Effect of different energy to protein ratiosindiet and varying levels of cassava and copra meals at 1 to 21 days of age on the subsequent meat production performance of F1 mia x luong phuong chicken

Effect of different energy to protein ratiosindiet and varying levels of cassava and copra meals at 1 to 21 days of age on the subsequent meat production performance of F1 mia x luong phuong chickenEffect of different energy to protein ratiosindiet and varying levels of cassava and copra meals at 1 to 21 days of age on the subsequent meat production performance of F1 mia x luong phuong chickenEffect of different energy to protein ratiosindiet and varying levels of cassava and copra meals at 1 to 21 days of age on the subsequent meat production performance of F1 mia x luong phuong chickenEffect of different energy to protein ratiosindiet and varying levels of cassava and copra meals at 1 to 21 days of age on the subsequent meat production performance of F1 mia x luong phuong chickenEffect of different energy to protein ratiosindiet and varying levels of cassava and copra meals at 1 to 21 days of age on the subsequent meat production performance of F1 mia x luong phuong chickenEffect of different energy to protein ratiosindiet and varying levels of cassava and copra meals at 1 to 21 days of age on the subsequent meat production performance of F1 mia x luong phuong chickenEffect of different energy to protein ratiosindiet and varying levels of cassava and copra meals at 1 to 21 days of age on the subsequent meat production performance of F1 mia x luong phuong chicken

i

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ENERGY TO PROTEIN RATIOS IN DIETS AND

VARYING LEVELS OF CASSAVA AND COPRA MEALS AT 1 TO 21

DAYS OF AGE ON THE SUBSEQUENT MEAT PRODUCTION

PERFORMANCE OF F1 MIA × LUONG PHUONG CHICKEN

A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate Studies and Applied Research

College of Agriculture LAGUNA STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

Siniloan, Laguna Philippines

In Partial Fulfilment

of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture Major in Animal Science

NGUYEN THI BICH DAO December, 2017

ii

Republic of the Philippines

LAGUNA STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

Siniloan, Laguna

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE GRADUATE STUDIES AND APPLIED RESEARCH

This dissertation entitled “EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ME TO PROTEIN RATIOS IN DIETS AND VARYING LEVELS OF CASSAVA AND COPRA MEALS

AT 1 TO 21 DAY OF AGE ON THE SUBSEQUENT MEAT PRODUCTION

PERFORMANCE OF F1 (MIA × LUONG PHUONG) CHICKEN” prepared by

MRS NGUYEN THI BICH DAO in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture, major in Animal Science has been

examined and recommended for acceptance and approval

Dean, Graduate Studies

& Applied Research

MA GRACIELA C PRADILLADA, R G C

University Registrar III

Research Contribution No

Passed the Comprehensive Examination

Integrity, Professionalism

and Innovation

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to express her gratitude to all the people who have

helped her to accomplish this dissertation and also made her college life very

colorful First of all, her sincerest thanks is extended to her adviser President

Dr Nestor M de Vera, for his intellectual insights, valuable advice, constant

encouragement, and hospitality Grateful acknowledgment is extended to Dr

Tran Thanh Van, Co-adviser for her constructive suggestions Heartfelt thanks

to the members of her advisory committee: Dr Lolita L Beato, Dr Robert C

Agatep and Dr Lolita D Vyar for their valuable comments, sincere concern, and

understanding Likewise, thanks go to the administrative staff of Agriculture

College, and the Faculty of LSPU, Siniloan Campus for their great support

Special thanks to Dr Nguyen Thi Thuy My, Prof Olivia P Magpily for their

constructive suggestions and warm encouragement To all the faculty members

of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, TUAF for the permission to go on

study leave Deepest gratitude to her loving parents and parents in law, to her

sisters, brothers in law, her sisters for all their sacrifices, encouragements and

prayers Near is extended forever grateful to her loving husband Dr Nguyen Duc

Truong and her sons, Nguyen Duc Kiet and Nguyen Minh Khoi, for their love and

spiritual support

Lastly, sincere thanks to all her friends for their help and support during

my stay in the Philippines and in the conduct of experiments

iv

DEDICATION

To all my family members

v

ABSTRACT

Two studies were conducted 1) to evaluate the effect of ME to protein rations in diet from 1 to 21 day of age on production performance and carcass

characteristics of F1 (Mia × Luong Phuong) chicken (Study 1); 2) to determine

the Effect of different cassava and copra meal levels in diet from 1 to 21 day of

age on production performance, caloric efficiency and carcass characteristics

of F1 (male Mia × female Luong Phuong) chicken (Study 2) These studies

attempted to find answers to the specific questions presented in Chapter 1 In

Study 1, 200 day-old, F1 (Mia × Luong Phuong) chicks were randomly allotted

to 1 of 5 treatments following a randomized complete block design (RCBD)

There were 4 replicate cages per treatment with 10 birds in each cage The

treatments were used in this study were four ratios of ME to CP in diet of 150,

142.5, 135.7, 129.5 and 123.9 In Study 2, 640 day-old, F1 (Mia × Luong

Phuong) chicks were randomly allotted to 1 of 16 treatments following a

randomized complete block design (RCBD) The factors that were used in this

study were 4 levels of cassava meal (0, 5, 10 and 10%) and 4 levels of copra

meal (0, 5, 10 and 15%) in booster diets There were 4 replicate cages per

treatment with 10 birds in each cage

Results of Study 1 showed that from 1 to 21 day of age of F1 Mia × Luong

Phuong chicks fed diet containing ME to CP ratio of 142.5 had the best (P<0.05)

growth performance, CP utilization, caloric efficiency and economic return

Ratios of ME to CP in diets of booster diet did not affect on ADFI and livability

The ratios of ME to CP during booster phase did not affect growth performance

vi

of grower, finisher phases and carcass yield at day 84 of age Results of Study

2 showed that replace yellow corn with as much as 10% cassava meal in

booster diet of F1 Mia × Luong Phuong without negatively affecting growth

performance, FCR, livability, CP utilization, caloric efficiency and income over

feed cost Copra meal in booster diet of F1 Mia × Luong Phuong negative affect

on growth performance, FCR, CP utilization, caloric efficiency and income over

feed cost Copra meal in booster diet negative affect on feed efficiency of

chicken overall period (1 to 84 days of age) Cassava and copra meals levels in

booster diets did not affect carcass yield at day 84 of age

Booster diet of F1 Mia × Luong Phuong during 1 to 21 days of age

containing ME to CP ratio of 142.5 to achieve maximum growth performance

and income over feed cost Yellow corn can replace with 10% cassava meal in

booster diet from 1 to 21 days of age of F1 Mia × Luong Phuong However, the

price of cassava meal, soybean meal, synthetic amino acids, and supplemental

oil should be considered Copra meal should not be supplemented in booster

diet of F1 Mia × Luong Phuong

vii

TABLE OF CONTENT

Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENT iii

DEDICATION iv

ABSTRACT v

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

Chapter 1 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND 1

Introduction 1

Background of the Study 3

Theoretical Framework of the Study 6

Scope and Limitation of the Study 10

Definition of Terms 11

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES 14

Related Literature 14

Related Studies 32

METHODOLOGY 35

Research Design 35

Subject of the study 37

Determination of the Sample 37

Research Procedures 38

Data processing and Statistical Analysis 47

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA .49 This chapter presents, the comparative analyzes, and

interpretation of the data gathered in determining the

effectiveness of energy to protein ratios on production

performance, protein and caloric efficiency, carcass

characteristics, and economic indices of crossbred native

chicken Mia × Luong Phuong And also in determining the effects

viii

of cassava meal and copra meal levels on production

performance, protein and caloric efficiency, carcass

characteristics, and economic indices of crossbred native

chicken Mia × Luong Phuong .49

Study 1 Effects of ME to protein ratios in diet at 1 to 21 days of age on production performance and carcass characteristics of F1 Mia × Luong Phuong chicken 49

Growth Performance 49

Efficiency of Protein Utilization 52

Caloric Efficiency 53

Dressing percentage and carcass yield 54

Economic Analysis 54

Study 2 Effect of different cassava and copra meal levels in diet from 1 to 21 day of age on production performance, caloric efficiency and carcass characteristics of F1 (male Mia × female Luong Phuong) chicken 56

Growth Performance 56

Efficiency of Crude Protein Utilization 61

There were no (P>0.05) cassava × copra meals levels interaction for any of the crude protein untilization parameters measured (Table 11) .61

From 1 to 21 day of age, chicks fed with increasing concentrations of cassava meal had trend (P=0.07) and linear reduced crude protein daily intake (Table 13) Chicks fed with increasing of copra meal concentrations showed significant difference (P<0.01) in crude protein daily intake Crude protein daily intake of chicks decrease linear and quadratic (P<0.05) in progression copra meal in diets .62

There were (P<0.05) significant differences in CP:BW gain

when chicks were fed from 0, 5, 10 and 15% cassava meal in diets Progressive cassava meal concentrations showed linear

increase (P<0.01) in CP:BW gain from 1 to 21 day of age

(Table 13) Chicks fed gradient concentrations of copra meal were significant difference in CP:BW gain from 1 to 21 day of

age Linear and quadratic were significant (P<0.05) increases

for CP:BW gain from 1 to 21day of age There was no

ix

significant (P<0.05) between treatments without and 5% copra

meal in diet .62

Caloric Efficiency 63

Dressing Percentage and Carcass Yield 64

Economic Analysis 66

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 68

Summary of Findings 68

Conclusions 70

BIBILOGRAPHY 73

82

APPENDIX OF TABLE 83

CURRICULUM VITAE 119

LIST OF TABLES

1 Ingredients of nutritional value for chicken experiments period

1 to 21 of age

39

2 Ingredients of nutritional value for chicken experiments period

1 to 21 of age

41

3 Effect of varying ME to CP ratios on growth performance from

d 1 to 21 of age

50

4 Overall growth performance of broilers fed with varying ME to

CP ratios from d 1 to 21 of age

51

5 Effect of different energy to crude protein ratios on daily protein

intake and efficiency of protein utilization of chicken

52

6 Effect of different energy to crude protein ratios on daily ME

intake and efficiency of ME utilization of chicken

52

x

7 Effect of different energy to crude protein ratios on carcass 53

9 Effect of varying cassava meal and copra meal levels in diets

on growth performance from d 1 to 21 of age

56

10 Overall growth performance of broilers fed with varying

cassava meal and copra meal levels in diets from d 1 to 21 of age

58

11 Effect of varying cassava meal and copra meal levels in diets

on daily protein intake and efficiency of protein utilization of chicken

61

12 Effect of varying cassava meal and copra meal levels in diets

on daily ME intake and efficiency of ME utilization of chicken

63

13 Carcass characteristics of chickens fed varying cassava and

copra meals levels diets from day 1 to 21 of age

65

LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Poultry production of Viet Nam has been continued significantly

growing at an average of 2.5 % per annum in the last 5 year with about 327.7

million heads in 2014 The meat of poultry was obtained as the second

largest meat sector with 642.5 thousand metric tons (MT) (GSO, 2015)

Significant developments in genetics, management, health and nutrition are

largely responsible for the rapid growth experienced today (Van et al., 2015)

Predilection for using native chicken, hybrid/color chicken of Vietnamese

consumer has induced the amount of these that always accounts for high

percentage in population (Van et al., 2015a) Native chicken such as Ri, Mia,

Ho, Dong Tao etc; color Luong Phuong, Tam Hoang, Kabir, SASO chicken

and hybrid comprise the most popular in semi intensive system in

smallholders of Viet Nam These groups of chicken account for about 70%

of poultry population (GSO, 2015) but nutrient research for them was

unsystematic Therefore, no nutrient specification apply for these groups

Nutrition requirement for native chicken, color chicken and their hybrid were

applied from other group chicken which are found to be incorrect

Bird responses of economic interest, such as body weight (BW) gain,

feed conversion ratio (FCR) and breast meat yield (BMY) depend on protein

content and biological value (BV) of protein (Mohsen et al, 2012; Vieira et al,

2012) Protein accounts for 20% of body weight of poultry, 16% of egg weight

and more than 1/3 protein in dry matter of animal bone Therefore, protein is

an essential constituent of all tissues of animal body and has major effect on

growth performance of the bird (Jafarnejad et al, 2010; Mohsen et al, 2012)

Since all living tissue is in a dynamic state and is undergoing constant

degeneration, protein is also necessary for its maintenances (McDonal et al.,

1995; Tilden et al, 2000) Beside, birds need energy for every action (flying,

jumping, growing etc) (Jafarnejad et al, 2010) that alter material energy

Excess metabolizable energy (ME) requirement of body is reserved as

animal fat (McDonal et al., 1995; Tilden et al, 2000) Metabolizable energy

with low density in the diet makes poultry to eat more; but feed consumption

is reduced if feeds are rich in energy Therefore, the level of energy in the

diet must be balanced with other nutrients such as crude protein, essential

amino acids, and minerals to meet all feed requirements (Leeson and

Summers, 2009)

Previous researches have been conducted to estimate ME to CP ratio

of color chicken from 1 to 70 day of age (Van et al., 2016) but information is

limited for ME to CP ratio of native, color chicken and their cross during the

starter period (1 to 21 days) Whereas, Holsheimer and Ruesink (1993); Kidd

et al (1998) suggested that the quality of diet in earlier feeding phases may

have carryover effects on growth performance and carcass composition

Leeson and Summers (2009) indicated that a 1 g difference in day 7 body

weight will be multiplied to 3 g at day 18 and 5 g at day 49

Cassava meal contain 60 to 80% starch on dry matter (DM) of its

composition was considered as potential ingredient However, cassava was

restrictedly used in diets because of poor protein and essential amino acids

content (Morgan and Choct, 2016) Copra meal is the by-product of oil

extraction of the endosperm of coconut This byproduct is rich in protein

(15-25%) and carbohydrate (60%) (Sundu and Dingle, 2009) While its inclusion

in poultry diets is limited due to low levels of several essential amino acids,

in particularly lysine and total sulfur containing amino acids (Moorthy and

Viswanathan, 2010) To deal with this problem, it could be alleviated by increasing soybean meal (SBM) in the diet or supplement synthetic amino

acids in the diet (Sundu and Dingle, 2009; Morgan and Choct, 2016) There

is, however, limited data to support this hypothesis

Background of the Study

Mia chicken is raised in the Son Tay district, Ha Tay province Mia breed chicken was characterized by colors, almost roosters’ feather were

reddish-brown, and light yellow for female Mia chicken breed has yellow feet, yellow skin but red breast skin and single red cock’s comb For these

characteristics, Mia chicken was offered to worship material in traditional custom of Vietnam, especially lunar New Year, anniversary of ancestor’s

death

Mia breed has a good resistance even in poor nutrition condition This

breed consistence with cultural practices and farming methods and

high quality.The live weight of Mia chicken is 800–900 g at 60 days old and

3500–4.000 g and 2500–3000g for cocks and hens at 140–150 days,

respectively They lay 55–60 eggs per hen per year (Van et al., 2015) For

these advantages therefore Mia chicken breed was used as male line in

cross with other breed At present, the Mia breed population is very limited,

at risk of extinction and in need of conservation To use the genetic resource

of this breed, it is necessary to identify the performance and breeding values

for selection and multiplication (Long et al., 2008)

Luong Phuong is one of these chicken breeds from China It was

imported to Viet Nam from 1990 Luong Phuong chicken breed has yellow

feathers, yellow feet, red single comb and strong resistance The live weight

of Luong Phuong chicken is 1500 g at 70 days old and 2000 - 2100 g and

2300 – 2400 g for adult cocks and hens, respectively (Van et al., 2015) This

breed is unlike SASSO breed chicken, its body weight is not very high at day

harvest which suitable for party of Vietnam These characteristics were

almost the same native chicken therefore as from imported to Vietnam this

breed has liking for raiser Average egg productive per hen per year of Luong Phuong was 150 – 170 eggs (Van et al., 2015) For this feature and growth

performance of this breed which was used as female trait in crossing with

other native chicken of Vietnam to combine advantages of sire and dam

Some studies on this breed show that it has good adaptability and are well

developed in Viet Nam (Dat and Tung, 2007) These breeds were

high-priced, stable and suitable to the taste of customers thanks to their high

adaptability, consistence with cultural practices and farming methods and

high quality.Performance of crossbreds of local and exotic breeds is similar

to the average of their parents, but they are easier to feed and produce better quality of meat Through heterosis, crossbreeds have 2–13 percent greater

live weight at slaughtering compared to the average of their parents (Long et

al., 2008; Tung and Hao, 2010) Thus, since 1990, some households have

raised this crossbred to produce meat

In poultry production, feed cost account for 70 - 80% of production

cost (Van et al., 2015) thus utilization local ingredient in diet is one method

to reduce production cost Cassava is one of these local feedstuff in Viet

Nam Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), a tropical root crop which is

widely cultivated in Viet Nam, has great potential as a starch source for both

human and animal consumption Cassava yield of Viet Nam estimated up to

9.7 million metric tons (GSO, 2015) a potential carbohydrate for human and

animal feed The use of cassava as animal feed is not new In tropical Africa

the peels are used as feed for ruminants (Eruvbetine et al., 2003) Many

studies have been undertaken to evaluate replacement of cereals with

cassava meal in poultry feeds The results of these studies have yielded wide

variation in feeding value, nutritional problems, and productive performance

The maximum level of cassava root meal in broiler diets has ranged This

variation has been due to differences in many factors that will affect its

inclusion in poultry diets, such as anti-nutritional factors, cassava root

processing methods, and nutritional and physical factors (Eruvbetine et al.,

2003)

The production of copra meal in some parts of the world is abundant

and cheap hence its inclusion in poultry diets would benefit the poultry

industry Its use as feeding material would also be beneficial for the coconut

industry and the environment, through the reduction of copra waste

However, the nutritional and physical qualities of this by-product are poor,

and consequently, there has been limited use of this material in poultry diets

Attempts to improve the quality of this feedstuff have been made through

supplementation with amino acids and enzymes as well as physical

treatments such as pelleting, soaking and grinding (Sundu et al., 2006)

Theoretical Framework of the Study

This dissertation consists of 2 studies Study 1 Effect of ME to protein rations in diet from 1 to 21 day of age on production performance

and carcass characteristics of F1 (Mia × Luong Phuong) chicken Study 2 Effect of different cassava and copra meal levels in diet from 1 to 21 day of

age on production performance, caloric efficiency and carcass

characteristics of F1 (male Mia × female Luong Phuong) chicken

Conceptual framework of the study

The conceptual paradigm of the studies is shown in Figure 1

The independent variables include the ME to protein ratios, different levels

of cassava meal and copra meal The effect of which were determined on

the performance of the chickens and compared with the effects of other

treatments These include different parameters presented in the dependent

variable, such as percent livability, body weight (g), average daily feed intake

(g), average daily gain (g), feed conversion ratio, carcass yield, crude protein

utilization, caloric efficiency and income over feed cost

1 Livability, %

2 Body weight, g

3 Average feed daily intake, g

4 Average daily gain, g

5 Feed Conversion Ratio

1 Livability, %

2 Body weight, g

3 Average feed daily intake, g

4 Average daily gain, g

5 Feed Conversion Ratio

6 Carcass yield, %

7 Crude protein utilization

8 Caloric efficiency Study 1

Figure 1 The conceptual Paradigm of Studies

Statement of the Problem

These studies aimed to evaluate the effect of feed materials: ME to

protein ratios, cassava meal levels, copra meal levels on the growth

performance and carcass yield of hybrid native chickens in Viet Nam

Specifically, these aim to answer the following problems:

1 What is the effect of ME to protein ratio on the performance, efficiency

of crude protein utilization, caloric efficiency, carcass characteristics,

economic of the (Mia × Luong Phuong) in terms of

a Body weight;

b Body weight gain

c Average daily gain

d Average daily feed intake;

e Feed conversion ratio;

f Efficiency of CP utilization;

g Carcass yield;

h Economic analysis?

2 Is there a significant difference in the performance of the (Mia × Luong

Phuong) fed with diets containing difference ME to protein ratios?

3 Is there significant difference in the performance of the experimental

birds with respect to cassava meal and copra meal levels in terms of the

following variables?

a Body weight;

b Body weight gain

c Average daily gain

d Average daily feed intake;

e Feed conversion ratio;

f Efficiency of CP utilization;

g Carcass yield;

h Economic analysis?

4 Is there significant interaction effect between the cassava meal and

copra meal level in the ration of the experimental birds in terms of

a Body weight;

b Body weight gain

c Average daily gain

d Average daily feed intake;

e Feed conversion ratio;

f Efficiency of CP utilization;

g Carcass yield;

h Economic analysis?

Hypothesis of the Study

The following hypotheses were tested:

1 There is no significant difference in the performance of the experimental

birds fed with ME to protein ratios in term of following variables: Body

weight, Body weight gain, Average daily gain, Average daily feed intake,

Feed Conversion Ratio, Efficiency of CP utilization, Carcass yield, and

Economic analysis?

2 There is no significant difference in the performance of the experimental

birds fed with diets containing difference cassava meal and copra meal

in diet in term of following variables: Body weight, Body weight gain,

Average daily gain, Average daily feed intake, Feed Conversion Ratio,

Efficiency of CP utilization, Carcass yield, and Economic analysis?

Significance of the Study

This dissertation provided the performance of chicken fed with

different diets based on ME to protein ratios to reduce environmental

pollutions This dissertation showed the specification nutrition for hybrid of

(Mia × Luong Phuong) raised under Viet Nam condition

In particular, it could benefit the following:

Farmers The outcome of this study could provide additional

knowledge to the farmer on how to choose appropriate feed ration for native hybrid chicken

Agricultural Technicians As concrete data in this study will provide

information on the nutritional requirement of native hybrid chicken for

formulator and native chicken raised in the community

People of the academe The results of this research could provide

knowledge to researcher, professor and students for reference

Other researchers This study may provide ready reference for

investigation in the field of animal nutrition

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The experiments were conducted at Thai Nguyen city, Thai Nguyen

province, Viet Nam from July to November 2017

These studies were focused on the performance of hybrid (Mia × Luong

Phuong) chicken in Viet Nam under complete confinement litter floor rearing

system in terms of body weight (BW), Average daily feed intake, Feed

Conversion Ratio, Efficiency of CP utilization, Carcass characteristics, and

Economic analysis

ME to Protein ratios, cassava and copra meal levels were used on the

ration of the F1 (male Mia × female Luong Phuong) chickens from Viet Nam

National Animal Husbandry Institute Diets were in mash form

Definition of Terms

The following statements were used to operationally or conceptually

define terms used or mentioned in the study

Average daily feed intake: Average daily gain was computed as the

feed consumption divided by the feeding period

Average Daily Gain: This was computed as the gain in weight divided

by the feeding period

Body weight gain: The gain in weight was determined by subtracting

the end of trial period body weight from the initial weight

Body weight This refers to weight of the experimental chickens

which was taken at the start (day-old) up to the end of the study (3 weeks)

This was expressed in grams

Breast meat percentage Breast meat percentage was calculated

based on formula: Total breast meat (meat without skin and bones) divided

by the dressed weight then multiplied by 100

Caloric efficiency: This was determined based on the ratio between

total ME intake and total body weight gain (show in kilocalories per kilogram

of weight gain)

CP efficiency: This was determined based on the ratio between total

CP intake and total body weight gain (show in gram per kilogram of weight

gain)

Daily ME intake: This was determined by adding average daily feed

intake multiplied by the corresponding ME (expressed in kilocalories per bird)

Daily CP intake: This was determined by adding average daily feed

intake multiplied by the corresponding CP (expressed in gram per bird)

Dressed chicken Fasting of bird was conducted for 8 h (Trevisan et

al, 2014), then weighed and dressed Birds were killed by cutting the jugular

vein, scalded, plucked and eviscerated The abdominal fat were removed

from the abdomen and gizzard and weighed immediately after evisceration

using a precision scale (0.1 g) From the eviscerated carcass, skinless and

boneless wing, thigh and drumstick were obtained and all cuts were weighed

on a precision scale (0.1 g) Carcass yield was calculated relative to the bird

BW at slaughter and expressed as a percentage

Carcass yield, % = Carcass weight, g x 100

Live weight, g

Economic Analysis

Feed cost per broiler, value of gain per broiler, feed cost per kg gain, and

margin over feed cost were calculated for each treatment using the

following equations:

Feed cost per chick (VND) = Total feed consumed × Price per kg of feed

Value of gain per chick (VND) = Total weight gain × LW price per chick

Feed cost per kg of gain

(VND/kg BW)

= Feed cost per chick ÷ Total weight gain

Income over feed cost (VND) = Value of gain per chick – Feed cost per chick

Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) It is an indicator of how efficient the

experimental birds are in converting the feed they consumed into meat The

lower the value, the more efficient the birds are Feed consumption of the

birds for each replicate was determined by subtracting the weight of the feed

left from the amount of feed offered The average cumulative feed

consumption at each weighing was determined by dividing the cumulative

feed consumption by the number of birds per replicate

Leg Meat Percentage Leg meat percentage was computed by

dividing the leg meat weight (meat without skin and bones in both drumstick

and thigh) by the dressed weight then multiplied by 100

Livability The number of surviving birds for the whole duration of the

study was recorded It was computed by dividing the number of surviving

birds by the initial number of birds In case there was mortality on the middle

of the stage; body weight of the live birds, dead birds and remained feeds

was measured

Percentage of Abdominal Fat Fat surrounding the gizzard, extending

in the ischium and surrounding the bursa of fabricius, cloaca, as well as adjacent

abdominal fat was collected, weighed and divided by the dressed then

multiplied by 100

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Various references were reviewed by the researcher to determine

theories, concepts, principles, methodologies, and findings that are relevant

and helpful to the conduct of the study and will serve as support in the

discussion of the results

Related Literature

Proteins are made of strings of amino acids that form chains known

as peptides Protein is the basic structural material from which all body

tissues are formed This includes muscles, nerves, skin, antibody,

connective tissues and vital organs, as well as blood cells, hair, hoof and

horns (McDonald et al., 1995, Kamran et al., 2008, Nawaz et al., 2006,

Elmutaz et al., 2014) Protein is essential for the animal’s growth and

development (Nahashon et al., 2007, Niu et al., 2009, Pesti, 2009) It

accounts for 20% of body weight of poultry, 16% of egg weight and more

than 30% protein in the dry matter of animal bone (Van et al., 2015) Since

all living tissue is in a dynamic state and is undergoing constant

degeneration, protein is necessary for maintenance (Rostagno et al., 2011)

Body enzymes and hormones are protein in composition, which are both

regulators of catabolism and control metabolism (Sleman et al, 2015)

Protein is also a component of immune body which controls pathogens that

invade the body (Perween et al., 2016) When amino acids are available in excess of the animal’s requirements or when the animal is forced to

catabolize body tissue to maintain essential body process, amino acids may

be broken down to provide energy (Kamran et al., 2004) Therefore, poultry

can adjust protein to compensate for energy whereas carbohydrate and

lipids cannot be converted to protein

Since proteins have been shown to be composed of individual amino

acids, the dietary crude protein (CP) requirement for monogastric animals is

the requirement of each of the amino acids per se From the information of

protein synthesis For poultry species, 19 amino acids in body proteins and all of them are physiologically essential to the birds (D’Mello, 2003; Kidd and

Tillman, 2016) Nutritionally, these amino acids can be divided into three

categories: (1) EAA: Arg, His, Ile, Leu, Lys, Met, Phe, Thr, Trp and Val; (2) Semi–essential AA: Cys, Gly, and Tyr; and (3) Non-essential AA: Ala, Asp,

Glu, Pr) and Ser

The ideal protein concept has been using lysine as the reference

amino acid even though methionine has been shown to be the primary

limiting amino acid Lysine was selected as the reference amino acid for the

following reasons: 1) lysine is the second limiting amino acid (in most

commercial poultry diets and the supplementation is economically available;

2) the analysis of lysine is a relatively simple procedure; 3) dietary lysine is

utilized only for protein accretion and maintenance of broiler chicks; 4) there

are a number of research projects conducted to determine the lysine

requirements of different broiler strains under various conditions (Emmert

and Baker, 1997)

Several things shape the ideal protein concept: 1) increasing concerns

about environmental impacts such as nitrogen and phosphorus pollution

resulting from animal production; 2) available sophisticated feed formulation

programs; 3) and the consideration of economical production (Emmert and

Baker, 1997) Because of the differences in physiological, environmental,

dietary, and genetic factors, the amino acid requirements of broiler chicks

vary considerably It is almost impossible to determine the accurate

individual The ideal protein concept refers to a blend of EAA that meet the

requirement for protein accretion and maintenance in an animal with no

deficiencies and no excesses (Emmert and Baker, 1997) The advantage of

applying the concept of an ideal protein is that the requirements of other EAA

can be easily determined under various conditions once the reference amino

acid requirement is accurately established under a specific circumstance

This concept is more effective when using digestible rather than total

AA, because birds cannot totally digest amino acids in most ingredients (Soto

et al, 2013) except in their synthetic form The digestibility of most EAA from

various sources for broiler chicks is different (Kong and Adeola, 2014)

Protein is an essential constituent of all tissues of animal body and

has major effect on growth performance of the bird (Plumstead et al., 2007)

The result of Zaman et al., 2008 showed that dietary crude protein (CP) had

quadratic effects on BW gain, FCR of Starbro broiler In addition, dietary

protein density had quadratic effects on carcass weight, and dry matter and

protein contents of the meat Breast weight and fat contents of meat

increased linearly with increasing CP of the diets

Protein requirement is expressed as percentage in diet, these factors

that effect on feed intake also effect on protein intake Protein requirement

depend on status and productive of poultry Protein requirement are various

in product type, breeds, sex, feed conversion and metabolism (Rosa et al.,

2007; Widyaratne et al, 2011; Hernandez et al., 2012) Almost free amino

acids in the diets effected the growth of poultry If protein is lacking in the

ration, this reduces the growth and laying ability of poultry The body will

withdraw protein from muscle to maintain action of the life organ On other

hand, providing excess protein requirement also effect on the body and

health of poultry such as gathering NH3, uric acid According to Van et al

(2015) the protein maintenance requirement of poultry is 0.0016 g protein

per kilogram bodyweight The ability to absorbed crude protein in order to

produce eggs for hen can reach up to 55 percent but the ability to absorb

crude protein to produce meat for broiler chicken can absorb 64 percent Protein requirement that is essential for the growth of poultry’s feather

depend upon stage of bird The protein requirement for growth of chicken’s

feather after three weeks old of chicken is higher than before stage The rate

of broiler’s feather at first three weeks is 4 percent and after that stage, it is

7 percent

Deficiency or excess dietary protein is detrimental for broiler (Zaman

et al, 2012) Cheng et al (1996) reported that feeding high CP diets to

heat-stressed broilers had a detrimental effect on weight gain

Feed consumption of birds was known to be affected by ambient

factors One of which is temperature Therefore, nutrient requirement were

also effected on nutrient requirement According to Elmutaz et al (2014)

nutrient requirement of poultry is profoundly affected by ambient temperature

and relative humidity Studied of Veldkamp et al (2005) showed that feed

intake decrease 1.5g/day when environment temperature increase 100C to

300C, feed intake decrease 2.5 – 4 g/day/10C while temperature above 300C

Protein requirement of poultry were effected by environmental temperature

because feed intake decrease while increase environment temperature

(Daghnir, 2008) Zaman et al (2008) indicated that low CP with high ME diets

improved the overall performance when environmental temperature ranged

from 32 to 39oC Consequently, as a guarantee growth performance of birds

in the hot environment protein and amino acids density in diet must be

increased to meet requirement (Laudadio et al, 2012) Elmutaz et al., 2014)

conducted experiment under the hot, humid tropic condition reported that

crude protein of broiler starter (1- 21 days) diet can be reduced till 19.2%

with essential amino acid (EAA) fortification and without any adverse effects

on growth performance Although all the nutrients requirement of the NRC,

1994 were met reducing diet protein level (DPL) to 17.7% or lower impaired

the performance of broiler chickens during the starter (Zaman et al., 2008,

Mohsen et al., 2012) The result of Thim et al, (1997) showed that

supplementing 16 and 18% CP diets with methionine, lysine, threonine,

tryptophan, and arginine to provide a minimum of 100% and 110% NRC

(1994) levels did not improve weight gain of heat-stressed broilers compared

to providing only a 90% NRC level

In the diet of poultry, after the energy-yielding raw materials, protein

supplements constitute the biggest component, and attention has been

focused on the protein and energy levels of the feed Protein is also one of

the most expensive ingredients in poultry diets (Trevisan et al, 2014)

Vegetable (plant) and animal products are the two most important protein

sources in poultry diets (Sleman et al, 2015)

Plants protein account for major portion of protein in diet of animals

However, due to their deficiency in one or more amino acids, plant proteins

are usually fortified with synthetic amino acids or another protein source such

as processed oilseed meal or animal protein concentrates Plant proteins

contain some anti-nutritional (ANFs) components that naturally exist within

their structures, which can adversely affect the quality of the protein and limit

its value in animal nutrition ANFs are substances produced in natural

feedstuffs as byproducts of the different metabolic processes of species (for

example, inhibition or activation of nutrients, reduction in the digestive or

metabolic utilization of feed) that detract from the nutritive value of the feed

(Akande et al., 2010)

Soybean meal (SBM) is the preferred protein source used in poultry

feed manufacturing Its crude protein content is about 40-48%, and this

depends on the quantity of hulls removed and the oil extraction process

Compared to the protein meal of other oilseed grains, soybean protein is

favoured due to its well-balanced amino acid profile, especially the essential

ones, enabling it to balance most cereal-based diets (Ravindran, 2013)

However, there is a limitation to plant protein source use because of their

content of anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) which decrease its nutritive value

(Marsman et al., 1997; Mehri et al., 2010) and limit its inclusion in broiler

chicken diets, especially at the starter phase Most of these ANFs can be

destroyed by thermal processing that causes an increase in the nutritional

value sometimes and protein level of plant proteins (Adeyemo and Longe,

2007) due to the elimination of ANFs and freeing the protein in the plant

protein products Consumption of untreated soy protein may alter the

intestinal morphology and physiology of broilers and cause a noticeable

immune response (Peisker, 2001)

Various processed soybean products have been used in animal and

poultry feeding These include soybean protein concentrates (SPC),

soybean protein isolates (SPI), and products in which the soybean was

pretreated with enzymes and/or microorganisms Processed soy products

are distinctly different to SBM thus they have much lower ANFs activities,

and contain a significantly lower amount of oligosaccharides and antigenic

substances Therefore, their nutritive value is much better than that of SBM

and can be incorporated at high levels in animal diets (Peisker, 2001)

The price of soybean was increased 55.30% from May 2007 to May

2017 (Indexmundi, 2017) There have been large increases in the prices of

some vegetable protein sources as well Such increases in the cost of

conventional raw materials have accelerated the demand to find

alternative feed resources that can replace a proportion of these

products in poultry diets at a lower cost of production Copra meal is also

one of plant protein source Copra meal, also referred to as coconut meal or

coconut oil meal, is the residual product after extraction of oil from the dried

endosperm of the coconut Although its protein content is less than that of

conventional ingredients commonly used as protein sources, copra meal

represents the largest quantity of locally available feed protein in tropical

areas (Stein et al., 2015) Nutritionally, initial copra meal moisture content of

52%, copra dry matter contains 48% carbohydrate, 5% lignin, 21% protein

and 5.7% lipid (Sundu et al, 2006; Stein et al., 2015) On a dry matter basis,

copra meal contains 25-30% mannan as both pure mannan and

galactomannan (Ariandi and Merryandini, 2015) Early studies reported that

coconut meal protein may be low in both digestibility and biological value Its

has been reported to be qualitatively poor due to low concentrations of

several limiting amino acids (NRC, 1994) and high dietary fiber (Sundu et al.,

2006) However, protein digestibility of copra meal in monogastric diet was

more variable, ranging between 43 to 81% (Sulabo et al., 2011) The

digestibility of Lys in copra meal is also variable, ranging from 51 (Thorne et

al., 1992) to 73% (Sulabo et al., 2011) Quality problems such as rancidity

and aflatoxin contamination may be an issue in copra meal, which may be

attributed to the high moisture content of copra during drying and storage

(PHILSAN, 2010)

Plant protein sources are nutritionally unbalanced and poor in certain

EAA therefore require a supplementary source of synthetic amino acids or

other protein sources such as animal protein

Animal protein source such as blood meal, fish meal, meat and bone

meal are considered one of the richest sources of lysine and a very good

source of arginine, methionine, cystine, and leucine (NRC, 1994) Blood

meal or spray- dried plasma are as protein supplement in diet of poultry

which has high protein content of about 87% CP and amino acids balance

on a dry matter basic The quality of the product obtained is greatly

influenced by its purity and the method of drying The temperature at which

it is dried is important as overcooked meal is undesirable for animals and its

use has a negative effect on the growth efficiency of poultry (Konwar and

Barman, 2005) Previous reports have indicated that inclusion of 1- 4% blood

meal in diet can improve poultry performance (Anang et al., 2001) while

others show no adverse effect of higher levels of dietary blood meal on

chicken growth (Donkoh et al., 2002; Khawaja et al., 2007) However,

Castello et al (2004) stated that supplementation of broiler chicken diet with

more than 3% blood meal had a negative effect on feed intake and body

weight gain of broilers (Sleman et al., 2015)

Nowaday as the mass-production of crystaline amino acid mixtures

as the use crystaline amino acid is widely spread of animal feed (Han and

Lee, 2000) Dietary supplementation of synthetic amino acid to poultry diets

increases feed conversion efficiency, lowers feed cost per unit of weight gain

or production, reduces nitrogen excretion, and has other positive effects

Instead of animal protein feeds in poultry nutrition, plant protein feeds are

used with the supplementation of synthetic amino acids (Petri and Lemme,

2007) Increasing the efficiency of protein and amino acid utilization is crucial

for the reduction of feed costs and maximization of meat production with an

absolute minimum intake of amino acids Synthetic amino acids have been

found to facilitate the formulation of diets with an ideal amino acid profile

(Han and Lee, 2000)

It is well known that one of the important roles of synthetic amino acids

in animal nutrition is their ability to enhance the volume of readily available

amino acids (nitrogen), as well as their promotion of lean meat production

Amino acids are also linked to the production of antibodies in animals (Han

and Lee, 2000) Therefore, the development of immune function in poultry

will be enhanced if they get an adequate amount of amino acids in their

diets Formulation with commercially available synthetic EAA to meet

broiler requirements not only improves the overall amino acid balance, but

allows for a reduction in CP, while also improving the general performance

of broiler birds (Zarate et al., 2003) Investigations have demonstrated that

poultry production can be considerably improved by the addition of synthetic

amino acids along with probiotics and enzymes (Petri and Lemme, 2007)

Supplementation with limited amounts of synthetic amino acids (0.1- 0.3%)

to diets of swine and poultry could spare 2-3% of dietary protein and

considerably reduce nutrient excretion, particularly nitrogen (Han and Lee,

2000)

Energy in one of critical nutritional factors to evaluate of animal feed

(Zeng et al., 2015) Energy of animal feed are expressed as gross energy

(GE), metabolizable energy (ME) and net energy (NE) Body of bird needs

energy for maintenance and growth up Energy in ingredient is rerserved as

lipid, glucid, protid In animal feed, energy is expressed as metabolizable

energy (ME) which is rich in lipid and medium in cereal (Sauvant et al., 2004,

Rostagno et al., 2011)

The most necessary nutrient required for growth is energy even

though energy itself is not changed into meat or eggs but used as fuel for

getting high production Most action of all animals need and reciprocate

energy process, by the fact that the recipients are required to provide

adequate nutrition to meet their needs The amount of energy in diet was

provided for maintenance body, while amount of energy in diet was excessed

maintenance body will be provided to produce such as meat and egg The

amount of energy in diet supplement was lower than maintenance

requirement induce degrade fat to provide energy for maintenance Excess

metabolizable energy (ME) requirement of body is reserved as animal fat

(Ghaffari et al., 2007, Zaman et al., 2008) The reserved energy will not

discharged outside the body that is typical of material content energy

(Leeson and Summer, 2009)

The following terms are associated with descriptions of energy in

feeds:

Gross Energy (GE) is the total amount of heat released when a

substance is completely oxidized in a bomb calorimeter under 25 to 30

atmospheres of oxygen The gross energy is usually expressed as

kilocalories/kilogram or kilocalories/pound of feed Digestible,

metabolizable, or net energy values of a feed cannot exceed the gross

energy value of that feed

Digestible Energy (DE) is the gross energy of the feed consumed

minus the gross energy excreted in the feces

Metabolizable Energy (ME) is the gross energy of the feed consumed

minus the energy in the feces, urine, and gaseous products of digestion In

none ruminant and poultry the amount of gas produced by digestion is

usually small; therefore, ME values are not corrected for gaseous products

of digestion

Heat increment (HI) is that portion of the metabolizable energy (ME)

that is used for digestion or metabolism of absorbed nutrients into body

tissue In cold weather, this heat may help keep the animal warm During hot weather, heat increases the animal’s body temperature above the neutral

thermal zone

Net energy is the metabolizable energy (ME) minus the heat

increment Energy is a necessary ingredient in the ration of animals Energy

level is always started while balancing ration The suitable energy level in

the ration is cheapest per unit of production

Energy density is an importance nutrient component of diet Energy

density is first considered when formulate diet for poultry Proper energy density

is level give cheapest price of feed per animal produce unit In the area where

energy feed and fat feed are cheap this would make rich energy ration to

become economic ration

Broilers possess a good ability to control their energy intake at a

relatively constant level (My, 2005) Energy levels in the diets influence feed

intake of broilers, except the first several days post-hatch Low energy in the

ration makes poultry eat more; on the other hand feed consumption is

reduced if feeds are rich energy

The level of energy in the diet becomes important because it is basic

in the amount of feed of poultry consumption The problem that interested

nutritionists is the approximate energy that bird could able to adjust amount

of feed intake and satisfy nutrition for body requirement, good performance

and improve benefit With poor energy in the diet, the chicken could be taking

maximum feedstuff but still lack nutrient requirement because limitation of

digestive capacity Rich energy in the ration could still result to low feed

intake, therefore nutrient deficiency further result to low performance (Nawaz

et., 2006) Therefore, the amount of required nutrients in a poultry ration must

be adjusted in relation to the energy level in the ration in order to ensure that

the bird consume the right amount of the needed nutrients

Study of Leclerq B and Carville (1986) showed that ME value in

individual ingredient of broiler duck, broiler muscovy duck and broiler chicken

were none significant difference, thus can be used database of broiler

chicken formulate diet for duck and muscovy duck Energy requirement was

depended on growth performance, percentage of lipid in carcass Energy

requirement of broiler duck and muscovy duck was higher than broiler

chicken because lipid content in carcass of water fowl higher than chicken

(My, 2005) Concentrations of dietary ME might be considered to improve

feed efficiency and meat quality of high potential growth performance broiler

such as Cobb 500, Ross 707 (Tang et al., 2007, Plumstead et al., 2007;

Nguyen, 2009)

In most poultry diets, cereals will be the major contributor of

metabolizable energy (Leeson and Summer, 2009) Corn has a higher

energy level than other grains (Corn, yellow: 3381 kcal ME; Rice: 2670

kcal/kg wheat: 3150 kcal ME) that can be used in poultry rations (Sauvant et

al., 2004; PHILSAN, 2010; Rostagno et al., 2011) Generally, other grain

should be used for only a part in the ration because of low energy content

and higher fiber level For example, oats or barley should be limited to no

more than 10 to 15 percent of the ration The energy value of corn is

contributed by the starchy endosperm, which is composed mainly of

amylopectin, and the germ, which contains most of the oil

In recent years, the cost of corn have increased considerably due to

competition with the human food industry The price of corn was increased

71.16% from 2005 to 2015 (USDA, 2015) Therefore, search for another

carbohydrate substituted for corn is necessary Cassava is one potential

sources carbohydrates Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is a widely cultivated

crop in the tropics It is the highest supplier of carbohydrates among staple

crops Cassava is used as energy source in diet of broiler On a DM basis,

starch accounts for 60 to 80% of its composition which makes it an excellent

source of energy (Morgan and Choct 2016) It is used as a substitute for

corn in diets for chickens (Adeyemi et al., 2008) and pigs (Wu, 1991; Kanto,

2006; Son et al., 2012) The metabolizable energy (ME) levels of cassava

root have been presented by various authors, with values ranging from

2400kcal/kg (PHILSAN., 2010) to 2973 kcal/kg (Rotagno et al., 2011)

However, its use in conventional feed is limited due to low in protein and the

protein it has is of poor quality with very low essential amino acid contents

(Olugbemi et al., 2010) Moreover, cassava include bulkiness in its fresh

form, dustiness in its dried unpelleted form Cassava meal are also deficient

in carotene and carotenoids, so supplements must be added to diets

containing these products to maintain normal egg yolk and broiler skin

pigmentation (Khajarern and Khajarern, 2007) In addition cassava include

high fibre and the presence of anti-nutritional factors, primarily hydrocyanic

acid (HCN)

In addition, fat is also used as supplement metabolizable energy in

diet Fat may be used to increase the energy level of low-energy rations

Animal fat and vegetable oils should be limited to no more than five to 5% in

chick booster diet to 6% in diet of broiler and layer because of rancidity and

problem in mixing, handling, storage of feeds Oil will increase the palatability

of the diet, decrease dustiness, and improve the texture of the feed Plant oil

are used more often in layer rations to increase the energy level of the diet

especially in summer season to supply energy deficiency In hot weather,

feed containing added oil may become rancid unless it has been properly

stabilized Lipid was easy oxidant Thus, when lipid is added into the ration

need add some anti oxidant such as BHT, BAA etc as a guarantee of quality

feed

Energy and protein are two nutrients that are necessary for the body

Metabolizable energy (ME) in needed for all physiology and biochemistry

processes of body Protein supply material to build muscle, organ and growth

up of the body

The diet of poultry with adequate energy but lack of protein make up

reduce growing up and productivity of layer because of the lack of material

needed In addition, lack of ME economic benefit will be reduced because

the body will transform protein to power that ensure action of the organ

Therefore, energy and protein have a close relationship Balancing rations

for poultry must consider in rate of protein and ME to provide both of the

birds Percentage of ME/CP is altered depending on environment

temperature, type of production, age of chicken to obtain maximum benefits

This problem has been of interest to many scientists because it has great significance to attain poultry production’s goal (PHILSAN, 2010)

Increasing percentage of ME/CP makes poultry to get less feed than

its feed requirement and increase abdomen percentage In addition,

decrease in this percentage would mean increase in the cost of feeds and

reduce abdomen percentage (Laudadio et al., 2012) Constant percentage

of ME/CP would mean increasing protein in the muscle and decreasing

ability to convert protein of pullet (Van et al., 2015) Therefore, percentage

of ME/CP must be adjusted carefully According to standard of PHILSAN

(2010) ME/CP in the ration of broiler chicken at booster phase was 130,

starter phase was 140 and finisher phase was 150

The factors affecting the growth of an animal include inheritance,

genetic imbalances, sex, and plane of nutrition, health condition, and

favorable environment The performance and production of domesticated

animal affect the degree to which its genetic potential is expressed

Environment includes all surrounding factors that affect the animal such as

management, nutrition, and disease It also includes climatic factor such as

temperature, humidity and ventilation, which must be properly managed, or

modified if practical, for efficient practical performance (Tang et al., 2007)

In formulating diets for poultry, energy and protein must be balanced

to meet energy, protein and other nutrients requirements The ratio of ME/CP

is dependent on environmental temperature, type of production, and age of

the birds Increasing the ME/CP ratio makes broilers consume less feed than

its feed requirement and increases abdominal fat A lower ME/CP ratio would

increase cost of the diets and reduce abdominal fat (Kamran et al., 2008)

Therefore, ratio of ME/CP must be adjusted carefully to suitable with specific

condition (Dozier et al., 2006)

In the condition of tropical climate Elmutaz et al (2014) suggested diet

of Cobb broiler from 1 – 21 day of age should be content ME to CP ratio of

157 The author observed that increased from 136, 146 to 157 with essential

AA fortification and without any adverse effect on growth performance under

the hot, humid tropics However, under similar condition but the ratios of ME

to CP in diet of broiler were diffident among strain broiler chickens

Zaman et al (2008) conducted an experiment on Starbro broiler to

compare the growth performance and carcass characteristics from 1 to 28

days of age raising under hot summer condition fed with 126, 130, 138,

142,152 and 157 of ME to CP ratios in diet showed that ME to CP ratio had

quadratic effects on BW gain, FCR and carcass weight

On the contrary Kamran et al (2008) conducted an experiment on

Hubbard broiler from 1 to 26 days of age in an environmentally controlled

house indicated that weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio were

not significantly affected by diets supplemented with critical amino acids and

content ME to CP ratios of 127, 133, 139 and 146 The ratio of ME to CP in

diet of broiler was varied at periods of bird Ratio was increased (P<0.001)

linearly with increase ME to CP ratios in diets (Kamran et al., 2008)

The study of Perween et al (2016) revealed that the effect of feeding

different levels of energy to protein ratios on antibody titer against New castle

disease (NCD) virus from 1 to 56 day of age The authors showed that

antibody titer against NCD virus of Vanaraja birds was a gradual increase as

the level of ME to CP decrease from 176, 157 and 142 The result of study

suggested that ration containing ratio ME to CP of 157 which influence the

immune response of Vanaraja birds to obtained desirable performance

economically also

According to Laudadio et al (2012), increasing ME/CP ratio in broiler

diets also induces increased fat percentage in carcass

Abdomen fat was higher on diet of broiler containing high ME to CP

ratio (Nguyen, 2009) Whereas NRC (1994), ME/CP ratio in broiler diets should be 140 in the earlier phases and 160 – 180 in older phases