A SURVEY ON LEARNERS’ STRATEGIES IN READING COMPREHENSION AT CAN THO UNIVERSITY (2)

CAN THO UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION ENGLISH DEPARTMENT Can Tho, May 2009 Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu... 19 Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học

CAN THO UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Can Tho, May 2009

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CONTENTS

Contents i

Acknowledgements iii

Abstracts iv

List of tables and figures v

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Research aims 2

1.3 Research questions 2

1.4 Hypotheses 2

1.5 Organization 2

Chapter 2: Literature Review 4

2.1 The nature of reading comprehension 4

2.2 Reading strategies 5

2.2.1 An overview of learning strategies 5

2.2.2 Reading strategies 6

2.3 The effects of reading strategies on reading comprehension 11

2.4 Framework of my study 12

Chapter 3: Research Methodology 13

3.1 Research design 13

3.2 Participants 13

3.3 Research instruments 13

3.3.1 Questionnaire 13

3.3.2 Test 14

3.4 Procedures 15

3.4.1 Administering the test 15

3.4.2 Administering the questionnaire 15

Chapter 4: Results 16

4.1 Students’ use of reading strategies 16

4.2 The differences in the strategy use among good, average, and poor readers 19 Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

4.2.1 Test results and classification of good, average and poor readers 19

4.2.2 Differences in the use of reading strategies 20

Chapter 5: Discussions, limitations, suggestions for further research, and conclusions ……23

5.1 Discussions 23

5.1.1 The cognitive and meta-cognitive reading strategies use of the second-year English- major students ………23

5.1.2 The differences in reading strategies use among good, average, and poor readers……….……… 24

5.2 Limitations……….24

5.3 Pedagogical implications and suggestions for further research………… 24

5.3.1 Pedagogical implications 24

5.3.2 Suggestions for further research 25

5.4 Conclusions 25

References 26

Appendices 29

Appendix 1 29

Appendix 2 32 Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

Second, my regards are respectively sent to all teachers of the English Department for their encouragement, guidance, especially Mrs Duong Phi Oanh, Mrs Phuong Hoang Yen Also, my sincere gratitude is sent to Mr Nguyen Buu Huan, Mr Luu Nguyen Quoc Hung, Mrs Nguyen Thi Bich Thuy, and Mrs Huynh Chi Minh Huyen during the time I collected the data for my research And I would like to acknowledge

Mr Phan Viet Thang who gave me useful instructions to analyze the data using SPSS program

And I could not forget my family- my parents and my brothers who were always

by my side when I got tired and bored

Last but not least, my friends and my roommates are the persons who always cared about me and gave much support

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ABSTRACT

Reading plays an important part not only in daily life, jobs, but also in academic contexts where reading is considered helpful for other subjects For this reason, it is crucial for students to equip themselves with vital strategies to enhance their reading comprehension, especially in doing a reading test This research aims to survey the reading strategies that English-major students employ to enhance their reading performance The participants were 90 students of both Bachelor and Education of English Data were collected through a test in reading comprehension and a questionnaire on reading comprehension Later, the data was analyzed using the SPSS program The results of the analysis showed that meta-cognitive strategies were used more frequently than cognitive strategies However, the mean scores of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies that good readers used were really lower than that of average and poor readers And it can be drawn that reading strategies themselves do not determine reading outcome, and there are other factors that may influence the reading outcome such as readers’ interest in the topic, style, layout and organization of the text, readers’ physical and emotional state and self image, etc

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 3.1: Factors of the questionnaire items 14

Table 3.2: Academic grading of Vietnam 15

Table 3.3: The division of good, average and poor readers 15

Table 4.1:Reliability Coefficient of the questionnaire 15

Table 4.2: Descriptive statistics of the reading strategies 16

Table 4.3: Themean scores of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies 18

Table 4.4: Themean scores of retrieval, comprehending, planning, and monitoring strategies 19

Table 4.5: The test results 20

Table 4.6: The mean scores of reading strategy use of poor, average, and good readers 20

Table 4.7: The differences in the use of cognitive strategies 21

Table 4.8: The differences in the use of meta-cognitive strategies 21

Figure 4.1: The total mean of the questionnaire factors 17

Figure 4.2: The mean scores of learners’ reading strategies 18

Figure 4.3: The mean scores of four factors 19

Figure 4.4: The mean scores of reading strategy use among poor, average, and good readers 21

Figure 4.5: The differences in reading strategy use among good, average, and good readers 22

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, I would like to state the rationale, the research aims, research

questions, and the hypotheses of doing this research The organization of the thesis is also included afterwards

1.1 Rationale

Nowadays, reading plays more and more important role in our life Reading takes place in daily life, for example, when we read newspapers, email messages, instructions on some products, etc Not only in daily life, we can find reading necessary in the working place when we read an announcement, document, or a complaint from customers, especially in the academic environment where people have more chances to read For instance, in the university environment, students have to learn many subjects, and these subjects require a large amount of knowledge from students In other words, if students want to get the best results, there is no way but reading They read to understand the content of the book Furthermore, they also read from other sources such as the Internet, periodicals, and other reference books, etc to widen their knowledge Specifically, for English-major students of Education, reading is considered more vital because reading is one of four basic skills that they will teach their students at high school

Now, I am senior After the teaching practicum at high school, I will become a teacher I really concern about how to help students study better, especially reading Reading is considered important because most part of English test in graduation, entrance exams is from reading Usually, at school, when students do a reading exercise or reading test, they just do and do like the saying “practice makes perfect” They receive fewer instructions from teacher about how to deal with the test with the highest results Recent approaches to reading have concentrated on students’ strategies for coping with the text: what they are, how they contribute to better understanding For these reasons, I want to conduct a research on some reading strategies that students in Can Tho University employ to do a test in the Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

hope that I can find those effects of reading strategies on students’ outcome And I

name my research as “A survey on learners’ strategies in reading comprehension at Can Tho University”

1.2 Research aims:

In this research, I want to:

(1) find out the strategies that English major sophomores employ when doing a

reading test and the frequent use of these strategies

(2) find out the difference in the use of reading strategies among good, average,

and poor readers

1.3 Research questions:

This research is guided by questions:

(1) What are the reading strategies (cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies)

that English sophomores at Can Tho University use? How often are they used?

(2) What is difference in the use of the reading strategies among good, average,

and poor readers?

1.4 Hypotheses

I hypothesize that

(1) Students often use reading strategies (cognitive and meta-cognitive

strategies) when doing tests and they use meta-cognitive strategies more often than cognitive ones

(2) Good students use reading strategies more frequently than average ones, and

average students employ these strategies more often than poor ones

1.5 Organization

This thesis consists of five chapters

Chapter I – Introduction: The rationale, the research aims, the research questions, the hypotheses, as well as the organization of the thesis are introduced in this section

Chapter II – Literature review: A report of other researchers’ ideas and statements relating to the thesis will be mentioned in this part

Chapter III – Research methodology The research design, participants, research instruments, and procedures of the study are presented

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Chapter IV– Results: In this chapter, data collected from the instruments (a questionnaire, and a reading test for students) will be analyzed and synthesized Chapter V – Discussions, limitations, and suggestions for further research, and conclusions: The last chapter will mention discussions, limitations, pedagogical implications, suggestions for further research, and conclusions

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, I would like to state some ideas, insights of other researchers about the definition of reading and reading comprehension, some reading strategies that affect reading comprehension, and the differences in reading strategy use among good, and poor readers through the researches they have done relating to my thesis

2.1 The nature of reading comprehension

Generally speaking, reading is said to be the involvement of the readers, the text, and the interaction between readers and text (Rumelhart, 1997, as cited in Jo,

A and Mary, L F 1997) According to Grabe (1997) cited in Keiko, H (1999), reading is said to be interactive between readers and text To acquire reading, readers need to have sufficient knowledge of language, sufficient knowledge of the world, and a given topic At that time, readers will be able to choose their own suitable strategies so as to understand the text In contrast, Goodman (1996) introduced that reading tended to be more reader- driven than text-driven According to him, top-down processing had an important role in successful reading

Considering the nature of reading, it is noticed that there are numbers of factors affecting reading comprehension For Sharon, R G (2008), comprehension is affected by reader’s interest in and background knowledge of the topic, strategies reader employs, and reader’s physical and emotional state and self image Moreover, style, layout and organization of the text, difficulty of the vocabulary used, even the illustrations, charts and diagrams also have effect on reading comprehension In addition, Smith (1967) emphasized the importance of prior knowledge in reading by defining comprehension as “relating new experience to the already known…”

In one research on reading comprehension, Caver (1997) suggested that reading comprehension was comprised of fluency, word recognition, accuracy, and Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

rate of processing Also, Stanovich (1986) referred to phonological awareness and word recognition skills as an important factor of reading comprehension

2.2 Reading strategies

2.2.1 An overview of learning strategies

Learning strategies are indeed very essential to second language acquisition And there were numbers of writers and studies about learning strategies In Oxford’s study (1990) cited in William, B and Kamonpan, B (2004), learning strategies were “ specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations”

“Learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning (Rebecca, L O., 1990).” It was really helpful for students because they were means for active, self-directed, involvement in order to increase communication competence Choosing appropriate language learning strategies will enhance students’ proficiency and self-confidence

In order to understand more clearly about the term strategy, we will have a look at this term in Greek “strategia” Strategia means generalship or the art of war Specifically, strategy was referred to as the “optimal management of troops, ships or aircraft in a planned campaign” (Rebecca, L O., 1990) A related word of strategies were tactics which were called tools to achieve the success of strategies These two terms had some common features: planning, competition, conscious manipulation and movement towards a goal In the field of education, learning strategies were once employed by the learners to help the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information

In addition, the term strategies was once used interchangeably with tactics

until Schmeck (1988) cited in Lawrence (2003) distinguished these two terms in

the field of education Schemeck pointed out that “the term tactics refer to the specific activities of the learners and the word strategy refers to their more general

plan or approach” (p 171) Therefore, strategies were considered to be at high level of learning tactics And each student would choose his or her own strategies The learning outcome would depend on this choice

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2.2.2 Reading strategies

It is important to have a distinction between reading skills and reading strategies because there is some confusion between these two terms Skills are referred to be automatic internalized reading abilities in order for students to facilitate reading comprehension (Andre, A R., Tracy, F and Hyeran, C (2006))

In contrast, strategies are considered to be conscious techniques and tactics deliberately used by a reader to achieve successful reading comprehension such as the use of a dictionary, the underlying of key words, or the skimming and scanning

of certain sections

There is still debate about reading strategies Some researchers say that the term “strategy” is deliberate and conscious behavior, but some refer to it as unconscious behavior According to Cohen (1986) and Pritchard (1990) cited in Yu-Fen, Y (2006), the term strategy is considered to be conscious action On the contrary, for Barnett (1998, as cited in Yu-Fen, Y., 2006), this term refers to both conscious and unconscious behavior Similarly, reading strategy is defined as “a physical or mental used consciously or unconsciously with the intention of facilitating text comprehension and/ or learning” (Davies 1995, p 50 cited in Yu-Fen, Y (2006) Moreover, Presley and Affberbach (1995, as cited in Lawrence et

al 2008), defined reading strategies as “readers’ deliberate and effortful mental or physical problem-solving moves in approaching a text for comprehension”

Because there are varieties of definitions of reading comprehension, different categorizations of strategy types are also recommended According to Block (1986, as cited in Yu-Fen, Y., 2006), reading strategies are divided into two main groups: general strategies and local strategies General strategies highlight high-level reading comprehension, such as inference and monitoring On the other hand, local strategies include basic linguistic knowledge, such as the meaning of a vocabulary and the structure of a sentence Similar to Block’s ideas, Ellen (1986) divides reading strategies into two main categories: general and local strategies General strategies included anticipating content, recognizing text structure, integrating information, questioning information in the text, interpreting the text, using general knowledge and associations, commenting on behavior or process, Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

monitoring comprehension, correcting behavior and reacting to the text In addition, he added some smaller strategies in local strategies: paraphrasing, rereading, questioning meaning of a clause or sentence, questioning meaning of a word, and solving vocabulary problem

In one study of Sepideh, F and Nasrin, S (2007), 24 strategies used by Iranian students were introduced And these strategies were classified into three main strategies: cognitive, meta-cognitive, and socio-affective strategies According to them, meta-cognition strategies were defined to be “higher order executive skills that may entail planning for, monitoring or evaluating the success of learning activities…cognitive strategies operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning” (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990) This category introduced some smaller strategies: selective and directed attention, planning, monitoring and evaluating In addition, cognitive strategies relate to

“interacting with materials to be learned, manipulating the material mentally or physically or applying a specific technique to a learning task” (O’Malley and Chamot (1990) cited in Sepideh, F and Nasrin, S (2007)) In addition, cognitive strategy was defined by Prokop (1989) cited in Sepideh, F and Nasrin, S (2007),

to be related to the “task at hand and the manner in which linguistic information is processed” This category consists of some smaller strategies including rehearsing, organizing, inferring, summarizing, deducing, imaging, transferring or inducing and elaborating The last category is socio-affective strategies They include interacting with other person to help learning or using affective control to enhance

a learning task There are some smaller strategies such as cooperation, questions for classification, and self-task

Moreover, Aek (2003) recommended two kinds of reading strategies: cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies And in cognitive strategies, there were retrieval and comprehending strategies, in meta-cognitive strategies, there were planning and monitoring strategies In his study, there are some following strategies:

clarifying the purpose of reading

identifying the important aspects of a message

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monitoring ongoing activities to determine whether comprehension is occurring;

engaging in self-questioning to determine whether goals are being achieved; and

taking corrective actions where failures in comprehension are detected

Furthermore, cognitive strategies in his study comprise of making prediction, translating, summarizing, linking with prior knowledge, or experience, applying grammar rules and guessing meaning from contexts

In one of many studies of Sharon, V., Janette, K and Diane, P B., collaborative strategic reading was mentioned These four mentioned strategies are preview strategy, the click and clunk strategy, get the gist strategy and wrap-up strategy First, preview strategy plays an important role in reading because it provides opportunities for students to increase interest about the text they will read by predicting and raising questions about the text basing on their related background knowledge While preview strategy is applied prior to reading, click and clunk is used in during reading Click strategy assists students in extending the information which they know something about in the text On the other hand, clunk strategy is helpful when students do not understand some words or concepts and they need to have a deeper understanding about them so as to understand what are reading or learning And working in group is one of the solutions to solve the clunk Also, in during reading, get the gist strategy is also implemented This strategy aims to help students identify the most important information about what they have just read, or main ideas In order to do this, students rephrase the key idea using their own words, but no more than ten words After students have read the entire text, they use wrap-up strategy as a tool to find out the most critical ideas about the entire passage in order to assist with understanding and remember what students have read The gist strategy is carried out after every two paragraphs while wrap-up is practiced at the end of the material

Goodman et al (2004 recommended some strategies of the GRE: looking for how the text is organized and ignoring details, always looking for choices that sound consistent with the main idea, using prior knowledge to answer questions While, Sullivan et al (2004) identified some strategies for reading comprehension of the TOEFL: reading the text before reading the questions, reading the first question of each paragraph for main idea, looking for how the text Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

is organized and ignore details, trying to predict where the author’s points are leading

In one research of Keiko, H (1999), cognitive strategies used by readers were investigated They are divided into bottom-up processing and top-down processing Bottom-up processing which is called data-driven strategies includes translation into L1, use of dictionary, etc Meanwhile, top-down processing is referred to be concept-driven strategies such as prediction, background knowledge, thinking of author’s idea, contextual guessing, association with image, and finding clues

H Douglas Brown once referred to ten such reading strategies: identifying the purpose; using graphemic rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding (especially for beginning level learners); using efficient silent reading techniques for relatively rapid comprehension (for intermediate to advanced levels); skimming the text for main ideas; scanning the text for specific information; using semantic mapping or clustering; guessing when you are not certain; analyzing vocabulary; distinguishing between literal and implied meanings; capitalizing on discourse makers to process relationships

In one of many studies of Andre, A R et al (2006), various reading strategies of the participants are divided into two main categories: macro-level strategies and micro-level strategies Macro-level strategies are referred as general approaches readers use, consciously or subconsciously to complete a test In macro-level strategies, there are two smaller strategies: unconditional strategies and conditional strategies Micro-level strategies are said to be complex because of the response process to individual item

For Janzen and Stoller (1998), reading strategies are grouped into ten groups including identifying a purpose for reading, previewing, predicting, asking questions, checking prediction or finding an answer to the questions, connecting the text to the prior knowledge, summarizing, connecting one part of the text to another, and recognizing text structure

Gail, M T (2008) divided meta-cognitive strategies into three phrases: before reading, during reading, and after reading In before reading, there are some Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

strategies: previewing the text, setting the purpose for reading, connecting to prior knowledge, predicting new learning and developing new vocabulary During reading phase consists of some strategies such as monitoring comprehension, determining main ideas and details, taking notes, visualizing, and developing new vocabulary while after reading phase includes organizing information, classifying information, summarizing new learning, making and support inferences, and drawing and supporting conclusions

In term of reading process, three stages including before reading, during reading, and after reading are highlighted Before reading strategies consist of predicting, questioning, visualizing, and making connections D’ Arcangelo (2003) cited in Nicole, P and Sarah, S (2007) argued that it is necessary for students to activate their background knowledge before beginning reading Moreover, Robb (2003), as cited in Nicole, P and Sarah, S (2007), added:

The more students know about a topic, the better they’re able to comprehend

new information about it This is because they can fit new knowledge into

already existing schemas The more they’ve thought about the ideas that may be

present in the text (as they do during connection and prediction), the richer their

schemas will be (p 36)

After that, students will apply during reading strategies (self-monitoring, questioning, visualizing, making connections, inferring, and determining important/ main idea) to monitor their comprehension D’Arcangelo (2002), as cited in Nicole, P and Sarah, S (2007), emphasized this:

These strategies help students engage personally and respond to the text,

consolidate ideas, and find a reason for the sequence of the

information…Reading is a recursive process that requires active engagement All

of these are tools that allow us to be more actively involved while reading (p.14)

In order for students to interpret, analyze, and deepen understanding, after students read the text, after reading strategies (determining important/ main idea, making connections, questioning, inferring, and synthesizing) were important D’ Arcangelo (2002) cited in Nicole, P and Sarah, S (2007), confirmed:

The reading task is not finished when the student has read the pages; it

become even more intense then…After reading, we engage differently with the

author, ideas and our own learning from other sources” (p.14)

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After reading strategies really play an important role for students in solidifying and remembering ideas presented in the text

2.3 The effects of reading strategies on reading comprehension:

According to Ellen, B (1986), poor readers cannot monitor their reading comprehension as well as good readers Moreover, good readers tend to be more aware of the strategies they use than poor readers and they employ these strategies more flexibly In addition, good readers know the way to adjust the reading strategies to the type of text they read to their purpose (Smith, 1967; Strang and Rogers, 1965)

Furthermore, good readers are able to make prediction between important information and detail as they read Besides, they know how to use clues in the text

to predict information (Olson et al., 1984) as cited in Ellen (1986)

One conclusion of Lawrence (2003) shows that successful readers were considered to be not only “code breakers” but also “meaning breakers”, “text users”, and “text analyst” In contrast, unsuccessful readers were said not to be decode properly

Besides, high-proficiency pupils employed reading strategies more frequently than low-proficiency ones In addition, high proficiency pupils tend to pay attention to meaning, so they usually predict, summarize, make inference, and monitor their reading process On the contrary, low proficiency learners rely too much on linguistic aspects, for example, decoding

Basing on some researches on the utilization of the strategies of poor and good readers, the result shows that good readers use more meta-cognitive strategies as they read (Dhied-Henia, 2003; Swanson and De La Paz, 1998; Zhang,

2001, as cited in Sepideh, F and Nasnin, S., 2007)

In one study of Yin and Agnes (2001) cited in Sepideh, F and Nasnin, S (2007), good readers tend to be more aware of meta-cognitive knowledge and use them more frequently than poor readers

According to Stanovich (2000), in spite of the necessity of top-down processing, bottom-up processes seem to have an important role in reading He pointed out that skilled readers guessed more accurately than poor readers thanks Trung tâm Học liệu ĐH Cần Thơ@Tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu

to their accurate and automatic perceptual abilities in word recognition Hence, good readers do not necessarily guess as poor readers do

2 4 Framework of my study

In the above studies, there are different researchers with various reading

strategies Because there are different ideas about reading strategies, I choose some researchers that have some important impacts on my thesis Relying on these studies, I set the framework for my study Among them, there are Sepideh, F and Nasrin, S (2007), Aek (2003), and Gail, M T (2008) In their studies, I found two broad reading strategy categories: cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies that relate closely to my research These two types contain two smaller types of strategies such as retrieval, comprehending, planning, and monitoring

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3.2 Participants

90 English-major students course 33 at Can Tho University were randomly invited to participate in this research They consist of 73 females and 17 males from both Bachelor and Education classes Their ages are not much different, commonly from 20 to 21 I chose the second year students because after three semesters learning in the academic environment they were accustomed to some reading strategies in reading comprehension

3.3 Research instruments

3.3.1 Questionnaire on reading strategies

The questionnaire was designed based on the questionnaire of Aek Phakitia (2003), and many items were adapted to suit my research In the questionnaire, there were 31 items that were arranged in random order A five-point scale (1 - never, 2 - sometimes, 3 - often, 4 - usually and 5 - always) was used to investigate which strategies the students usually employed in reading tests All those items in the questionnaire were categorized into 4 factors They included retrieval, comprehending, planning and monitoring These factors were grouped into two main categories: cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies Table 3.1 shows the factors of the questionnaire items

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Table 3.1: Factors of the questionnaire items

Strategies Factor Statements Factor loading

4 and 12 Spending time on difficult questions Retrieval

11 and 17 Using English structures to acquire the text

2 and 7 Trying to understand the text in spite of limited

Determining the plan for doing the test

19 and 23 Selecting the relevant information to answer the

questions

Planning

24 and 28 Checking the performance as well as the

progress while doing the test

1 and 29 Correcting mistake immediately when

3.3.2 Test on reading comprehension

The test included 10 multiple choice items from Toefl Reading Flash (Mikada

B (2002) With the results of the test, students were classified according to the academic grading of Vietnam in table 3.2

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