Chemistry and chemical reactivity 8e by kotz, terichel and townsend 1 pdf

2.10 Describing Compound Formulas 85 Percent Composition 85 Empirical and Molecular Formulas from Percent Composition 87 Determining a Formula from Mass Data 89 Case Study: Mummies, Bang

Note: Atomic masses are

2007 IUPAC values

(up to four decimal places)

Numbers in parentheses are

atomic masses or mass numbers

of the most stable isotope of

an element

MAIN GROUP METALSTRANSITION METALS

NONMETALSMETALLOIDS

Uranium 92 U 238.0289

Atomic numberSymbolAtomic weight

37

Rb

85.4678

Strontium38Sr87.62

Scandium21Sc44.9559

Titanium22Ti47.867

Vanadium23V50.9415

Chromium24Cr51.9961Niobium

41Nb92.9064

Molybdenum42Mo95.96

Dubnium105Db(268)

Seaborgium106Sg(271)

Cerium58Ce140.116

Praseodymium59Pr140.9076

Neodymium60Nd144.242

Promethium61Pm(144.91)

Curium96Cm(247.07)

Gadolinium64Gd157.25Plutonium

94Pu(244.664)

Americium95Am(243.061)

Samarium62Sm150.36

Europium63Eu151.964Uranium

92U238.0289

Neptunium93Np(237.0482)

Thorium90Th232.0381

Protactinium91Pa231.0359

Manganese25Mn54.9380

Iron26Fe55.845

Cobalt27Co58.9332

Nickel28Ni58.6934

Copper29Cu63.546Silver47Ag107.8682

Roentgenium111Rg(280)

Gold79Au196.9666Meitnerium

109Mt(276)

Darmstadtium110Ds(281)

Iridium77Ir192.22

Platinum78Pt195.084

Rhodium45Rh102.9055

Palladium46Pd106.42

Bohrium107Bh(272)

Hassium108Hs(270)

Rhenium75Re186.207

Osmium76Os190.23

Technetium43Tc(97.907)

Ruthenium44Ru101.07Tantalum

73Ta180.9479

Tungsten74W183.84Actinium

89Ac(227.0278)

Rutherfordium104Rf(267)

Lanthanum57La138.9055

Hafnium72Hf178.49

Yttrium39Y88.9059

Zirconium40Zr91.224

3B

8B

Lawrencium103Lr(262.11)

Ytterbium70Yb173.054

Lutetium71Lu174.9668Fermium

100Fm(257.10)

Mendelevium101Md(258.10)

Erbium68Er167.26

Thulium69Tm168.9342Californium

98Cf(251.08)

Einsteinium99Es(252.08)

Dysprosium66Dy162.50

Holmium67Ho164.9303Berkelium

97Bk(247.07)

Terbium

65Tb158.9254

Zinc30Zn65.38

Boron5B10.811

Carbon6C12.011

Nitrogen7N14.0067

Oxygen8O15.9994

Fluorine9F18.9984

Neon10Ne20.1797

Astatine85At(209.99)

Radon86Rn(222.02)

Iodine53I126.9045

Xenon54Xe131.29

Bromine35Br79.904

Krypton36Kr83.80

Chlorine17Cl35.4527

Argon18Ar39.948

Helium2He4.0026

Bismuth83Bi208.9804

Polonium84Po(208.98)

Antimony51Sb121.760

Tellurium52Te127.60

Arsenic33As74.9216

Selenium34Se78.96

Phosphorus15P30.9738

Sulfur16S32.066

Ununtrium 113

UutDiscovered 2004

Ununquadium 114

UuqDiscovered 1999

Ununpentium 115

UupDiscovered 2004

Ununhexium 116

UuhDiscovered 1999

Ununseptium 117

UusDiscovered 2010

Ununoctium 118

UuoDiscovered 2002

Thallium81Tl204.3833

Lead82Pb207.2

Indium49In114.818

Tin50Sn118.710

Gallium31Ga69.723

Germanium32Ge72.61

Aluminum13Al26.9815

Silicon14Si28.0855

Cadmium

48Cd112.411

Copernicium

112Cn(285)

Mercury

80Hg200.59

2B(12)

3A(13) (14)4A (15)5A (16)6A (17)7A

8A(18)

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& Chemical Reactivity

John C KotzState University of New York College at OneontaPaul M TreichelUniversity of Wisconsin–MadisonJohn R TownsendWest Chester University of Pennsylvania

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10

brief contents

Part ONE THE BASIC TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY

Interchapter: The Chemistry of Fuels and Energy

Part tWO THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

AND MOLECULES

Interchapter: Milestones in the Development of Chemistry and the Modern View of Atoms and

Interchapter: The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry 490

Part tHrEE STATES OF MATTER

Interchapter: The Chemistry of Modern

Interchapter: The Chemistry of the Environment 946

Part FIVE THE CHEMISTRY OF THE ELEMENTS

AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

aPPENdIcEs

25°C A-32

contents

Part ONE THE BASIC TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY

1 Basic Concepts of Chemistry 1

Gold! 1

1.1 Chemistry and Its Methods 2

Hypotheses, Laws, and Theories 3

A Closer Look: Careers in Chemistry 4

Goals of Science 5

Dilemmas and Integrity in Science 5

1.2 Sustainability and Green Chemistry 5

A Closer Look: Principles of Green Chemistry 6

1.3 Classifying Matter 6

States of Matter and Kinetic-Molecular Theory 7

Matter at the Macroscopic and Particulate Levels 8

Extensive and Intensive Properties 14

1.7 Physical and Chemical Changes 15

1.8 Energy: Some Basic Principles 16

Case Study: CO 2 in the Oceans 17

Length, Volume, and Mass 27

A Closer Look: Energy and Food 29

Energy Units 29

2 Making Measurements: Precision, Accuracy,

Experimental Error, and Standard Deviation 30

Experimental Error 31

Standard Deviation 32

3 Mathematics of Chemistry 33 Exponential or Scientific Notation 33 Significant Figures 35

4 Problem Solving by Dimensional Analysis 39 Case Study: Out of Gas! 40

5 Graphs and Graphing 41

6 Problem Solving and Chemical Arithmetic 42 STUDY QUESTIONS 44

2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 50

The Periodic Table, the Central Icon of Chemistry 50

2.1 Atomic Structure—Protons, Electrons, and Neutrons 51

2.2 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass 52 Atomic Number 52

Relative Atomic Mass and the Atomic Mass Unit 52 Mass Number 52

2.3 Isotopes 54 Isotope Abundance 54 Determining Atomic Mass and Isotope Abundance 54

2.4 Atomic Weight 55 Case Study: Using Isotopes: Ötzi, the Iceman of the Alps 58

2.5 The Periodic Table 58 Developing the Periodic Table 58

A Closer Look: The Story of the Periodic Table 59 Features of the Periodic Table 61

A Brief Overview of the Periodic Table and the Chemical Elements 62

2.6 Molecules, Compounds, and Formulas 66 Formulas 66

Properties of Ionic Compounds 76

2.8 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names 78

2.9 Atoms, Molecules, and the Mole 80 Atoms and Molar Mass 80

A Closer Look: Amedeo Avogadro and His Number 81 Molecules, Compounds, and Molar Mass 82

Preface xvii

2.10 Describing Compound Formulas 85

Percent Composition 85 Empirical and Molecular Formulas from Percent Composition 87

Determining a Formula from Mass Data 89 Case Study: Mummies, Bangladesh, and the Formula of Compound 606 92

Determining a Formula by Mass Spectrometry 92

A Closer Look: Mass Spectrometry, Molar Mass, and Isotopes 93

2.11 Hydrated Compounds 94

CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 96 KEY EQUATIONS 97

STUDY QUESTIONS 98 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: ARGON—AN AMAzING DISCOVERY 109

3 Chemical Reactions 110

Black Smokers and Volcanoes 110

3.1 Introduction to Chemical Equations 111

A Closer Look: Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794 112

3.2 Balancing Chemical Equations 114

3.3 Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium 116

Net Ionic Equations 126

3.6 Acids and Bases 128

Acids and Bases: The Arrhenius Definition 128 Acids and Bases: The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 130

A Closer Look: The Hydronium Ion—The H 1 Ion

in Water 131 Reactions of Acids and Bases 132

A Closer Look: Sulfuric Acid 133 Oxides of Nonmetals and Metals 134

STUDY QUESTIONS 148 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: SUPERCONDUCTORS 155

4 Stoichiometry: Quantitative Information about Chemical Reactions 156

The Chemistry of Pyrotechnics 156

4.1 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions:

4.5 Measuring Concentrations of Compounds

in Solution 173 Solution Concentration: Molarity 173 Preparing Solutions of Known Concentration 175

A Closer Look: Serial Dilutions 178

4.6 pH, a Concentration Scale for Acids and Bases 178

4.7 Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solution 181 Solution Stoichiometry 181

Titration: A Method of Chemical Analysis 182 Standardizing an Acid or Base 184

Determining Molar Mass by Titration 185 Titrations Using Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 186 Case Study: How Much Salt Is There in Seawater? 187

4.8 Spectrophotometry 188 Case Study: Forensic Chemistry: Titrations and Food Tampering 189

Transmittance, Absorbance, and the Beer–Lambert Law 189

Spectrophotometric Analysis 191 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 193 KEY EQUATIONS 194

STUDY QUESTIONS 195 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: ANTACIDS 207

vi Contents

A Hydrogen Economy 261 Biosources of Energy 262 Solar Energy 263

What Does the Future Hold for Energy? 264 SUGGESTED READINGS 264

6.3 Atomic Line Spectra and Niels Bohr 272 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 273 The Bohr Theory and the Spectra of Excited Atoms 275

6.4 Particle–Wave Duality: Prelude to Quantum Mechanics 278

Case Study: What Makes the Colors in Fireworks? 279

6.5 The Modern View of Electronic Structure: Wave or Quantum Mechanics 281

Quantum Numbers and Orbitals 282 Shells and Subshells 283

6.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 284

6.7 One More Electron Property: Electron Spin 288

The Electron Spin Quantum Number, ms 288

A Closer Look: Paramagnetism and Ferromagnetism 289 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 289

CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 290

A Closer Look: Quantized Spins and MRI 291 KEY EQUATIONS 292

STUDY QUESTIONS 293 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES:

CHEMISTRY OF THE SUN 299

Energy and Your Diet 208

5.1 Energy: Some Basic Principles 209

Systems and Surroundings 210

Directionality and Extent of Transfer of Heat: Thermal

Equilibrium 210

A Closer Look: What Is Heat? 211

5.2 Specific Heat Capacity: Heating and Cooling 212

Quantitative Aspects of Energy Transferred as Heat 214

5.3 Energy and Changes of State 216

5.4 The First Law of Thermodynamics 219

A Closer Look: P–V Work 221

Enthalpy 222

State Functions 222

5.5 Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Reactions 224

5.6 Calorimetry 226

Constant Pressure Calorimetry, Measuring DH 226

Constant Volume Calorimetry, Measuring DU 228

5.7 Enthalpy Calculations 230

Hess’s Law 230

Energy Level Diagrams 231

Standard Enthalpies of Formation 233

Enthalpy Change for a Reaction 234

A Closer Look: Hess’s Law and Equation 5.6 236

5.8 Product- or Reactant-Favored Reactions and

Other Fossil Fuel Sources 257

Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuel Use 258

Contents

8 Bonding and Molecular Structure 344

Chemical Bonding in DNA 344

8.1 Chemical Bond Formation 345

8.2 Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures 346 Valence Electrons and Lewis Symbols for Atoms 346 Lewis Electron Dot Structures and the Octet Rule 348 Drawing Lewis Electron Dot Structures 349

A Closer Look: Useful Ideas to Consider When Drawing Lewis Electron Dot Structures 351

Predicting Lewis Structures 351

8.3 Atom Formal Charges in Covalent Molecules and Ions 354

A Closer Look: Comparing Oxidation Number and Formal Charge 355

8.4 Resonance 356

A Closer Look: Resonance 357

A Closer Look: A Scientific Controversy—Are There Double Bonds in Sulfate and Phosphate Ions? 359

8.5 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 360 Compounds in Which an Atom Has Fewer Than Eight Valence Electrons 360

Compounds in Which an Atom Has More Than Eight Valence Electrons 361

Molecules with an Odd Number of Electrons 362 Case Study: Hydroxyl Radicals, Atmospheric Chemistry, and Hair Dyes 363

8.6 Molecular Shapes 364 Central Atoms Surrounded Only by Single-Bond Pairs 364

Central Atoms with Single-Bond Pairs and Lone Pairs 366

Multiple Bonds and Molecular Geometry 368

8.7 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity 371 Charge Distribution: Combining Formal Charge and Electronegativity 373

8.8 Bond and Molecular Polarity 375

A Closer Look: Visualizing Charge Distributions and Molecular Polarity—Electrostatic Potential Surfaces and Partial Charge 378

8.9 Bond Properties: Order, Length, and Energy 381 Bond Order 381

Bond Length 382 Bond Dissociation Enthalpy 383 Case Study: Ibuprofen, A Study in Green Chemistry 385

A Closer Look: DNA—Watson, Crick, and Franklin 387

7 The Structure of Atoms and Periodic

Trends 300

Rubies and Sapphires—Pretty Stones 300

7.1 The Pauli Exclusion Principle 301

7.2 Atomic Subshell Energies and Electron

Assignments 303 Order of Subshell Energies and Assignments 303

Effective Nuclear Charge, Z* 304

7.3 Electron Configurations of Atoms 305

Electron Configurations of the Main Group Elements 307

Electron Configurations of the Transition Elements 310

A Closer Look: Orbital Energies, Z*, and Electron

Configurations 312

7.4 Electron Configurations of Ions 313

A Closer Look: Questions about Transition Element Electron Configurations 314

7.5 Atomic Properties and Periodic Trends 315

Atomic Size 315 Ionization Energy 317 Electron Attachment Enthalpy and Electron Affinity 320

Trends in Ion Sizes 322

7.6 Periodic Trends and Chemical Properties 323

Case Study: Metals in Biochemistry and Medicine 325 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 326

STUDY QUESTIONS 327 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: THE NOT-SO-RARE EARTHS 333

Interchapter Milestones in the Development

of Chemistry and the Modern View

of Atoms and Molecules 334

Greek Philosophers and Medieval Alchemists 335

Chemists of the 18th–19th Centuries 336

Atomic Structure: Remarkable Discoveries—1890s and Beyond 338

A Closer Look: 20th-Century Giants of Science 342

The Nature of the Chemical Bond 343 SUGGESTED READINGS 343

STUDY QUESTIONS 343

viii Contents

Alcohols and Ethers 458 Properties of Alcohols 461 Amines 462

10.4 Compounds with a Carbonyl Group 464 Case Study: An Awakening with L-DOPA 464 Aldehydes and Ketones 466

A Closer Look: Copolymers and the Book Cover 477

A Closer Look: Copolymers and Engineering Plastics for Lego Bricks and Tattoos 478

A Closer Look: Green Chemistry: Recycling PET 479 Case Study: Green Adhesives 481

CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 482 STUDY QUESTIONS 482 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: BIODIESEL—AN ATTRACTIVE FUEL FOR THE FUTURE? 489

Interchapter The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry 490

Proteins 491 Amino Acids Are the Building Blocks of Proteins 492 Protein Structure and Hemoglobin 493

Sickle Cell Anemia 494 Enzymes, Active Sites, and Lysozyme 495

Nucleic Acids 496 Nucleic Acid Structure 496 Protein Synthesis 498 The RNA World and the Origin of Life 499

Lipids and Cell Membranes 500

A Closer Look: HIV and Reverse Transcriptase 501

Metabolism 504 Energy and ATP 504 Oxidation–Reduction and NADH 505 Respiration and Photosynthesis 505

Concluding Remarks 506 SUGGESTED READINGS 506 STUDY QUESTIONS 506

CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 389

KEY EQUATIONS 391

STUDY QUESTIONS 391

APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: LINUS PAULING

AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY 399

9 Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital

Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals 400

The Noble Gases: Not So Inert 400

9.1 Orbitals and Theories of Chemical Bonding 401

9.2 Valence Bond Theory 402

The Orbital Overlap Model of Bonding 402

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 404

Multiple Bonds 411

Benzene: A Special Case of p Bonding 415

9.3 Molecular Orbital Theory 416

Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory 417

A Closer Look: Molecular Orbitals for Molecules Formed

from p-Block Elements 423

Electron Configurations for Heteronuclear Diatomic

Molecules 423

Resonance and MO Theory 424

Case Study: Green Chemistry, Safe Dyes, and Molecular

10 Carbon: Not Just Another Element 438

The Food of the Gods 438

Stability of Carbon Compounds 442

A Closer Look: Chirality and Elephants 443

10.2 Hydrocarbons 443

Alkanes 443

Alkenes and Alkynes 449

A Closer Look: Flexible Molecules 449

Aromatic Compounds 453

Case Study: Hydrogen Bonding & Methane Hydrates:

Opportunities and Problems 558

12.4 Intermolecular Forces Involving Nonpolar Molecules 559

Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces 559 London Dispersion Forces: Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces 560

A Closer Look: Hydrogen Bonding in Biochemistry 561

12.5 A Summary of van der Waals Intermolecular Forces 563

12.6 Properties of Liquids 564 Case Study: A Pet Food Catastrophe 565 Vaporization and Condensation 565 Vapor Pressure 568

Vapor Pressure, Enthalpy of Vaporization, and the Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 570

Boiling Point 571 Critical Temperature and Pressure 571 Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity 571

A Closer Look: Supercritical CO 2 and Green Chemistry 574

CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 574 KEY EQUATIONS 575

STUDY QUESTIONS 575 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: CHROMATOGRAPHY 581

13 The Chemistry of Solids 582

Lithium and “Green Cars” 582

13.1 Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells 583

A Closer Look: Packing Oranges and Marbles 587

13.2 Structures and Formulas of Ionic Solids 590 Case Study: High-Strength Steel and Unit Cells 592

13.3 Bonding in Metals and Semiconductors 594 Semiconductors 596

13.4 Bonding in Ionic Compounds: Lattice Energy 598 Lattice Energy 598

Calculating a Lattice Enthalpy from Thermodynamic Data 599

13.5 The Solid State: Other Types of Solid Materials 601 Molecular Solids 601

Network Solids 601 Amorphous Solids 601

Part tHrEE STATES OF MATTER

11 Gases and Their Properties 508

The Atmosphere and Altitude Sickness 508

11.1 Gas Pressure 510

A Closer Look: Measuring Gas Pressure 511

11.2 Gas Laws: The Experimental Basis 511

Boyle’s Law: The Compressibility of Gases 511 The Effect of Temperature on Gas Volume: Charles’s Law 513

Combining Boyle’s and Charles’s Laws: The General Gas Law 515

Avogadro’s Hypothesis 516

A Closer Look: Studies on Gases—Robert Boyle and Jacques Charles 518

11.3 The Ideal Gas Law 518

The Density of Gases 519 Calculating the Molar Mass of a Gas

from P, V, and T Data 521

11.4 Gas Laws and Chemical Reactions 522

11.5 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures 524

11.6 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases 527

Molecular Speed and Kinetic Energy 527

A Closer Look: The Earth’s Atmosphere 528 Kinetic-Molecular Theory and the Gas Laws 531

11.7 Diffusion and Effusion 532

A Closer Look: SCUBA Diving—An Application of the Gas Laws 534

11.8 Nonideal Behavior of Gases 534

Case Study: What to Do with All of That CO 2 ? More on Green Chemistry 536

CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 537 KEY EQUATIONS 537

STUDY QUESTIONS 538 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: THE GOODYEAR BLIMP 547

12 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids 548

Geckos Can Climb Up der Waals 548

12.1 States of Matter and Intermolecular Forces 549

12.2 Interactions between Ions and Molecules with a

Permanent Dipole 550

x Contents

Alloys: Mixtures of Metals 657

Semiconductors 659 Applications of Semiconductors: Diodes, LEDs, and Transistors 659

Ceramics 660 Glass: A Disordered Ceramic 661 Fired Ceramics for Special Purposes: Cements, Clays, and Refractories 663

Aerogels 663 Ceramics with Exceptional Properties 664

Biomaterials: Learning from Nature 665

The Future of Materials 666 SUGGESTED READINGS 667 STUDY QUESTIONS 667

Part FOUr THE CONTROL OF CHEMICAL

REACTIONS

15 Chemical Kinetics: The Rates of Chemical Reactions 668

Where Did the Indicator Go? 668

15.1 Rates of Chemical Reactions 669

15.2 Reaction Conditions and Rate 674

15.3 Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate 675 Rate Equations 676

The Order of a Reaction 676

The Rate Constant, k 677

Determining a Rate Equation 678

15.4 Concentration–Time Relationships: Integrated Rate Laws 681

First-Order Reactions 681 Second-Order Reactions 683 Zero-Order Reactions 684 Graphical Methods for Determining Reaction Order and the Rate Constant 684

Half-Life and First-Order Reactions 685

15.5 A Microscopic View of Reaction Rates 689 Collision Theory: Concentration and Reaction Rate 689 Collision Theory: Temperature and Reaction Rate 690 Collision Theory: Activation Energy 690

A Closer Look: Reaction Coordinate Diagrams 692 Collision Theory: Activation Energy

and Temperature 692 Collision Theory: Effect of Molecular Orientation on Reaction Rate 692

The Arrhenius Equation 693 Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rate 695

Case Study: Graphene—The Hottest New Network

APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: TIN DISEASE 615

14 Solutions and Their Behavior 616

Survival at Sea 616

14.1 Units of Concentration 618

14.2 The Solution Process 620

Liquids Dissolving in Liquids 621

A Closer Look: Supersaturated Solutions 622

Solids Dissolving in Water 622

Enthalpy of Solution 623

Enthalpy of Solution: Thermodynamic Data 625

14.3 Factors Affecting Solubility: Pressure

and Temperature 626

Dissolving Gases in Liquids: Henry’s Law 626

Temperature Effects on Solubility: Le Chatelier’s

Principle 627

Case Study: Exploding Lakes and Diet Cokes 629

14.4 Colligative Properties 630

Changes in Vapor Pressure: Raoult’s Law 630

Boiling Point Elevation 631

Freezing Point Depression 634

Osmotic Pressure 635

A Closer Look: Reverse Osmosis for Pure Water 637

Colligative Properties and Molar Mass

Determination 638

A Closer Look: Osmosis and Medicine 640

Colligative Properties of Solutions Containing

Contents

17.2 The Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases Extended 758

Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs 760

17.3 Water and the pH Scale 760 Water Autoionization and the Water Ionization

Constant, Kw 761 The pH Scale 763 Calculating pH 763

17.4 Equilibrium Constants for Acids and Bases 764

Ka Values for Polyprotic Acids 767

Logarithmic Scale of Relative Acid Strength, pKa 768 Relating the Ionization Constants for an Acid and Its Conjugate Base 768

17.5 Acid–Base Properties of Salts 769

17.6 Predicting the Direction of Acid–Base Reactions 771

17.7 Types of Acid–Base Reactions 774 The Reaction of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base 774 The Reaction of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base 774 The Reaction of a Strong Acid with a Weak Base 775 The Reaction of a Weak Acid with a Weak Base 775

17.8 Calculations with Equilibrium Constants 776

Determining K from Initial Concentrations and

Measured pH 776 What Is the pH of an Aqueous Solution of a Weak Acid

or Base? 777 Case Study: Would You Like Some Belladonna Juice in Your Drink? 784

17.9 Polyprotic Acids and Bases 785

17.10 Molecular Structure, Bonding, and Acid–Base Behavior 787

Acid Strength of the Hydrogen Halides, HX 787 Comparing Oxoacids: HNO 2 and HNO 3 787

A Closer Look: Acid Strengths and Molecular Structure 788

Why Are Carboxylic Acids Brønsted Acids? 789 Why Are Hydrated Metal Cations Brønsted Acids? 790 Why Are Anions Brønsted Bases? 791

17.11 The Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases 791 Cationic Lewis Acids 792

Molecular Lewis Acids 794 Molecular Lewis Bases 794 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 796 KEY EQUATIONS 796

STUDY QUESTIONS 797 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: THE LEVELING EFFECT, NONAQUEOUS SOLVENTS, AND SUPERACIDS 805

15.6 Reaction Mechanisms 697

Molecularity of Elementary Steps 698 Rate Equations for Elementary Steps 699 Molecularity and Reaction Order 699 Reaction Mechanisms and Rate Equations 700 Case Study: Enzymes—Nature’s Catalysts 702 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 706

KEY EQUATIONS 707 STUDY QUESTIONS 708 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: KINETICS AND MECHANISMS:

A 70-YEAR-OLD MYSTERY SOLVED 719

16 Principles of Chemical Reactivity:

Equilibria 720

Dynamic and Reversible! 720

16.1 Chemical Equilibrium: A Review 721

16.2 The Equilibrium Constant and Reaction Quotient 722

Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions 724

A Closer Look: Activities and Units of K 725

A Closer Look: Equilibrium Constant Expressions for Gases—Kc and Kp 726

The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant, K 726 The Reaction Quotient, Q 727

16.3 Determining an Equilibrium Constant 730

16.4 Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations 733

Calculations Where the Solution Involves a Quadratic Expression 734

16.5 More about Balanced Equations and Equilibrium

Constants 738

16.6 Disturbing a Chemical Equilibrium 740

Effect of the Addition or Removal of a Reactant or Product 741

Effect of Volume Changes on Gas-Phase Equilibria 743 Effect of Temperature Changes on Equilibrium Composition 744

Case Study: Applying Equilibrium Concepts—The Haber–

Bosch Ammonia Process 746 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 746 KEY EQUATIONS 747

STUDY QUESTIONS 748 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: TRIVALENT CARBON 755

17 Principles of Chemical Reactivity:

The Chemistry of Acids and Bases 756

Aspirin Is Over 100 Years Old! 756

17.1 Acids and Bases: A Review 757

xii Contents

Dispersal of Matter: Dispersal of Energy Revisited 864

A Summary: Entropy, Entropy Change, and Energy Dispersal 866

19.4 Entropy Measurement and Values 866

Standard Entropy Values, So 866 Determining Entropy Changes in Physical and Chemical Processes 868

19.5 Entropy Changes and Spontaneity 869

In Summary: Spontaneous or Not? 872

19.6 Gibbs Free Energy 874

The Change in the Gibbs Free Energy, DG 874

Gibbs Free Energy, Spontaneity, and Chemical Equilibrium 875

A Summary: Gibbs Free Energy (D rG and DrGo ), the

Reaction Quotient (Q) and Equilibrium Constant (K ),

and Reaction Favorability 877 What Is “Free” Energy? 877

19.7 Calculating and Using Free Energy 878 Standard Free Energy of Formation 878 Calculating D rGo , the Free Energy Change for a Reaction Under Standard Conditions 878 Free Energy and Temperature 880 Case Study: Thermodynamics and Living Things 881 Using the Relationship between D rGo and K 883

CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 884 KEY EQUATIONS 885

STUDY QUESTIONS 886 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: ARE DIAMONDS FOREVER? 893

20 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Electron Transfer Reactions 894

Battery Power 894

20.1 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 896 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 896

20.2 Simple Voltaic Cells 903 Voltaic Cells with Inert Electrodes 906 Electrochemical Cell Notations 907

20.3 Commercial Voltaic Cells 908 Primary Batteries: Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries 909 Secondary or Rechargeable Batteries 910

Fuel Cells 912

Nature’s Acids 806

18.1 The Common Ion Effect 807

18.2 Controlling pH: Buffer Solutions 810

General Expressions for Buffer Solutions 812

Preparing Buffer Solutions 814

How Does a Buffer Maintain pH? 816

18.3 Acid–Base Titrations 818

Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base 818

Case Study: Take a Deep Breath 819

Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base 820

Titration of Weak Polyprotic Acids 824

Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid 824

pH Indicators 826

18.4 Solubility of Salts 828

The Solubility Product Constant, Ksp 829

Relating Solubility and Ksp 830

A Closer Look: Minerals and Gems—The Importance of

Solubility 831

A Closer Look: Solubility Calculations 833

Solubility and the Common Ion Effect 834

The Effect of Basic Anions on Salt Solubility 837

18.5 Precipitation Reactions 839

Ksp and the Reaction Quotient, Q 839

Case Study: Chemical Equilibria in the Oceans 840

Ksp , the Reaction Quotient, and Precipitation

Reactions 841

18.6 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 843

18.7 Solubility and Complex Ions 844

CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 846

KEY EQUATIONS 847

STUDY QUESTIONS 848

APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: EVERYTHING THAT

GLITTERS 857

19 Principles of Chemical Reactivity:

Entropy and Free Energy 858

Hydrogen for the Future? 858

19.1 Spontaneity and Energy Transfer as Heat 859

19.2 Dispersal of Energy: Entropy 861

A Closer Look: Reversible and Irreversible Processes 862

Contents

Part FIVE THE CHEMISTRY OF THE

ELEMENTS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

21 The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements 960

Carbon and Silicon 960

A Closer Look: Hydrogen, Helium, and Balloons 967 Preparation of Hydrogen 968

21.4 The Alkali Metals, Group 1A 969 Preparation of Sodium and Potassium 970 Properties of Sodium and Potassium 970

A Closer Look: The Reducing Ability of the Alkali Metals 972

Important Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium Compounds 972

21.5 The Alkaline Earth Elements, Group 2A 974 Properties of Calcium and Magnesium 975 Metallurgy of Magnesium 975

A Closer Look: Alkaline Earth Metals and Biology 976 Calcium Minerals and Their Applications 976

A Closer Look: Of Romans, Limestone, and Champagne 977

Case Study: Hard Water 978

21.6 Boron, Aluminum, and the Group 3A Elements 979 Chemistry of the Group 3A Elements 979

Boron Minerals and Production of the Element 979 Metallic Aluminum and Its Production 980

Boron Compounds 982 Aluminum Compounds 983

21.7 Silicon and the Group 4A Elements 984 Silicon 984

Silicon Dioxide 985 Silicate Minerals with Chain and Ribbon Structures 986

Silicates with Sheet Structures and Aluminosilicates 986 Silicone Polymers 987 Case Study: Lead, Beethoven, and a Mystery Solved 988

20.4 Standard Electrochemical Potentials 913

Electromotive Force 913 Measuring Standard Potentials 913

A Closer Look: EMF, Cell Potential, and Voltage 915 Standard Reduction Potentials 915

Tables of Standard Reduction Potentials 916 Using Tables of Standard Reduction Potentials 918 Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 919

A Closer Look: An Electrochemical Toothache 921

20.5 Electrochemical Cells under Nonstandard

Conditions 921 The Nernst Equation 921 Case Study: Manganese in the Oceans 922

20.6 Electrochemistry and Thermodynamics 925

Work and Free Energy 925

Eo and the Equilibrium Constant 926

20.7 Electrolysis: Chemical Change Using Electrical

Energy 929 Electrolysis of Molten Salts 929 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 931

A Closer Look: Electrochemistry and Michael Faraday 934

20.8 Counting Electrons 934

CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 935 KEY EQUATIONS 936

STUDY QUESTIONS 937 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: SACRIFICE! 945

Interchapter The Chemistry of the Environment 946

The Atmosphere 947 Nitrogen and Nitrogen Oxides 948 Oxygen 949

Ozone 950 Chlorofluorocarbons and Ozone 951 Carbon Dioxide 952

Climate Change 952 Greenhouse Gases 952

The Aqua Sphere (Water) 953 The Oceans 954

Drinking Water 954

A Closer Look: Chlorination of Water Supplies 956 Water Pollution 956

Green Chemistry 958 SUGGESTED READINGS 959 STUDY QUESTIONS 959

xiv Contents

The Spectrochemical Series 1044 Case Study: Accidental Discovery of a Chemotherapy Agent 1047

22.7 Organometallic Chemistry: Compounds with Metal–Carbon Bonds 1047

Carbon Monoxide Complexes of Metals 1047 The Effective Atomic Number Rule and Bonding in Organometallic Compounds 1048

Ligands in Organometallic Compounds 1049 Case Study: Ferrocene—The Beginning of a Chemical Revolution 1050

CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 1051 STUDY QUESTIONS 1052 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES: GREEN CATALYSTS 1057

23.4 Rates of Nuclear Decay 1070 Half-Life 1070

Kinetics of Nuclear Decay 1071 Radiocarbon Dating 1073

23.5 Artificial Nuclear Reactions 1075

A Closer Look: The Search for New Elements 1076

23.6 Nuclear Fission 1078

23.7 Nuclear Fusion 1080

23.8 Radiation Health and Safety 1081 Units for Measuring Radiation 1081 Radiation: Doses and Effects 1081

A Closer Look: What Is a Safe Exposure? 1083

23.9 Applications of Nuclear Chemistry 1083 Nuclear Medicine: Medical Imaging 1083

A Closer Look: Technetium-99m 1084 Nuclear Medicine: Radiation Therapy 1085 Analytical Methods: The Use of Radioactive Isotopes as Tracers 1085

Analytical Methods: Isotope Dilution 1085 Space Science: Neutron Activation Analysis and the Moon Rocks 1086

Food Science: Food Irradiation 1086

Nitrogen Compounds 990

Case Study: A Healthy Saltwater Aquarium and the

Nitrogen Cycle 991

A Closer Look: Making Phosphorus 993

Hydrogen Compounds of Phosphorus and Other

Group 5A Elements 994

Phosphorus Oxides and Sulfides 994

Phosphorus Oxoacids and Their Salts 996

21.9 Oxygen, Sulfur, and the Group 6A Elements 998

Preparation and Properties of the Elements 998

Sulfur Compounds 999

A Closer Look: Snot-tites and Sulfur Chemistry 1001

21.10 The Halogens, Group 7A 1001

Preparation of the Elements 1001

Oxidation and Reduction 1019

Periodic Trends in the d-Block: Size, Density, Melting

Point 1020

A Closer Look: Corrosion of Iron 1021

22.2 Metallurgy 1023

Pyrometallurgy: Iron Production 1024

Hydrometallurgy: Copper Production 1025

22.3 Coordination Compounds 1026

Complexes and Ligands 1026

Formulas of Coordination Compounds 1029

Naming Coordination Compounds 1031

A Closer Look: Hemoglobin 1032

22.4 Structures of Coordination Compounds 1034

Common Coordination Geometries 1034

Isomerism 1034

22.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds 1038

The d Orbitals: Ligand Field Theory 1038

Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties 1040

L Selected Thermodynamic Values A-26

M Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution

at 25 °C A-32

N Answers to Chapter Opening Questions and Case Study Questions A-36

O Answers to Check Your Understanding Questions A-47

P Answers to Review & Check Questions A-63

Q Answers to Selected Interchapter Study Questions A-72

r Answers to Selected Study Questions A-75

a Appendices A-1

a Using Logarithms and Solving Quadratic Equations A-2

B Some Important Physical Concepts A-6

c Abbreviations and Useful Conversion Factors A-9

d Physical Constants A-13

E A Brief Guide to Naming Organic Compounds A-15

F Values for the Ionization Energies and Electron

Attachment Enthalpies of the Elements A-18

G Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-19

Go Chemistry modules are mini video lectures prepared by the book author, John C Kotz, that may include

anima-tions, problems, or eFlashcards for quick review of key concepts They play on video iPods, iPhones, iPads, personal

video players, and iTunes and are correlated to the text by annotations in the margin If you are using OWL, Go

Chemistry is included in the Cengage YouBook You can download two sample modules and purchase modules

Module 3   Names to Formulas of Ionic CompoundsModule 4   The Mole

CompoundsModule 6   Writing Net Ionic EquationsChapter 4  Stoichiometry: Quantitative Information about 

Chemical Reactions

Module 7   Simple StoichiometryModule 8a   Stoichiometry and Limiting Reactants (Part 1)Module 8b   Stoichiometry and Limiting Reactants (Part 2)Module 9a   pH (Part 1)

Module 9b   pH (Part 2)Chapter 5   Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Energy and 

Chemical Reactions

Module 10   Thermochemistry and Hess’s Law

Module 13   Molecular PolarityChapter 9   Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital 

Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals

Module 14   Hybrid Atomic Orbitals

many years of experience teaching general chemistry and other areas of chemistry at the

college level Although we have

been at different institutions, both

large and small, during our careers,

we share several goals One is to

pro-vide a broad overview of the

princi-ples of chemistry, the reactivity of

the chemical elements and their

compounds, and the applications of

chemistry To reach that goal with

our students, we have tried to show

the close relation between the

obser-vations chemists make of chemical

and physical changes in the laboratory and in nature and

the way these changes are viewed at the atomic and

mo-lecular level

Another of our goals has been to convey a sense that chemistry not only has a lively history but is also dynamic,

with important new developments occurring every year

Furthermore, we want to provide some insight into the

chemical aspects of the world around us Indeed, a major

objective of this book is to provide the tools needed for

you to function as a chemically literate citizen Learning

about the chemical world is just as important as

under-standing some basic mathematics and biology and as

important as having an appreciation for history, music,

and literature For example, you should know what

ma-terials are important to our economy, some of the

reac-tions in plants and animals and in our environment, and

the role that chemists play in protecting the

environ-ment In this regard, one growing area of chemistry,

highlighted throughout this edition, is “green” or

sustain-able chemistry

These goals have been translated into Chemistry &

Chemical Reactivity, a book that has been used by more than

1 million students in its first seven editions The first

edi-tion had a copyright date of 1987, and the copyright date

for this edition is 2012 So, this is the 25th anniversary of

the book It is its silver (Ag) anniversary!

Looking back over the previous editions, we can see how the book has changed There have been many new

and exciting additions to the content of the book In

ad-dition, there have been significant advances in the technology of com-municating information, and we have tried to take advantage of those new approaches A desire to make the book even better for our students has been the impetus behind the preparation of each new edition With this edition, you will see a new approach to problem solving, new ways to describe contemporary uses

of chemistry, new technologies, and improved integration with existing technologies

Emerging developments in content Usage and delivery: OWL,

YouBook

Our ongoing challenge as authors and educators is to use multimedia to engage students and to help them reach a higher level of conceptual understanding More than 15 years ago we incorporated electronic media into

this text with the first edition of our Interactive General

Chemistry CD, a learning tool used by thousands of

stu-dents worldwide

As technology has advanced, we have made major changes in our integrated media program Through sev-eral editions we redesigned the media so that students can interact with simulations, tutorials, active figures, and

end-of-chapter questions, first through the Interactive

General Chemistry CD and then with OWL (Online Web

Learning) OWL, which was developed at the University

of Massachusetts, has been used by hundreds of sands of students in the past few years

More recently, we developed and integrated Go

Chemistry tutorial videos into the seventh edition and

more fully into this new edition These tutorials are 5- to 10-minute mini lectures on topics such as solving equi-librium problems, features of the periodic table, naming compounds, polar molecules, writing net ionic equa-tions, and identifying intermolecular forces

preface

In addition, an entirely new digital textbook—the

Cen-gage YouBook—has been developed for this edition The

Cengage YouBook is a fully electronic, full-color version of

the book with extensive interactivity You can use it with

your desktop or laptop computer, to read the text, access

useful databases, watch videos of chemical reactions, take

a Guided Tour of a book figure, and much more

Reactivity and OWL

The textbook (both as a printed book and the Cengage

YouBook digital version) and OWL are designed for

intro-ductory courses in chemistry for students interested in further study in science, whether that science is chemis-

What’s New in This Edition

1 All Example problems in the book

illus-trate a NEW approach to problem

solv-ing Each Example problem is broken

down into the following categories:

Problem, What Do You Know?, Strategy,

Solution, Think About Your Answer, and

Check Your Understanding The “Check

Your Understanding” questions are

largely a revision of the Exercises from

previous editions Being included in the

Example format should make them a

more useful tool.

2 NEW Interactive Examples in OWL allow

students to work approximately 70

exam-ples from the book multiple times in

slightly different versions to encourage

thinking their way through the example

instead of passively reading through to

the solution.

3 At the end of almost every section

in a chapter there are NEW multiple

choice Review & Check questions These

are meant to be done in a few minutes to

check the understanding of the section

In the Cengage YouBook these questions

are interactive quizzes with feedback

(These questions could also be used in

class by instructors to assess student

understanding through electronic

stu-dent response systems.)

4. Strategy Maps are a NEW feature of

this edition There are approximately

60 maps accompanying Example

prob-lems throughout the book These are

visual representations of the pathways to

solving problems

5 Except for Chapter 1, each chapter has

NEW extended Study Questions

called Applying Chemical Principles

These help students apply principles

learned across several chapters to

real-world problems Topics include the

dis-covery of the noble gases, the

discov-ery of elements on the sun, antacids,

gunpowder, the rare earth elements,

dating meteorites, and lighter-than-air

ships.

6 There are 2210 end-of-chapter Study Questions in the book in addition to the

Check Your Understanding, Review &

Check, and Applying Chemical Principles questions Over 1900 of these questions are available in OWL, more than double the number of questions available in OWL in the previous edition

7 Another NEW feature is a discussion of

the Principles of Green Chemistry are

noted in Chapter 1 This is followed by 10 articles on green chemistry throughout the book See, for example, an explanation

of atom economy (page 168), the synthesis

of ibuprofen (page 385), and lithium and green cars (page 586) The development

of this NEW feature was assisted by fessor Michael Cann of the University of Scranton, a green chemistry authority

Pro-8 This edition of the book is also available

as a Cengage YouBook, a digital textbook

This includes all the same content as the print book, but it also has clickable videos, animations, Guided Tours of figures with

tutorials, three-dimensional molecular models, and quick quiz Review & Check questions Those who choose the Cengage

YouBook will also have access to strategy

maps with audio/video explanations done

by one of the authors or by Salman Khan, who has published hundreds of video tutorials on the Internet in many areas of science.

9 The Interchapters on energy,

biochemis-try, materials chemisbiochemis-try, and the ment have been revised to bring them up

environ-to date with the latest developments.

10 There are 10 NEW chapter opening ries See, for example, essays on gold

sto-(page 1), energy and diet sto-(page 208), rubies and sapphires (page 300), choco- late (page 438), and green cars (page 582)

11 A total of 17 NEW Case Studies have

been added These include the story of Ötzi, the Iceman of the Alps (page 58);

free radicals and hair dye (page 363);

methane hydrates and the Gulf of Mexico oil spill (page 538); a pet food catastrophe (page 565); and exploding lakes and Diet Cokes (page 629)

12 Reorganization/addition/revision of material:

• A short introduction to energy has been moved from Chapter 5 to Chapter 1, and the units used in ther- mochemistry are introduced in the

Let’s Review portion of Chapter 1 This

will assist instructors who wish to use this book in an “atoms-first” approach.

• The material on metallic bonding and semiconductors has been moved from the materials interchapter into the chapter on solid-state chemistry (Chapter 13)

• A short discussion on activities has been added to the equilibrium chapter (Chapter 16)

• Many of the illustrations have been updated and/or redone.

• New Study Questions have been added to a number of the chapters.

General Strategy Map

Data/Information:

What do you know?

Solution: Execute the plan.

Sequence of operations needed to solve this problem.

Answer: Is your answer

reasonable and in the correct units?

Strategy: Develop a plan.

State the Problem:

Read the problem carefully.

Preface

try, biology, engineering, geology, physics, or related

sub-jects Our assumption is that students beginning this

course have had some preparation in algebra and in

gen-eral science Although undeniably helpful, a previous

exposure to chemistry is neither assumed nor required

Philosophy and Approach of the Chemistry

& Chemical Reactivity Program

We have had several major, but not independent,

objec-tives since the first edition of the book The first was

to write a book that students would enjoy reading and

that would offer, at a reasonable

level of rigor, chemistry and

chemi-cal principles in a format and

orga-nization typical of college and

uni-versity courses today Second, we

wanted to convey the utility and

im-portance of chemistry by

introduc-ing the properties of the elements,

their compounds, and their

reac-tions as early as possible and by

fo-cusing the discussion as much as

possible on these subjects Finally,

with the Go Chemistry modules and

complete integration of OWL, we

have incorporated electronic tools

to bring students to a higher level

of conceptual understanding

The American Chemical Society has been urging cators to put “chemistry” back into introductory chemis-

edu-try courses We agree wholeheartedly Therefore, we have

tried to describe the elements, their compounds, and

their reactions as early and as often as possible by:

• Bringing material on the properties of elements and

compounds as early as possible into the Examples

and Study Questions (and especially the Applying

Chemical Principles questions) and to introduce new

principles using realistic chemical situations

• Using numerous color photographs of the elements

and common compounds, of chemical reactions, and

of common laboratory operations and industrial processes

• Introducing each chapter with a problem in practical

chemistry—for example, a short discussion of the

en-ergy in common foods or the source of lithium in car batteries—that is relevant to the chapter

• Using numerous Case Studies and introducing new

Ap-plying Chemical Principles study questions that delve into practical chemistry

General Organization of the Book

Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity has two broad themes:

Chemical Reactivity and Bonding and Molecular Structure

The chapters on Principles of Reactivity introduce the

fac-tors that lead chemical reactions to be successful in verting reactants to products Under this topic there is

con-a discussion of common types of recon-actions, the energy involved in reactions, and the factors that affect the speed of a reaction One reason for the enormous ad-vances in chemistry and molecular biology in the last several decades has been an understanding of molecular

structure Therefore, sections of the book on Principles

of Bonding and Molecular Structure lay the groundwork for

understanding these developments Particular attention

is paid to an understanding of the structural aspects of such biologically important molecules as DNA

Flexibility of Chapter Organization

A glance at the introductory istry texts currently available shows that there is a generally common order of topics used by educators With only minor variations, we have followed that order That is not to say that the chapters in our book cannot be used in some other order

chem-We have written this book to be as flexible as possible An example is

the flexibility of covering the

behav-ior of gases (Chapter 11) It has

been placed with chapters on uids, solids, and solutions (Chapters 12–14) because it logically fits with those topics However, it can easily be read and understood after covering only the first four chapters of the book

liq-Similarly, chapters on atomic and molecular structure

(Chapters 6–9) could be used in an atoms-first approach

before the chapters on stoichiometry and common tions (Chapters 3 and 4) To facilitate this, we have moved

reac-an introduction to energy reac-and its units to Chapter 1

Also, the chapters on chemical equilibria (Chapters 16–18) can be covered before those on solutions and kinetics (Chapters 14 and 15)

Organic chemistry (Chapter 10) is often left to one

of the final chapters in chemistry textbooks However,

we believe the importance of organic compounds in biochemistry and in consumer products means that ma-terial should be presented earlier in the sequence of chapters Therefore, it follows the chapters on structure and bonding because organic chemistry illustrates the application of models of chemical bonding and mo-lecular structure However, one can use the remainder

of the book without including this chapter

The order of topics in the text was also devised to introduce as early as possible the background required for the laboratory experiments usually performed in introductory chemistry courses For this reason, chap-ters on chemical and physical properties, common re-action types, and stoichiometry begin the book In ad-

Flame colors by salts of boron, sodium, and strontium.

dition, because an understanding

of energy is so important in the

study of chemistry, energy and

its units are introduced in

Chap-ter 1 and thermochemistry is

introduced in Chapter 5

Interchapters

In addition to the regular

chap-ters, uses and applications of

chemistry are described in more

detail in supplemental chapters

on The Chemistry of Fuels and

Energy Sources; Milestones in the Development of Chemistry

and the Modern View of Atoms and Molecules; The Chemistry

of Life: Biochemistry; The Chemistry of Modern Materials; and

The Chemistry of the Environment.

Organization and Purposes

of the Sections of the Book

Part One: The Basic Tools of Chemistry

The basic ideas and methods that are the basis of all

chemistry are introduced in Part One Chapter 1

de-fines important terms, and the accompanying Let’s

Review section reviews units and mathematical

meth-ods Chapter 2 introduces atoms, molecules, and ions,

and the most important organizational device in

chem-istry, the periodic table In Chapters 3 and 4 we begin

to discuss the principles of chemical reactivity and to

introduce the numerical methods used by chemists to

extract quantitative information from chemical

reac-tions Chapter 5 is an introduction to the energy

in-volved in chemical processes The supplemental

chap-ter The Chemistry of Fuels and Energy Sources follows

Chapter 5 and uses the concepts developed in the

pre-ceding chapters

Part Two: The Structure of Atoms and Molecules

The goal of this section is to outline the current theories

of the arrangement of electrons in atoms (Chapters 6

and 7) This discussion is tied closely to the arrangement

of elements in the periodic table and to periodic

prop-erties In Chapter 8 we discuss the details of chemical

bonding and the properties of these bonds In addition,

we show how to derive the three-dimensional structure

of simple molecules Finally, Chapter 9 considers the

major theories of chemical bonding in more detail

This part of the book is completed with a discussion

of organic chemistry (Chapter 10), primarily from a

structural point of view

This section includes the interchapter on Milestones

in the Development of Chemistry and the Modern View of

Atoms and Molecules It also includes The Chemistry of

Life: Biochemistry to provide an overview of some of the

most important aspects of chemistry

bio-Part Three: States of Matter

The behavior of the three states

of matter—gases, liquids, and solids—is described in Chapters 11–13 The discussion of liquids and solids is tied to gases through the description of intermolecu-lar forces in Chapter 12, with particular attention given to liq-uid and solid water In Chapter

14 we describe the properties of solutions, intimate mixtures of gases, liquids, and solids

Designing and making new materials with useful properties is one of the most exciting areas of modern chemistry Therefore, this section includes the inter-

chapter The Chemistry of Modern Materials

Part Four: The Control of Chemical Reactions

This section is wholly concerned with the Principles of

Reactivity Chapter 15 examines the rates of chemical

processes and the factors controlling these rates Next,

we move to Chapters 16–18, which describe chemical reactions at equilibrium After an introduction to equi-librium in Chapter 16, we highlight the reactions involv-ing acids and bases in water (Chapters 17 and 18) and reactions leading to slightly soluble salts (Chapter 18)

To tie together the discussion of chemical equilibria,

we again explore thermodynamics in Chapter 19 As a final topic in this section we describe in Chapter 20 chemical reactions involving the transfer of electrons and the use of these reactions in electrochemical cells

The Chemistry of the Environment supplemental chapter

is at the end of Part Four This chapter uses ideas from kinetics and chemical equilibria, in particular, as well as principles described in earlier chapters in the book

Part Five: The Chemistry of the Elements and Their Compounds

Although the chemistry of the various elements is scribed throughout the book, Part Five considers this topic in a more systematic way Chapter 21 is devoted

de-to the chemistry of the main group elements, whereas Chapter 22 is a discussion of the transition elements and their compounds Finally, Chapter 23 is a brief discussion of nuclear chemistry

Features of the Book

Several years ago a student of one of the authors, now

an accountant, shared an interesting perspective with

us He said that, while general chemistry was one of his hardest subjects, it was also the most useful course he

Crystals of fluorite, CaF 2

Preface

had taken because it taught him how to solve problems

We were gratified by this perspective We have always

thought that, for many students, an important goal in

general chemistry was not only to teach students

chem-istry but also to help them learn critical thinking and

problem-solving skills Many of the features of the book

are meant to support those goals

Problem-Solving Approach: Organization

and Strategy Maps

Worked-out examples are an essential part of each

chap-ter To better assist students in following the logic of a

solution, these problems are now organized around the

following outline:

Problem

This is the statement of the problem

What Do You KnoW?

You outline what information you have and begin

to think about a solution

math-thinK about Your anSWer

You ask if the answer is reasonable or what it means

CheCK Your unDerStanDing

This is a similar problem for you to try Solutions

to the problems are in Appendix O

For many problems,

a strategy map can be a

useful tool in solving

the problem For

exam-ple, on pages 42–44, we

ask how thick the oil

layer would be if you

spread a given mass of

oil on the surface of

wa-ter in a dish The

den-sity of the oil is also

given To help see the

logic of the problem,

the Example is

accom-panied by the strategy

map given here

There are mately 60 strategy maps

approxi-in the book

accompany-ing Example problems

Many of the strategy

maps in the Cengage

YouBook digital textbook

In the Cengage YouBook digital textbook the questions

are clickable so you can quickly check to see if you know the correct answer

Chapter Goals/Revisited

The learning goals for each chapter are listed on the first page of each chapter and then are revisited on the last page There the revisited goals are given in more detail These goals are of great use in studying Students can go through the goals and ask themselves if they have met each one Furthermore, specific end-of-chapter Study Questions are listed that help students determine

if they have met those goals

End-of-Chapter Study Questions

There are 50 to over 100 Study Questions for each ter They are grouped as follows:

Summary and Conceptual Questions

These questions use concepts from the current chapter as well as preceding chapters

Applying Chemical Principles

These questions are preceded by a short tion giving the background necessary to address the problem

descrip-Study Questions have been available in the OWL Online Web Learning system for the last two editions

In this edition, we have more than doubled the number available The OWL system now has over 1900 of the roughly 2200 Study Questions in the book

Finally, note that some questions are marked with a

more challenging than other questions

Boxed Essays

As in the seventh edition, we continue to include boxed

essays titled A Closer Look (for a more in-depth look at relevant material), and Problem Solving Tips We have

Strategy Map for Example 5

D A T A / I N F O R M A T I O N

Mass and density of the oil and diameter of the circular surface

to be covered.

Calculate the volume

of oil from mass and density.

Divide the oil volume

by the surface area to

calculate the thickness in cm.

Thickness of oil layer in cm.

Area to be covered in cm 2

Volume of oil in cm 3

Calculate the surface area from the diameter.

How thick will an oil layer be when

a given mass covers a given area?

P R O B L E M

added or revised a number of the Case Studies, some of

which deal with “green” or sustainable chemistry

The Cengage YouBook is an interactive digital version of

the complete book and retains the paging integrity of

the printed textbook Either the digital version or the

printed version of the book can be used in class

The Cengage YouBook has clickable videos of

reac-tions, Guided Tours of book figures, three-dimensional

molecular models, searchable databases of chemical

in-formation, and the end-of-section Review & Check

ques-tions have clickable answers

A unique feature of the Cengage YouBook is the audio

versions of the strategy maps For many of the maps in

the book, one of the book authors will give a step-by-step

audio explanation of the Example problem and explain

some of the details of the strategy and solution

Some of the audio strategy maps have been done by

Salman Khan, who has recently been recognized around

the world for his online tutorials, not only in chemistry

but also in biology, linear algebra, geometry, trigonometry,

statistics, pre-calculus, economics, money and banking,

finance, and others The web address for these tutorials is

www.khanacademy.org

All of Khan’s tutorials are free and are on YouTube The

Cengage YouBook will link to those videos that Mr Khan

has done specifically for Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity

However, students should also explore all of the others

for chemistry and for other areas of interest

Changes for the Eighth Edition

Significant additions to the book, such as a new

problem-solving format, strategy maps, essays on green chemistry,

and Applying Chemical Principles problems, have been

out-lined in the section on “What’s New.” In addition, we

have produced many new photos and new illustrations

and have continually tried to improve the writing

throughout The following chapter-by-chapter listing

in-dicates more specific changes from the seventh edition

of the book to this edition

Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Chemistry

• New opening story: Gold!

• New opening section: we now outline the forensic

investigation of the Iceman of the Alps

• New Closer Look: Careers in Chemistry Features a

for-mer student who is now a forensic chemist

• New Section 1.2, Sustainability and Green Chemistry

Green chemistry is a theme used throughout the book

• New Closer Look: Principles of Green Chemistry.

• New Closer Look: Element Names and Symbols.

• New Section 1.8: Energy: Some Basic Principles

In-troduction to energy moved into this chapter from

Chapter 5

• Twelve new or revised Study Questions (out of 46)

Let’s Review: The Tools of Quantitative Chemistry

• New: Energy units introduced (This was in Chapter

5 in the seventh edition.)

• Strategy maps introduced into the book for the first time

• Six new or revised Study Questions (out of 67)

Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

• New Case Study: Using Isotopes: Ötzi, the Iceman of

the Alps

• New Case Study: Mummies, Bangladesh, and the

Formula of Compound 606

• Fourteen new Study Questions (out of 165)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Argon—An Amazing

Discovery

Chapter 3 Chemical Reactions

• New figure (Figure 3.9) to predict the species present

in aqueous solution

• Updated Closer Look: Sulfuric Acid.

• Twelve new Study Questions (out of 93)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Superconductors.

Chapter 4 Stoichiometry: Quantitative Information about Chemical Reactions

• New opening story: The Chemistry of Pyrotechnics

• New Case Study: Green Chemistry and Atom Economy

• Three new Study Questions (out of 139)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Antacids.

Chapter 5 Principles of Chemical Reactivity:

Energy and Chemical Reactions

• New opening story: Energy and Your Diet

• Section on basic principles of heat (pp 209–211 in seventh edition) moved to Chapter 1 Let’s Review

• Ten new Study Questions (out of 110)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Gunpowder.

Salman Khan of the Khan Academy.

Preface

• New Case Study: Ibuprofen, A Study in Green

Chemistry

• Eleven new or revised Study Questions (out of 96)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Linus Pauling and

Electronegativity

Chapter 9 Bonding and Molecular Structure:

Orbital Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals

• Updated discussion of molecular orbital theory

• New Case Study: Green Chemistry, Safe Dyes, and

Molecular Orbitals

• New Closer Look: Three-Center Bonds and Hybrid Orbitals with d Orbitals.

• Thirteen new or revised Study Questions (out of 80)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Probing Molecules with

Photoelectron Spectroscopy

Chapter 10 Carbon: Not Just Another Element

• New opening story: The Food of the Gods

• New Case Study: An Awakening with L-DOPA.

• New Closer Look: Copolymers and Engineering Plastics

for Lego Bricks and Tattoos

• New Closer Look: Green Chemistry: Recycling PET.

• New Case Study: Green Adhesives.

• Deleted boxed essays on fats and oils, biofuels, dyes, and “super diapers,” but some information on fats and oils was incorporated into the biochemistry in-terchapter

• Fifteen new or revised Study Questions (out of 109)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Biodiesel—An Attractive

Fuel for the Future?

Chapter 6 The Structure of Atoms

• New opening story: Fireworks

• Boxed essay on orbitals rewritten and slightly

ex-panded

• Section on introduction to wave mechanics rewritten

• Three new Study Questions (out of 84)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Chemistry of the Sun.

Chapter 7 The Structure of Atoms and Periodic Trends

• New opening story: Rubies and Sapphires—Pretty

Stones

• Rewritten discussion of effective nuclear charge with

new figures

• Expanded discussion of configurations of transition

metal electron configurations, especially Cr and Cu

• New Closer Look: Orbital Energies, Z *, and Electron

Configurations

• Clarified relation of electron attachment enthalpy

and electron affinity

• Applying Chemical Principles: The Not-So-Rare Earths.

Chapter 8 Bonding and Molecular Structure

• New Closer Look: A Scientific Controversy—Are There

Double Bonds in Sulfate and Phosphate Ions?

• New Case Study: Hydroxyl Radicals, Atmospheric

Chemistry, and Hair Dyes

• Electrostatic potential maps were introduced in the

seventh edition We have slightly enlarged the use of these figures for this edition and are using the indus-try standard software to create them

A device used to ignite gas burners Depends on rare earth elements.

White phosphorus.

• Applying Chemical Principles: The Leveling Effect,

Nonaqueous Solvents, and Superacids

Chapter 18 Principles of Chemical Reactivity:

Other Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria

Chapter 19 Principles of Chemical Reactivity:

Entropy and Free Energy

• New opening story: Hydrogen for the Future?

• Given the key role of thermodynamics in chemistry, this chapter was carefully revised Sections on free energy were reorganized

• Three modified or new Study Questions (out of 84)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Are Diamonds Forever?

Chapter 20 Principles of Chemical Reactivity:

Electron Transfer Reactions

• New opening story: Battery Power

• Problem Solving Tip on balancing equations for reac­

tions in basic solution was revised

• Fourteen new Study Questions (out of 103)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Sacrifice!

Chapter 21 The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements

• Six new Study Questions (out of 106)

• Applying Chemical Principles: van Arkel Triangles and

Bonding

Chapter 22 The Chemistry of the Transition Elements

• Applying Chemical Principles: Green Catalysts.

Chapter 23 Nuclear Chemistry

• The Closer Look: The Search for New Elements was

updated with the newest discoveries

• Study Questions were reorganized

• Applying Chemical Principles: The Age of Meteorites.

Chapter 11 Gases and Their Properties

• New Closer Look: SCuBA Diving—An Application of

the Gas Laws

More on Green Chemistry

• Six new or rewritten Study Questions (out of 108)

• Applying Chemical Principles: The Goodyear Blimp.

Chapter 12 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids

• Applying Chemical Principles: Chromatography.

Chapter 13 The Chemistry of Solids

• Applying Chemical Principles: Tin Disease.

Chapter 14 Solutions and Their Behavior

• New opening story: Survival at Sea

• New Case Study: Exploding Lakes and Diet Cokes.

• New Closer Look: Reverse Osmosis for Pure Water.

• Four new or rewritten Study Questions (out of 106)

• Applying Chemical Principles: Distillation.

Chapter 15 Chemical Kinetics: The Rates

• Applying Chemical Principles: Trivalent Carbon.

Chapter 17 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: The

Chemistry of Acids and Bases

• New Case Study: Would You Like Some Belladonna

Samples of cobalt metal.

• Quick Prep review courses that help students learn

essential skills to succeed in General and Organic Chemistry

• Jmol molecular visualization program for rotating

molecules and measuring bond distances and angles

that students can play on their computers or load to their video iPods, smart phones, or personal video players

down-• For this text, OWL includes How Do I Solve It problem-solving exercises, new Interactive Example

assignments, as well as parameterized end-of-chapter

questions and Student Self Assessment questions

In addition, when you become an OWL user, you can expect service that goes far beyond the ordinary For more information or to see a demo, please contact your Cengage Learning representative or visit us at

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Supporting instructor materials are available to fied adopters Please consult your local Cengage Learning, Brooks/Cole representative for details Visit

the Instructor’s Companion Site, where you can

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• Request a sample copy

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• Download digital files of the ExamView test bank

and other helpful materials for instructors and students

PowerLecture Instructor’s CD/DVD Package with JoinIn® and ExamView®

ISBN-10: 1-111-42719-4; ISBN-13: 978-1-111-42719-1

This digital library and presentation tool that includes:

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instruc-tor text edit feature allows for modification of the narrative

by adding notes, re-ordering entire sections and chapters,

and hiding content Additional assets include animated

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Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity, Eighth

Edition, Hybrid Version with OWL

ISBN-10: 1-111-57498-7; ISBN-13: 978-111-57498-7

This briefer version of Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity

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can be assigned in OWL Access to OWL and the

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can quickly re-order entire sections and chapters or hide

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perfectly matches their syllabus Instructors can further

customize the Cengage YouBook by publishing web links

Additional media assets include animated figures, video

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Developed by chemistry instructors for teaching chemistry, OWL is the only system specifically designed

to support mastery learning, where students work as long

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OWL has already helped hundreds of thousands of

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Quick Prep is a self-paced online short course that helps students succeed in general chemistry Students who completed Quick Prep through an organized class

or self-study averaged almost a full letter grade higher

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Manual and ExamView test bank.

• Sample chapters from the Student Solutions Manual

and Study Guide.

• ExamView testing software that enables you to create,

deliver, and customize tests using the more than 1250

test bank questions written specifically for this text by

David Treichel, Nebraska Wesleyan University

• JoinIn student response (clicker) questions written

for this book for use with the classroom response

sys-tem of the instructor’s choice

Instructor’s Companion Site

access the Instructor’s Companion site, which has

re-sources such as a Blackboard version of ExamView

Instructor’s Resource Manual

by John Vincent, The University of Alabama

ISBN-10: 1-111-42697-X; ISBN-13: 978-1-111-42697-2

Available both on the PowerLecture Instructor’s Resource

DVD and in print, this comprehensive resource

con-tains worked-out solutions to all end-of-chapter Study

Questions and features ideas for instructors on how to

fully utilize resources and technology in their courses

It provides questions for electronic response (clicker)

systems, suggests classroom demonstrations, and

em-phasizes good and innovative teaching practices

Transparencies

ISBN-10: 1-111-57489-8; ISBN-13: 978-1-111-57489-5

A collection of 150 full-color transparencies of key images

selected from the text by the authors The PowerLecture

Instructor’s Resource DVD also gives instructors access

to all text art and many photos to help in preparing

transparencies for material not present in this set

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including those listed below Search by ISBN using the list

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This site includes a glossary, flashcards, an interactive

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to succeed in general chemistry Each chapter focuses

on a specific type of skill and has worked-out examples

to show how these skills translate to chemical problem solving The book includes references to the OWL learning system where you can access online algebra skills exercises

Survival Guide for General Chemistry with Math Review, Second Edition

by Charles H Atwood, University of Georgia

ISBN-10: 0-495-38751-7; ISBN-13: 978-0-495-38751-0

Intended to help you practice for exams, this survival guide shows you how to solve difficult problems by dis-secting them into manageable chunks The guide in-cludes three levels of proficiency questions—A, B, and minimal—to quickly build confidence as you master the knowledge you need to succeed in your course

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Student Solutions Manual

by Alton J Banks, North Carolina State University

ISBN-10: 1-111-42698-8; ISBN-13: 978-1-111-42698-9

Improve your performance at exam time with this

man-ual’s detailed solutions to the blue-numbered

end-of-chapter Study Questions found in the text This

com-prehensive guide helps you develop a deeper intuitive

understanding of chapter material through constant

re-inforcement and practice Solutions match the

problem-solving strategies used in the text Sample chapters are

available for review on the PowerLecture Instructor’s

DVD and on the student companion website, which is

Study Guide

by Michael J Moran and John R Townsend, West Chester

University of Pennsylvania

ISBN-10: 1-111-42699-6; ISBN-13: 978-1-111-42699-6

With learning tools explicitly linked to the Chapter Goals

introduced in each chapter, this guide helps ensure that

you are well prepared for class and exams It includes

chapter overviews, key terms and definitions, expanded

commentary, study tips, worked-out examples, and direct

references back to the text Sample chapters are available

for review on the student companion website, which is

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Our team at Brooks/Cole is completed with Teresa Trego, Production Manager; Lisa Weber and Stephanie VanCamp, Media Editors; Julie Stefani, Marketing Coordinator; and Elizabeth Woods, Assistant Editor

Schedules are very demanding in textbook publishing, and Teresa has helped to keep us on schedule We cer­

tainly appreciate her organizational skills Lisa was in­

volved in the development of the Go Chemistry mod­

of the Bill Smith Studio directed the photo research for the book and was successful in filling our sometimes offbeat requests for particular photos

Photography, Art, and Design

Most of the color photographs for this edition were beau­

tifully created by Charles D Winters He produced several dozen new images for this book, always with a creative eye Charlie’s work gets better with each edition We have worked with Charlie for more than 20 years and have become close friends We listen to his jokes, both new and old—and always forget them

When the fifth edition was being planned, we brought

in Patrick Harman as a member of the team Pat de­

signed the first edition of our Interactive General Chemistry

CD (published in the 1990s), and we believe its success

is in no small way connected to his design skill For the fifth, sixth, and seventh editions of the book, Pat went over almost every figure, and almost every word,

to bring a fresh perspective to ways to communicate chemistry Once again he has worked on designing and producing new illustrations for this edition, and his creativity is obvious in their clarity In addition, he has been an enormous help in designing and producing

media for the YouBook Pat has also become a good

friend, and we share interests not only in books but in music

Preparing this new edition of Chemistry & Chemical

istry, physics, and astronomy The success of this book

in its various editions owes much to John It may not

have become a reality without his confidence that it

in-• Jeffrey J Keaffaber (University of Florida) wrote the

Case Study A Healthy Aquarium and the Nitrogen Cycle

in Chapter 21

• Eric Scerri (University of California, Los Angeles)

wrote the A Closer Look: The Story of the Periodic Table

in Chapter 2

Reviewers for the Eighth Edition

As we began to develop the new edition we had helpful input from the following reviewers:

• Gerald M Korenowski, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

• Robert LaDuca, Michigan State University

• Jeffrey Mack, California State University, Sacramento

• Armando Rivera, East Los Angeles College

• Daniel Williams, Kennesaw State University

• Steven Wood, Brigham Young University

• Roger A Hinrichs, Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, reviewed the energy interchapter

• Leonard Interrante, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, reviewed the materials interchapter

• Trudy E Thomas-Smith, SUNY College at Oneonta, reviewed the environment interchapter

• John Vincent, The University of Alabama, reviewed the environment interchapter

Advisory Board for the Eighth Edition

As the new edition was being planned, this board tened to some of our ideas and made other suggestions

lis-We hope to continue our association with these getic and creative chemical educators

ener-• Donnie Byers, Johnson County Community College

• Elizabeth Dorland, Washington University of St Louis

• Michael Finnegan, Washington State University

• Greg Gellene, Texas Tech University

• Milton Johnson, University of South Florida

• Jeffrey Mack, California State University, Sacramento

• Sara McIntosh, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

• MaryKay Orgill, University of Nevada, Las Vegas

• Don Siegel, Rutgers University

• Eric Simanek, Texas A&M University

Other Collaborators

We have been fortunate to have a number of other

colleagues who have played valuable roles in this

project

• Bill Vining (State University of New York, Oneonta)

was a co-author of the Interactive GeneralChemistry CD

and has authored many of the media assets in OWL

He has been a friend for many years and recently took the place of one of the authors on the faculty

at SUNY–Oneonta Bill has again applied his erable energy and creativity in preparing many more OWL questions with tutorials and some of the assets

consid-in the Cengage YouBook

• Barbara Stewart (University of Maine) authored the

new Interactive Examples in OWL

• Alton Banks (North Carolina State University) has also

been involved for a number of editions preparing the

Student Solutions Manual Alton has been very helpful

in ensuring the accuracy of the Study Question answers

in the book, as well as in their respective manuals

• Michael Moran (West Chester University) has again

updated and revised the Study Guide for this text Our

textbook has had a history of excellent study guides, and this manual follows that tradition

• Jay Freedman was the development editor for the first

edition of the book and played an important role in its success For several editions of the book Jay has also done a masterful job compiling the index/glos-sary for this edition

• Donnie Byers (Johnson County Community College)

has been a long-time user of the book and a member

of our Advisory Board For this edition she nated the revisions of the end-of-chapter changes for the international edition

coordi-• David Treichel (Nebraska Wesleyan University) wrote

the Applying Chemical Principles problems, did the

ac-curacy review, and developed the test bank

• John Vincent (The University of Alabama–Tuscaloosa)

wrote the Instructor’s Resource Manual, did several

re-views, and did an accuracy review

• Barbara Mowrey, York College of Pennsylvania, also

was an accuracy reviewer of the page proofs

• Michael C Cann (University of Scranton) helped

identify ways in which green chemistry content could

be incorporated

• Salman Khan worked with us on developing audio/

video tutorials of some of the book’s Example lems He is making significant contributions to edu-cation in the United States and elsewhere See his

list of free tutorials he has done in all fields of

Reviewers for the Seventh Edition

• Gerald M Korenowski, Rensselaer Polytechnic

Institute

• Robert L LaDuca, Michigan State University

• Jeffrey Alan Mack, California State University,

Sacramento

• Armando M Rivera-Figueroa, East Los Angeles

College

• Daniel J Williams, Kennesaw State University

• Steven G Wood, Brigham Young University

• Roger A Hinrichs, Weill Cornell Medical College

in Qatar (reviewed the Energy interchapter)

• Leonard Fine, Columbia University (reviewed the

Materials interchapter)

Advisory Board for the Seventh Edition

As the seventh edition was being planned, this board listened to some of our ideas and made other sugges-tions We hope to continue our association with these energetic and creative chemical educators

• Donnie Byers, Johnson County Community College

• Sharon Fetzer Gislason, University of Illinois, Chicago

• Adrian George, University of Nebraska

• George Grant, Tidewater Community College, ginia Beach Campus

Vir-• Michael Hampton, University of Central Florida

• Milton Johnston, University of South Florida

• Jeffrey Alan Mack, California State University, Sacramento

• William Broderick, Montana State University

• Shane Street, University of Alabama

• Martin Valla, University of Florida

John C Kotz, a State University of

New York Distinguished Teaching

Professor, Emeritus, at the College

at Oneonta, was educated at

Washington and Lee University

and Cornell University He held

National Institutes of Health

post-doctoral appointments at the

University of Manchester Institute

for Science and Technology in

England and at Indiana University

He has coauthored three

text-books in several editions (Inorganic

Chemistry, Chemistry & Chemical

Reactivity, and The Chemical World) and the General

ChemistryNow CD His research in inorganic chemistry

and electrochemistry also has been published He was

a Fulbright Lecturer and Research Scholar in Portugal

in 1979 and a Visiting Professor there in 1992 He was

also a Visiting Professor at the Institute for Chemical

Education (University of Wisconsin, 1991–1992), at

Auckland University in New Zealand (1999), and at

Potchefstroom University in South Africa in 2006 He

has been an invited speaker on chemical education at

conferences in South Africa, New Zealand, and Brazil

He also served four years as a mentor for the U.S

National Chemistry Olympiad Team He has received

several awards, among them a State University of New

York Chancellor’s Award (1979), a National Catalyst

Award for Excellence in Teaching (1992), the Estee

Lecturership at the University of South Dakota (1998),

the Visiting Scientist Award from the Western

Connecticut Section of the American Chemical Society

(1999), the Distinguished Education Award from the

Binghamton (NY) Section of the American Chemical

Society (2001), the SUNY Award for Research and

Scholarship (2005), and the Squibb Lectureship in

Chemistry at the University of North Carolina-Asheville

(2007) He may be contacted by email at kotzjc@

oneonta.edu

Paul M Treichel, received his B.S degree from the University of Wisconsin in 1958 and a Ph.D from Harvard University in 1962 After a year of postdoctoral study

in London, he assumed a faculty position at the University of Wisconsin–Madison He served

as department chair from 1986 through 1995 and was awarded a Helfaer Professorship in 1996 He has held visiting faculty positions in South Africa (1975) and in Japan (1995) Retiring after 44 years as a faculty member in 2007, he is currently Emeritus Professor

of Chemistry During his faculty career he taught courses

in general chemistry, inorganic chemistry, organometallic chemistry, and scientific ethics Professor Treichel’s re-search in organometallic and metal cluster chemistry and

in mass spectrometry, aided by 75 graduate and graduate students, has led to more than 170 papers in scientific journals He may be contacted by email at treichel@chem.wisc.edu

under-John R Townsend, Professor of Chemistry at West Chester University of Pennsylvania, completed his B.A in Chemistry as well as the Approved Program for Teacher Certification in Chemistry at the University of Delaware After a career teaching high school science and mathe-matics, he earned his M.S and Ph.D in biophysical chemistry at Cornell University, where he also received the DuPont Teaching Award for his work as a teaching assistant After teaching at Bloomsburg University, he joined the faculty at West Chester University, where he coordinates the chemistry education program for pro-spective high school teachers and the general chemistry lecture program for science majors He has been the university supervisor for more than 50 prospective high school chemistry teachers during their student teaching semester His research interests are in the fields of chem-ical education and biochemistry He may be contacted

by email at jtownsend@wcupa.edu

about the authors

Left to right: Paul Treichel, John Townsend, and John Kotz.

“Save Our Earth, Let’s Go

Green,” is from the research

of Professor Joanna Aizenberg,

Boaz Pokroy, and Sung Hoon Kang

Professor Aizenberg holds a joint

appointment at Harvard University

in the Department of Chemistry

and Chemical Biology and the

De-partment of Materials Science This

electron microscope photograph,

showing hairlike fibers of epoxy

resin assembling around a 2-µm

place winner in the 2009

Interna-tional Science and Engineering

Vi-sualization Challenge sponsored by

Science magazine

For this study, these scientists

created a regular array of hairlike

epoxy fibers, anchored at one end

to a horizontal base In water and other solvents, these

epoxy pillars stand straight up and do not interact with

each other As the solvent evaporates, however, the fibers

self-organize, clumping together in a helical pattern, a

result of the attractive intermolecular forces in a process

sus-pended in the liquid, the fibers wind around the sphere

pro-cess reversible, which would allow its possible use in drug

release or self-cleaning materials For example, she

bacteria, later to release them so

away

Aizenberg said the image “also brings to mind our collaborative ef-fort to hold up the planet and keep

it running.” The judges in the photo competition liked both the image and the message We also liked this photo because it portrays

a dynamic research area and the importance of chemistry in the broader arena of science

Regarding her research in eral, Aizenberg said “We try to iden-tify biological systems that have unusual structures that are natu-rally optimized to make extremely sophisticated, efficient, and highly potent devices and materials.”

gen-Then the group uses the ing biological design “to fabricate a new generation of self-assembling and adaptive materials based on biolog-ical architectures.”

underly-You will encounter further research of Professor Aizenberg on sea sponges in the Let’s Review section of Chapter 1 See Chapter 10 for more information on the polymers involved, and see Chapter 12 for a discussion

on intermolecular forces The image originally appeared

in Science, 19 February 2010 (Vol 327 no 5968, pp

954–955) The website for Professor Aizenberg’s

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Gold!  Gold has been prized by humans for centuries to

adorn bodies and serve as currency It is extracted from the

earth all over the world, and the oceans are estimated to

con-tain more than 10 million tons Wars have been, and are being,

fought over it, and humans have been enslaved to mine it

Gold is prized not only because it is beautiful, but

be-cause it is unaffected by air, water, alkalis, and acids (except for

aqua regia, a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) These

properties have made gold much valued as jewelry, which in

fact consumes about 75% of the gold on the market But a

large fraction, more than 60 tons a year, is also used in

den-tistry And of course some gold is used in architecture For

ex-ample, the dome of St Isaac’s Cathedral in St Petersburg,

Rus-sia, is covered with 220 pounds of gold in wafer-thin sheets

A few years ago a young chemist in Vienna, Austria

wanted to see just how permanent the gold was in his

wed-ding band The ring was 18-carat gold (which means it was

75% gold and 25% other metals, probably copper and silver)

One week after his wedding day he took off the ring, cleaned

it carefully, and weighed it It had a mass of 5.58387 g He weighed it weekly from then on, and after 1 year it had lost 6.15 mg just from normal wear and tear

He found that the activities that took the greatest toll on the gold were vaca- tioning on a sandy beach and gardening

Even clapping his hands at a rock cert led to the loss of 0.17 mg, greater than the average weekly loss of 0.12 mg

con-He has calculated that if all of the married couples in his city of Vienna lost the same amount of gold from their wedding bands as he did, the loss would amount to about 2.2 kg per year At 2010 gold prices ($1140 per troy ounce; $36 per gram), about $81,000 worth of gold “disappears” in Vienna each year.

2010 price listed, what is the lost gold worth?

2 18-carat gold is 25% copper and silver What are the symbols of those elements?

3 Gold melts at 1064 °C What is that temperature in kelvins?

4 The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm 3 (a) Use one of the periodic tables on the Internet (such

as www.ptable.com) to find out if gold is the most dense of all of the known elements

(b) If a wedding band is 18-carat gold and has a mass

of 5.58 g, what volume of gold is contained within the ring?