (Q&As), which aremade publicly available The Q&As are intended to be non-mandatory guidance

• Consider, and make recommendations to the IASB on, the need to amend the IFRS

for SMEs.

The SMEIG issued a series of Q&As up to 2012 based on the original version of the IFRS

for SMEs This activity ceased as the IASB began its consultation on amendments to the IFRS for SMEs and the Q&As issued up to that point have been incorporated into the revised IFRS for SMEs (and thus made mandatory) and/or the IFRS Foundation’s educational

material (remaining non-mandatory) Further Q&As are likely to be issued as the revised

IFRS for SMEs comes into use Comprehensive training material has been developed for

SMEs by the IFRS Foundation

Implications of the IFRS for SMEs

The IFRS for SMEs is a significant development, which appears to be having a real

impact on the future accounting and auditing standards issued by organisations participating

in the standard-setting process

On March 6, 2007, the FASB and the AICPA announced that the newly establishedPrivate Company Financial Reporting Committee (PCFRC) will address the financialreporting needs of private companies and of the users of theirfinancial statements Theprimary objective of PCFRC will be to help the FASB determine whether and where thereshould be specific differences in prospective and existing accounting standards for privatecompanies

In many continental European countries, a close link exists between the statutoryfinancialstatements and the results reported for income tax purposes The successful implementation ofSME Standards will require breaking the traditional bond between thefinancial statements andthe income tax return, and may well trigger a need to amend company laws

Since it is imperative that international convergence of accounting standards beaccompanied by convergence of audit standards, differential accounting for SMEs willaffect regulators such as the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) and the

SEC The IFRS for SMEs may be a welcome relief for auditors as it will decrease the inherent

Application of the IFRS for SMEs

The application of the IFRS for SMEs is not covered in this publication However, there

is a detailed accounting manual available, which addresses the requirements, application andinterpretation of the standard—Applying IFRS for SMEs (available from Wiley)

Conceptual Framework for Financial

Reporting 2010

Purpose and Status

The Accounting Model

The Objective of General-Purpose

Exposure Draft—Conceptual

Framework for Financial Reporting

Chapter 1 —The Objective of General

Purpose Financial Reporting

Chapter 2 —Qualitative Characteristics of

Useful Financial Information

Chapter 3 —Financial Statements and the

27 Chapter 7 —Presentation and Disclosure 36

Chapter 8 —Concepts of Capital and

28 Further Considerations Following the

28 Issue of the Exposure Draft

Chapter 1 —The Objective of General

37

28 Chapter 2Purpose Financial Reporting—Qualitative Characteristics of

38 Useful Financial Information 38

29 Chapter 3—Financial Statements and the

33 Hierarchy of Standards 39 IFRS Practice Statement

34 Qualitative CharacteristicsPresentation

4141

36 US GAAP Comparison 42

The IASB inherited the IASC’s Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of

Financial Statements, which was issued in July 1998 Like the other current conceptual

frameworks among Anglo-Saxon standard setters, this derives mainly from the US concep­tual framework

IASB and FASB have been, since 2005, revisiting their respective conceptual frameworks

to build on them by refining and updating them and developing them into a commonframework, which both can use in developing accounting standards The objective of theconceptual framework project is to create a sound foundation for future accountingstandards, which are principles based, internally consistent and, ultimately, internationallyconverged The new framework builds on existing IASB and FASB frameworks The IASB

Framework is, for instance, relatively silent on measurement issues The three paragraphs

which address this matter merely mention that several different measurement bases areavailable and that historical cost is the most common

27

Concepts Statement 8 to replace Concepts Statements 1 and 2 This chapter provides a review

of the framework issued in September 2010, the future phases of the framework project andIFRS Practice Statement Management Commentary that was issued in December 2010.The IASB’s Discussion Paper A Review of the Conceptual Framework for Financial

Reporting issued in June 2013 was followed by the issue on 28 May 2015 of an Exposure Draft

proposing a revised framework Feedback on the Exposure Draft has led the IASB toredeliberate on its contents and in May 2016 a document was published summarising changesthat would be made to the proposed framework as a result of tentative decisions it had made

up to that point The proposals aim to improve financial reporting by providing a morecomplete, clearer and updated set of concepts, which can be used by the IASB when itdevelops new standards, and by others to help them understand and apply the IASB’sstandards The Exposure Draft’s proposals are examined in more detail later in this chapter

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR FINANCIAL REPORTING 2010

Purpose and Status

The purpose of the conceptual framework is to set out the concepts which underlie thepreparation and presentation offinancial statements The preparation of financial statements

is based on estimates, judgements and models rather than exact depictions The conceptualframework provides the foundations upon which these constituents are based

The main aim is therefore to help the IASB in preparing new standards and reviewingexisting standards The conceptual framework also helps national standard setters, preparers,auditors, users and others interested in IFRS in achieving their objectives The conceptualframework is, however, not itself regarded as an IFRS and therefore cannot override anyIFRS although there might be potential conflicts The IASB believes that over time any suchconflicts will be eliminated

The Accounting Model

The introduction to the conceptual framework states that accounting statements aremost commonly prepared in accordance with an accounting model based on recoverablehistorical cost and the nominal financial capital maintenance concept Other models andconcepts may be more appropriate but there is currently no consensus for change Theconceptual framework is prepared to be applicable to a wide range of accounting models andconcepts of capital and capital maintenance It is envisaged that the objective and qualitativecharacteristics in the conceptual framework will be used to make the appropriate decisions

The Objective of General-Purpose Financial Statements

The objective of general-purpose financial statements in the conceptual framework isdefined as follows:

The objective of general-purposefinancial reporting is to provide financial information about thereporting entity that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders, and other creditors inmaking decisions about providing resources to the entity

purposefinancial statements to make decisions regarding the purchase or sale of equity anddebt instruments or to providefinance to the entity and thus they are identified as the primaryusers of general-purposefinancial statements.

The conceptual framework holds that users need to evaluate the prospects for future netcash inflows to an entity To assess these net inflows, information is needed of an entity’sresources, claims to those resources and the ability of management and the governing board

to discharge their responsibility to use the resources Assessing stewardship is thus included inthe ability of users to assess the net cashflows of an entity

General-purposefinancial statements provide information about the financial position

of an entity, its resources and claims against the resources Thefinancial position is affected

by the economic resources controlled by the entity, itsfinancial structure, its liquidity andsolvency and its capacity to adapt to changes in the environment in which it operates.Information is provided about the strengths and weaknesses of an entity and its ability toacquirefinance

Changes in an entity’s resources and claims are a result of an entity’s financialperformance and are derived from other transactions such as issuing debt and equityinstruments Financial performance is assessed both through the process of accrual account­ing and changes in cashflows This helps users to understand the return on the resources of anentity and how well management has discharged its stewardship responsibilities Both thesechanges and the implications of these changes reflected in the historical information help toassess future performance

Qualitative Characteristics of Useful Financial Information

The qualitative characteristics identify the information, which is most useful infinancial reporting Financial reporting includes information in financial statementsandfinancial information that is provided by other means The qualitative characteristicsare divided into fundamental qualitative characteristics and enhancing qualitative char­acteristics The fundamental qualitative characteristics are relevance and faithful repre­sentation The enhancing qualitative characteristics are comparability, verifiability,timeliness and understandability

No hierarchy of applying the qualitative characteristics is determined The application is,however, a process The fundamental characteristics are applied by following a three-stepprocess Firstly, it is necessary to identify the economic phenomenon which has a potential to

be useful Secondly, the type of information regarding the phenomenon that is most relevantthat could be faithfully represented should be identified Finally, it should be determinedwhether the information is available and could be faithfully represented After that, theenhancing characteristics are applied to confirm or enhance the quality of the information.The different qualitative characteristics are explained as follows:

Relevant financial information is capable of making a difference in decision making.Information is capable of making a difference if it has predictive value, confirmatoryvalue or both Financial information has predictive value if it can be used as an input inthe process to predict future outcomes, and has confirmatory value if it provides

are no errors or omissions in the description of the phenomena and in the processapplied In order to be useful,financial information must not only represent relevantphenomena (as described above) but also faithfully represent the phenomena which itpurports to represent.

Comparability refers to the ability to identify similarities in, and differences between,

items Consistency (the use of the same accounting policies and procedures within an

entity from period to period, or in a single period across entities) aids comparability

Veri fiability helps to assure users that information represents faithfully the economic

phenomena that it purports to represent It implies that knowledgeable and indepen­dent observers could reach a general consensus (but not necessarily absolute agree­ment) that the information does represent faithfully the economic phenomena itpurports to represent without material error or bias, or that an appropriate recognition

or measurement method has been applied without material error or bias It means thatindependent observations would yield essentially the same measure or conclusions

Timeliness means that the information is provided in time to be capable of influencingdecisions Generally, the older the information is, the less useful it may be to the users

Understandability is classifying, characterising and presenting information clearly and

concisely Understandability enables users who have a reasonable knowledge ofbusiness, economic and financial activities and financial reporting, and who applyreasonable diligence to comprehend the information, to gain insights into thereporting entity’s financial position and results of operations, as intended

The cost constraint is the only constraint included regarding the information provided inusefulfinancial reports The question is whether the benefits of providing information exceedthe cost of providing and using the information Presumably this would constrain theimposition of certain new requirements, although this is a relative concept, and as informa­tion technology continues to evolve and the cost of preparing and distributingfinancial andother information declines, this constraint conceivably would be relaxed as well

The 1989 Framework: The Remaining Text

The current guidance of the IASB’s 1989 framework, not changed by the new objectiveand qualitative characteristics, is included in Chapter 4 of the 2010 conceptual framework.More detailed discussions of the remaining text are included in other chapters of this book.For instance, the definitions of assets, liabilities and equity are discussed in greater detail in

Chapter 4, Statement of Financial Position A condensed discussion is set out below.

The going concern assumption is retained Financial statements are prepared on theassumption that the entity is a going concern and will continue its operations in theforeseeable future

Elements determining thefinancial position remain as assets, liabilities and equity Thecurrent definitions in the 1989 framework are retained: an asset is “a resource controlled bythe entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected toflow to the entity.” A liability is a “present obligation of the entity arising from past events,

fied based on the substance and economic reality of the transaction or events and notbased on the legal form Elements are only recognised in thefinancial statements when theyare probable and have a cost or value that can be measured reliably, which means that someassets and liabilities may go unrecognised.

Measurement is the assignment of a monetary amount to an element The followingmeasurement bases are identified, without determining when they should be applied:historical cost, current cost, realisable value and present value Currently, in IFRS othermeasurement bases, which are not mentioned in the conceptual framework, such asamortised cost and fair value, may be applied

Finally,financial capital maintenance and physical capital maintenance continue to beidentified as the concepts of capital maintenance

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK PROJECT

2013 Discussion Paper

The IASB issued a Discussion Paper, A Review of the Conceptual Framework for Financial

Reporting, in July 2013 to obtain feedback on the main areas that the IASB will consider in

developing a new framework The areas dealt with in the Discussion Paper include:

• The scope of the conceptual framework;

• The definitions of assets and liabilities;

• The recognition and derecognition of assets and liabilities;

• Equity and its separation from liabilities;

• Measurement;

• Profit or loss and other comprehensive income (OCI); and

• Presentation and disclosure

The IASB decided not to include the reporting entity in the discussion as they received

feedback on this topic on the Exposure Draft for Phase D, Reporting Entity The Reporting

Entity Exposure Draft describes a reporting entity as follows:

A reporting entity is a circumscribed area of economic activities whosefinancial information hasthe potential to be useful to existing and potential equity investors, lenders and other creditors whocannot directly obtain the information they need in making decisions about providing resources tothe entity and in assessing whether management and the governing board of that entity have made

efficient and effective use of the resources provided

The Reporting Entity Exposure Draft clarifies that the existence of a legal entity isneither necessary nor sufficient to identify a reporting entity Further, a reporting entity caninclude more than one entity or it can be a portion of a single entity

This Exposure Draft confirms that if an entity controls one or more entities, it shouldpresent consolidatedfinancial statements An entity controls another entity when it has thepower to direct the activities of that other entity to generate benefits for (or limit losses to)

itself However, if one entity has significant influence over another entity, it specifically does

not control that other entity.“Parent-only” financial statements may be presented provided

Draft of a revised conceptual framework.

The IASB has tentatively decided that assets should be viewed as rights, or bundles ofrights, rather than underlying physical or other objects The draft definition of an asset hasbeen amended to state that it is a present economic resource controlled by the entity as a result

of past events, while a liability is defined as a present obligation of the entity to transfer aneconomic resource as a result of past events Economic resources are rights, which are capable

of producing economic benefits

The IASB also tentatively decided to amend Chapter 1 of the conceptual framework toincrease the prominence of stewardship within the overall objective offinancial reporting,and to reintroduce a reference to prudence in the conceptual framework

Exposure Draft —Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting

Following on from the 2013 Discussion Paper, on 28 May 2015 the IASB published forpublic comment an Exposure Draft proposing a revised conceptual framework Thecomment period on the Exposure Draft closed on 26 October 2015 The IASB’s statedaim is to improve the quality offinancial reporting by providing a more complete, clearer andupdated set of concepts, which can be used by the IASB when it develops IFRS Standards,and by others to help them understand and apply those standards The framework proposed

in the Exposure Draft:

• Is more complete than the 2010 conceptual framework because it addresses a number

of areas which are either not covered, or not covered in sufficient detail, in the earlierframework These areas include measurement,financial performance (including theuse of other comprehensive income), presentation and disclosure, derecognition andthe reporting entity; and

• Clarifies some aspects of the 2010 framework These clarifications include theassertion that the information needed to meet the objective of financial reportingincludes information which can be used to help assess management’s stewardship ofthe entity’s resources, explanations of the roles of prudence and substance over form

infinancial reporting, the assertion that a high level of measurement uncertainty canmakefinancial information less relevant, the assertion that important decisions on,for example, recognition and measurement are driven by considering the nature of theresulting information about bothfinancial performance and financial position, andthe provision of clearer definitions of assets and liabilities and more extensiveguidance to support those definitions; and

• Updates the parts of the 2010 framework which are out of date For example, theproposed framework clarifies the role of probability in the definitions of assets andliabilities

The Exposure Draft adopts the sections of the 2010 framework covering the Objective ofGeneral Purpose Financial Reporting, the Qualitative Characteristics of Useful FinancialInformation and Concepts of Capital and Capital Maintenance with only limited changes.New sections are included dealing with Financial Statements and the Reporting Entity, the

The IASB has decided not to fundamentally reconsider this area, although somerelatively minor changes to the wording of the equivalent chapter in the 2010 frameworkare proposed These serve to give more prominence to the importance of providinginformation needed to assess management’s stewardship of the entity’s resources.

Chapter 2—Qualitative Characteristics of Useful Financial Information

The IASB has decided not to fundamentally reconsider this area, although somerelatively minor changes to the wording of the equivalent chapter in the 2010 frameworkare proposed

An explicit reference to the notion of prudence is reintroduced The proposed frameworkdescribes prudence as the exercise of caution when making judgements under conditions ofuncertainty It is noted that the exercise of prudence means that assets and income are notoverstated and that liabilities and expenses are not understated, and that this also avoids theunderstatement of assets and income and the overstatement of liabilities and expensesbecause this could lead to the overstatement of income or the understatement of expenses

in future periods

In connection with the characteristic of faithful representation, the proposed frameworknotes that a faithful representation provides information about the substance of an economicphenomenon rather than merely about its legal form It is noted that providing informationonly about a legal form that differs from the economic substance of the underlying economicphenomenon would not result in a faithful representation

The IASB observes that a number of respondents to the Discussion Paper wereconcerned at the removal of reliability as a qualitative characteristic of useful financialinformation from the 2010 framework The IASB proposes addressing this by clarifying thatmeasurement uncertainty is one factor which can makefinancial information less relevant.Thus, there is a trade-off between the level of measurement uncertainty and other factors thatmake information relevant

Chapter 3—Financial Statements and the Reporting Entity

The newly-written Chapter 3 discusses the role offinancial statements and the concept ofthe reporting entity

In describing the role of financial statements, the proposed framework states thatfinancial statements are prepared from the perspective of the entity as a whole, instead offrom the viewpoint of any particular group of investors, lenders or other creditors It also setsout the going concern assumption, which has been brought forward from the 2010 frameworkwith little change

The proposed framework describes a reporting entity as an entity which chooses, or isrequired, to prepare general-purposefinancial statements It notes that a reporting entity isnot necessarily a legal entity, and could comprise a portion of an entity, or two or moreentities

The proposed framework discusses the boundary of a reporting entity and notes that,

in situations where one entity has control of another entity, the boundary of the reporting