Phân tích từ chạy trong ngôn ngữ Viêt, Anh

Aims of the Study The study is aimed at: * Finding the similarities and differences between the verb ‘run’ in English and the verb ‘chạy’ in Vietnamese mainly in terms of MiCA and briefl

has developed and reflected the life in its own way, has been supplemented with many new

words, or new interpretations to the existing words such as ‘chạy điểm’, ‘chạy trường’,

‘chạy án’, ‘chạy thận, ‘chạy sô’, etc.

The verb ‘run’ in English, similarly, is rich in meaning which can be listed some

expressions like ‘run in the race’, ‘run a company’, ‘run a risk’, ‘run a temperature’, ‘run the risk’ etc

How do English people find equivalents for such expressions like ‘chạy tang’, ‘chạy làng’, ‘chạy mả’, etc in their language, and how do Vietnamese people translate such expressions like ‘run guns’, ‘hit and run’, etc? This is the very question that seriously runs

in the author’s mind

Language is widely accepted as the reflection of life By comparing languages, thesimilarities and differences not only between the languages but also between the speakers

of the languages as well as their cultures can be revealed

R.J D Pietro (1971:12), a French educational linguist, believed that CA was founded onthe foreign language teaching experiences Each language has its own phonological,morphological and syntactical features that could present difficulties for language learners

To help overcome specific teaching and learning predicaments, this thesis has been madewith an attempt to create a definite pedagogical value with its presentation of effectiveteaching strategies On these points of departure, the author has conducted the study

entitled “A Contrastive Analysis between the Verb ‘Run’ in English and the Verb

‘Chạy’ in Vietnamese”

2 Aims of the Study

The study is aimed at:

* Finding the similarities and differences between the verb ‘run’ in English and the verb

‘chạy’ in Vietnamese mainly in terms of MiCA and briefly in term of MaCA;

* Providing recommendations for the teaching and learning as well as some tips whentranslating ‘run’ and ‘chạy’ into the target language.

To fully achieve these aims, the study should answer the following questions:

 What are the grammatical and semantic features of each verb and how are theysimilar and different in terms of these features?

 What are their synonyms and idioms?

 What are the implications of the study for EFL teaching/learning and translation?

3 Scope of the Study

This is a minor thesis Consequently, it is unfeasible to discuss both the verbs in terms

of MiCA and MaCA in details Therefore, within this study, the author focuses onanalyzing and contrasting them in terms of MiCA (concerning grammatical and semanticfeatures of the two verbs), and just briefs the similarities and differences between themconcerned with MaCA

The verbs ‘run’ and ‘chạy’ have numerous synonyms and are used in relevant idioms.Thus, after an overview on them is given, some most common ones shall be introduced

4 Methods of the Study

The study has been carried out based on a combination of different methods as follow:

- Document;

- Synthesize and;

- Analyze and contrast;

The procedures of the study are:

- To synthesize meanings of ‘run’ and ‘chạy’ as well as examples to illustrate fromdifferent sources such as from dictionaries, literary works, newspapers, magazines, films,native speakers and websites

- To collect synonyms of each verb as well as idioms in which they are used

- To analyze and contrast each verb in terms of MiCA and MaCA respectively to makeclear the similarities and differences between them

- To suggest how to apply these findings to the language teaching/learning andtranslation

5 Design of the Study

The study consists of three parts organized as follows:

Part I entitled “INTRODUCTION” outlining the background of the study in which abrief account of relevant information such as the rationale, aims, scope, methods anddesign of the study are provided

Part II, the “INVESTIGATION”, is subdivided into two chapters The first Chapter isdiscussed the “THEORETICAL BACKGROUND” which provides necessary and relevanttheoretical concepts for the main contents of the study, covering a series of conceptsranging from CA, contrasts between MiCA and MaCA, verbs in English and inVietnamese, a brief introduction of synonyms, and idioms Chapter 2: “A CONTRASTIVEANALYSIS BETWEEN THE VERB ‘RUN’ IN ENGLISH AND THE VERB ‘CHẠY’ IN

VIETNAMESE” discusses the two verbs in terms of MiCA and MaCA in succession Each

chapter ends with some concluding remarks

Part III, the “CONCLUSION”, which provides recapitulation, implications of the studyfor EFL teaching and learning and to translation from English to Vietnamese and viceversa, and recommendations for further research The “REFERENCES” and “SOURCES

OF THE DATA” mark the end of the thesis

PART II INVESTIGATION

1.1 An Overview on Contrastive Analysis

1.1.1 Definition

The modern foreign language teaching tendency requires the teachers not only to teachtheir learners about the language but also how to use the language To a certain extent, CAwas established to meet that requirement

According to Richards, J.C et al (1992), CA is “the comparison of the linguistic systems

of two languages, for example the sound system or the grammatical system,”

From Carl James’ view (1980:2) CA is “a linguistic enterprise aimed at producing inverted (i.e contrastive, not comparative) two values typologies (a CA is always concerned with a pair of languages), and founded on the assumption that languages can

be compared.”

CA describes similarities and differences among two or more languages at such levels

as phonology, grammar, pragmatics, and semantics According to Carl James (1980), CA

is both a form of pure linguistics and applied linguistics However, CA is only a peripheralenterprise in pure linguistics CA is central concern of applied linguistics So the term CA

we use within this study intends “Applied CA”

1.1.2 CA and Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

Charles Fries (1945:9) wrote: “The most efficient materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of letthe language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner” Robert Lado (1957) thought:

“Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture- both productively and when attempting to speak the language and to act in the culture and receptively when attempting to grasp and understand the language and culture as practiced by natives.” Then Lado made a conclusion that “those elements which are similar to the learner's native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult" Obviously, teachers can make use of CA to minimize the effects

of that interference

Contrastive Analysis is not merely relevant for second language teaching and learningbut it can also make useful contributions to machine translating and linguistics typology It

is relevant to the designing of teaching materials for use in all age groups Le QuangThiem (2004:69) confirmed that CA helps to find out the root of mistakes that languagelearners may make

1.1.3 MiCA versus MaCA

MiCA and MaCA are broad terms, which refer to two major types of linguistics.Microlinguistics refers to phonetics, phonology, grammar and semantics, whereasMacrolinguistics covers sociolinguistics, discourse analysis and other related disciplines

In sociolinguistics, the micro level is often equated with variation and face-to-facecommunication, whereas macro sociolinguistics involves language planning and sociology

of language

In microlinguistics’ view, languages should be analyzed for their own sake and withoutreference to their social function, to the manner in which they are acquired by children, tothe psychological mechanisms that underlie the production and reception of speech, to theliterary and the aesthetic or communicative function of language, and so on For example,

a study of this kind often finds out what the consonant phonemes in languages X and Yare, how they differ in inventory, realization and distribution; what the tense system oflanguage X and Y, etc

The main aim of MiCA is a formal description of the language system based on theinterrelationships and independencies of its elements without any recourse to externalfactors Obviously, the translation situation which involves equivalent messages, that isspeech units or texts, in two different languages is not part of the system of either of theselanguages and can not be studied and described in terms of microlinguistics

Macolinguistics is the term that Yngve (1975) calls ‘broad’ or ‘human’ linguisticsaiming at achieving a scientific understanding of how people communicate or we maydefine macrolinguistics as a field of study concerned with language in its broadest senseand including cultural and behavioral features associated with language

Carl James (1980) suggested that “the communicating individual must be able to identify the situational constraints to which speech events are subjects and produce utterances that conform to them.”

Hymes (1974) identifies six variables which he suggests the ethnographer of speakingmust refer to in characterizing any particular event, they are setting, participants, purpose,key, content, and channel.

Whereas, Carl James (1980:101) simplified these six variables in to “who says what to whom, where and when, how and why”

1.2 A Brief Description of Verbs

In most languages, verbs are part of speech expressing existence, action, or occurrence According to Jack C Richards et al (1992:398), a word is a verb when it satisfies thesefollowing criteria:

- Occurs as part of the predicate of a sentence;

- Caries markers of grammatical categories such as tense, aspect, person, number,and mood; and

- Refers to an action or state

Generally in English, the verb tense shows the time of the action or state; the aspect of averb defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in the described event or state In English,

for example, the past-tense sentences ‘I swam’ and ‘I was swimming’ differ in aspect (the

first sentence is in what is called the perfective or completive aspect, and the second inwhat is called the imperfective or durative aspect); voice is used to show relationshipsbetween the action and the people affected by it; mood is one of a set of distinctive verbforms that are used to signal modality It is distinct from grammatical tense or grammaticalaspect, although these concepts are conflated to some degree in many languages, includingEnglish To some extent, the same word patterns are used to express more than one ofthese concepts at the same time, mood shows the attitude of the speaker about the verbcurrently identified moods include conditional, imperative, indicative, injunctive, optative,potential, subjunctive, and more Verbs can be affected by person and number to showagreement with the subject Some English verblike forms have properties of two parts ofspeech (e.g., participles may be used as adjectives and gerunds as nouns)

On the contrary, verbs in Vietnamese do not have the concord with other parts ofspeech In other words, they are not affected by number, person, gender, mood, voice, and

tense In Vietnamese, “A sentence refers to the basic time of the context—that is the time which has been made clear in the context up to that point." (Thompson 1965:209), in

addition, when functioning as central component of a verb phrase, verb can combine with

other modal auxiliary components before it to indicate scope of the action or activity such

as ‘cũng’, ‘đều’, ‘cứ’, etc to indicate continuation like ‘còn’, ‘vẫn’, etc.; to indicate tense, aspect such as ‘sắp’, ‘đang’, ‘sẽ’, ‘đã’, etc.; to refer to negative meaning, for example:

‘chưa’, ‘không’, ‘chẳng’, etc.; to indicate advice or prohibit such as: ‘hãy’, ‘đừng’, ‘chớ’,

and so on However, as Cao Xuan Hao suggested, such auxiliary components, especially

‘sắp’, ‘đang’, ‘sẽ’, ‘đã’ should be used with great care because in some cases these

auxiliaries do not at all indicate the tense For instances, a soldier reunited with his familyfor five days, and the next day when he had to come back to his military unit His wife said

to him: “Ngày mai anh đã đi rồi à?”, “đã” here does not indicate tense, it just helps to

show regret Obviously, in Vietnamese, context holds the key factor to define tense of theverbs

In each language, there are different ways to classify verbs, however, in this thesis,the classification of which verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive verbs shal beapplied, which would be convenient to compare the two verbs ‘run’ in English and ‘chạy’

in Vietnamese According to Diệp Quang Ban and Hoàng Văn Thung, intransitive verb

does not need a direct object to function, for examples: Dung đang chạy tung tăng trong công viên (Dung is running here and there in the park); Bé Ball ngủ say trong vòng tay mẹ (Little Ball is fast sleeping in her mother’s arms), He is running in a park near by, etc.,

transitive verbs, in contrast, can not stand alone, they need help from other words to

complete their meaning as in: Anh ta đã bán cổ phần của mình cho tôi (He sold me his stocks); Họ soạn thảo lại hợp đồng (They redrafted the contract); Chị ta đang bàn giao sổ sách cho người kế nhiệm (She is handing over the records for the successor); or They ran their own company for years.

In both languages, verbs indicating movement can combine with words of directions.For example: run upstairs; come down; go over; or chạy lên; đi xuống, etc However, in

Vietnamese, there exist directional verbs in their own sense such as: ‘ra’, ‘vào’/‘vô’, ‘lên’,

‘xuống’, ‘qua’, and so on as in:

- “Đường vô xứ Nghệ quanh quanh

Non xanh nước biếc như tranh họa đồ” (Vietnamese proverb)

1.3 Meanings of Meaning

Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible

or imaginary world The theories of meaning and its types can be found in the literature of

Leech (1974), Lyon (1977), (1995), Palmer (1981), and Crystal (1995) There are twotypes of meanings: grammatical meaning and lexical meaning.

According to Lyons (1995:52) a lexeme may have different word-forms which willgenerally differ in their grammatical meaning For example, the forms of ‘teacher’ and

‘teachers’ differ in respect of their grammatical meaning ‘Teacher’ is singular form (of anoun of a particular class), and ‘teachers’ is plural form (of a noun of a particular class);and the difference between singular forms and plural form is semantically relevant: itaffects sentence meaning The meaning of a sentence is determined partly by the meaning

of the words of which it consists and partly by its grammatical meaning

Baker (1992:12) stated that lexical meaning of a word may be viewed as the specificvalue it has in a particular linguistic system It is the most outstanding individual property

of words, and in contrast with grammatical meaning, it can stand on its own

Different types of lexical meaning as recognized by Leech (1974) are:

(1) Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, or denotative content

(2) Associative meaning

- Connotative meaning: What is communicated in terms of what language refers to

- Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use

- Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of thespeaker/writer

- Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association with another sense ofthe same expression

- Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with words whichtend to occur in the environment of another word

(3) Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message isorganized in terms of order and emphasis

Do Huu Chau (1999:111-130) uses the terms ‘ý nghĩa biểu vật’ (denotational meaning)and ‘ý nghĩa biểu niệm’ (connotational meaning) to generalize the meanings of words inVietnamese According to him, entities and phenomenon in the objective world arereflected in the mind as the concepts and reflected in the language as the denotationalmeanings which lead to the relevant connotational meanings

Therefore, to some extent, in terms of lexical meaning, verbs in English and inVietnamese are similar However, they differ in respect of grammatical meaning English

verbs carry two kinds of meanings; meanwhile, Vietnamese verbs themselves do not carrygrammatical meaning such as tense, aspect, etc

1.4 Synonyms

Synonyms are different words with identical or very similar meanings Words that aresynonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is calledsynonymy Synonymy is a kind of sense relation or more specifically, one of thesubstitutional sense relations

Jack C Richards et al (1992:368) defined synonym as a word which has the same ornearly the same meaning as another word It should be noted that two words which aresynonymous must belong to the same part of speech

Lyon (1995:60) divides synonyms into three kinds: absolute synonyms, near synonymsand partial synonyms However, some linguists such as Jack C Richards et al (1992:368),Palmer (1981:88) argue that no two words have exactly the same meaning (denotationaland connotational meanings) Absolute synonyms, according to Lyon (1995:61), mustsatisfy three conditions:

(i) all their meanings are identical;

(ii) they are synonymous in all contexts;

(iii) they are semantically equivalent (i.e their meaning or meanings are identical) on all dimensions

of meaning, descriptive and non-descriptive.

Some lexicographers claim that in English, no synonyms have exactly the samemeaning (in all contexts or social levels of language) because etymology, orthography,phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc make them unique Different words thatare similar in meaning usually differ for a reason: feline is more formal than cat; long andextended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others (for example, a long arm is notthe same as an extended arm) Therefore, in this study, only partial synonyms of “run” aredealt with

However, absolute synonyms can be found in Vietnamese as in: ‘sân bay’ and ‘phitrường’; ‘ti vi’ and ‘máy vô tuyến’, ‘bóng đá’ and ‘túc cầu’, etc

1.5 Idioms

Idioms are widely defined as words collocated together that happen to becomefossilized, becoming fixed over time This collocation words commonly used in a group

and changes the definition of each of the words that exist The collocated words develop aspecialized meaning as a whole and an idiom is born.

An expression is an idiom, described by Jon Wright (1999:7), when it carries thefollowing features:

1 It is fixed and it is recognized by native speakers You cannot make up your own!

2 It uses language in a non-literal-metaphorical-way.

According to Jack C Richards et al (1992:172), idiom is an expression which functions

as a single unit and whose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate parts Thisview is shared by Robins (1989), Palmer (1981), Jackson and Evenla (2000), Seidle

(1978), Jack C Richards et al (1992:172), and Cruse (1986) For example, ‘Still waters run deep’ - the collocation of ‘still’, ‘water’, ‘run’ and ‘deep’ is an idiom meaning

‘something thay you say which means people who say very little often have veryinteresting and complicated personalities’ (suggested Vietnamese equivalent idiom is

‘thẩm lẩm, thầm lầm mà đấm chết voi’ which is not systematically determinable from the

meaning of its constituents

Palmer (1981) states that an idiom is semantically like a word but it does not functionlike a word For example, if an idiom may be inflected, the inflectional affixes are carried

by the grammatical appropriate elements within the idioms whether or not they aresemantic constituents

To put in a nutshell, discussion on idioms explains one of the reason why we conductthis thesis which help to reduce difficulties that learners of the second language may facewhen dealing with idioms with “run” and “chạy”

1.6 Concluding Remarks

Theoretical background for the contrastive analysis between the verb “run” in Englishand the verb “chạy” in Vietnamese in terms of Mic and Mac has been introduced in thischapter Readers are provided with an overview on CA, brieft contrasts between MiCA andMaCA, and between verbs in English and verbs in Vietnamese Moreover, different kinds

of meaning, synonyms and idioms are also discussed Based on this theoretical foundation,

we will commence chapter 2 “A Contrastive Analysis between the Verb ‘Run’ in Englishand the Verb ‘Chạy’ in Vietnamese”

CHAPTER 2 A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN THE VERB ‘RUN’

IN ENGLISH AND THE VERB ‘CHẠY’ IN VIETNAMESE

With the aims of drawing an overall picture of the two relevant verbs in the English andVietnamese languages, the author made effort to deeply investigate into the objective verbs

by analyzing and synthesizing basing on more than twenty English dictionaries; over tenVietnamese dictionaries; hundreds of writing works; valuable addition from colleagues andrevision from the respected supervisor

In this part, we firstly study the two verbs in terms of MiCA The verbs will be studiedseparately within two of the three aspects of MiCA: the grammatical features, the semanticfeatures which are focused to figure out their general meanings and meanings in someidioms respectively, the synonyms of each verbs are also discussed Then the findings arereached with the statements on the similarities and differences between the objects of thestudy This chapter is followed up with the analysis and contrast the “run” and “chạy” interms of MaCA which is much related to extralinguistic components

2.1 A Contrastive Analysis between the Verb ‘Run’ in English and the Verb ‘Chạy’

in Vietnamese in Terms of Microlinguistics

As we already mentioned in the early parts, in terms of microlinguistics the verb ‘run’

in English will be worked with three features: grammatical features (including syntacticand morphological features) and semantic features

2.1.1 An Investigation into the Verb ‘Run’ in English

(b) Derivates of ‘run’ have different grammatical functions such as subjects,objects, or complements, etc as in:

- Running so fast made him exhausted.

- Not everybody is fast enough to run in the Olympics (2:48)

- When U.S inflation was running at 20 percent, he forecasted that inflation would

- So who is the greatest runner of all time? That would have to be Michael

- And she was running, running for her life, her feet flying across the fields (14:65)

(d) ‘Run’ is both a transitive and intransitive verb This means ‘run’ can work with

or without objects

As an intransitive verb:

- I am always running about, looking for my glasses.

- Sorry, I have to run.

By means of derivation, the verb ‘run’ itself is also a noun and an adjective, as in ‘It is a two minutes' run from the subway’ or ‘Put some more run butter on the vegetables’.

Besides, it has several derivates as follow:

Runner (noun): one who runs; candidate, competitor.

Running (noun): act of jogging or moving quickly; act of competing in a race or election, as in ‘Running in the early morning is my hobby’

Runnable (adjective): may be run, as in ‘The car is still runnable.’

Runny (adjective): characteristic of a fluid; capable of flowing and easily changing shape, as in ‘runny jam’.

Rerun (verb): run again; reshowing of a program or film

Overrun (verb/noun): invade; infest; swarm; triumph; exceed; print excess amount,

etc

Underrun (verb): pass below, run underneath; pass below and inspect something

from beneath in a water vessel, etc

Runnel/runlet (noun): rivulet, small brook, stream.

Run is also used in such many compounds as ‘runaway’ (an airstrip, strip of pavement

on which airplanes take off and land); ‘hit-and-run’ (automobile accident in which a driver who hits a pedestrian or a car drives off to avoid taking responsibility); ‘runtime’ (time of operation of computer software); runway (a hard surface along with aircraft take off and land); runner up (candidate, contestant; one who finishes second in a competition); runaround (evasive act, stalling tactic ; run down criticize); run over (hit with a vehicle; chase and capture; become exhausted; make less valuable); chicken run (an enclosed yard

for keeping poultry); etc

2.1.1.2 Semantic Features

On the ground of semantic features, the author attempts to discuss different senses of

‘run’ in general, and in idioms as well as its synonyms Like any other lexical verbs, ‘run’indicates an action or state, e.g

- Now with me you won't have to run for your money, all you have to do is to hold

- To escape from his look I ran into the garden. (6:36)

- The veins in his forehead stood out, the tears ran from his eyes, (6:155)

2.1.1.2.1 General Meanings

Together with the development of the Information Technology, nowadays, theknowledge resources are available in any corners of the world Statistics onwww.answer.com show a huge numbers of dictionary services which are mainly theEnglish dictionaries Therefore, defining the meaning of a single word is very convenient.Hereby, the most popular and reliable ones are attempted to select by the author.Moreover, the illustrative examples are also cited from trustworthy and famous works.Therefore, by collecting, synthesizing and analyzing from diversified resources we

categorize the general meanings of the verb “run” into twenty-seven groups which aredescribed as follows:

(1) To move quickly

According to the www.wikipedia.org (open Encyclopedia), originally, the verb “run”derive etymologically from the Germanic root *rūnō Cognate with the Old Saxon rūna,Old High German rūna (and German Raun), and Old Norse rūn Probably, running rapidlyand more rapidly is always one target of the living Early men tried to run fast for huntingand in the current time people keep running even faster for modern needs

To define this basic meaning of the verb “run”, the Wikidictionary generalizes ‘to go at fast pace, to move quickly’; the Encarta Dictionary gives a similar definition that shows the physical feature of the action ‘to move rapidly on foot so that both feet are momentarily off the ground in each step’ For example:

- "Walk quick, but don't run," he whispered. (6:486)

- Run, Sarah, run!

- Quickly, run and tell your father what has happened. (9:106)

Also referring to this meaning, ‘run’ can be understood as to cover a specified distance

by running; to practice running as a sport; to take part or complete in a running race; tocause a race to take place:

- Who was the first man to run a hundred metes under 10 seconds?

- The Grand National will be run in spite of the bad weather.

Besides, ‘run’ expresses the act of moving freely and without restrain or act as ifrunning around in an uncontrolled way, e.g

- Dr Hutchins running around the room, aimlessly, attempting to gather himself, his things, and escape all at the same time (13:108)

- I have three of them All day they are running around, troubling their mother.

couldn’t catch a breath, and he was certain he would throw up if he didn’t stop running

- Fortunately, I had reached the bottom of the hill and I could run quicker across the grass Although I raced at the top of my speed, the Thing was gaining upon me There was no need for me to look behind, I knew that it was just at the back of me I could scarcely breathe My race had almost exhausted me; my breath came in gasps. (6:113)The earlier is quoted from one of most famous novel by American writer James

Patterson ‘Cat and Mouse’, the latter from the immortal “Nobody’s boy” by Hector

This meaning refers to things that cannot run physically, but actually, they could spread

very quickly Vietnamese equivalent should be ‘lan ra’, ‘tràn ra’, ‘lan tràn’…

For instance, ‘There’s a strange story running around the neighborhood.’ should be

understood that the story cannot run around the neighborhood at all, but the strange feature

makes people spread it all around Another case like ‘The flu is running through my daughter’s kindergarten.’, ‘running’ should be understood as ‘spreading’.

(4) To cause/make move quickly

This meaning is normally used when we make something move quickly as we need:

- I was going to win, and I was going to run that last kite (11:50)

- For example, speed is useful only if you are running in the right direction.(12:70)

Moreover, ‘run’ can be understood as travelling regular over a set route, or causing

somebody or something to travel regularly over a set route, as in ‘run a shuttle between stations’.

(5) To control or manage

This meaning is widely found in business language, e.g.:

- You don’t run a business solely dependent on finding new customers (4:58)

- Running Chrysler has been a bigger job than running the country… (10:29)

- When you run an honest business you stand a much better chance at success Vietnamese equivalents should be ‘điều hành’; ‘quản lý’; ‘chịu trách nhiệm’.

(6) To flow

This meaning normally refers to the flow of a liquid, especially in a steady stream, forexample:

- The river runs through the forest

- Your nose is running.

Relating to this sense, ‘run’ can also be understood as to be wet or covered with aliquid; to melt and flow; or to have a liquid flowing from an object

- The mourners’ eyes ran with tears

- A hot flame will make the solder run.

Moreover, ‘run’ in this group should be interpreted as to make a liquid flow or to make

a liquid flow from an object, as in ‘You’ll have to run the water for a while before it gets hot.’

‘Run’ also denotes the state of releasing mucus or discharging a fluid such as pus or

mucus, as in ‘His lip was bloodied and more of the same was running from his nose in a

Interestingly, ‘run’ show the ‘flow’ of time, e.g Mallory was getting desperate His

(7) To move forward

When describing the act of moving forward smoothly or easily, especially on wheels wecan use ‘run’:

- “Hey,” she said breathlessly, having clearly just run up the stairs “Can I

Describing the act of quick moving in the specified direction or the cause of something

to move in the specified direction, we also use ‘run’:

- …Wladek, whom he clasped on to firmly, running his fingers over the boy's chest

(8) To extent, to last, to continue

There are four sub-groups relating to this meaning of the verb run First, this denotes theextension in space through a range of possibilities that often combine with a measurephrase:

- The border runs for 3000 kilometers.

- It ran in quality from excellent to substandard.

Second, ‘run’ describes the extension, duration and continuing of time which also usedwith measure phrase:

- The sale will run for ten days.

- Election campaigns in Britain run for three weeks.

Third, ‘run’ can be understood as to be valid for the specified period of time:

- The contract runs through 2009.

- The lease on my house has only a year to run.

Last, ‘run’ should be understood as to make something extent in space, as in ‘I need to run this wire along the wall.’

(9) To be operating/working

Run, in term of the language of engineering or the language of information technology,can be widely used to denote the operation of a machine or a computer program, forexamples:

- My motorbike stopped running because of the heavy rain.

- "You can forget about running a computer They're not going to hire anybody with

Functioning as transitive, run means to make something operate or function, as in:

- Do not run the engine again until it completely cools, usually overnight is best.

(23)

(10) To execute/perform/organize

Run is normally used to mean that a plan, procedure or program is executed, e.g

- They have run twenty blood tests on me and they still don’t know what’s wrong.

- Do not run that software unless you have the silence key.

Similarly, something is made available to people we can also use run to describe, e.g

- The college runs summer courses for foreign learner of Vietnamese

(11) To be a candidate/ to stand

If someone is a candidate in an election for a political position we can use the verb ‘run’

to describe, as following:

- Reagan ran a second time in 1980.

- The Hollywood Reporter claimed shortly after that Schwarzenegger sought to end speculation that he might run for governor of California. (22)Transitively, ‘run’ herewith means to make run in a race or an election, e.g

- McKinney is running for president as Green candidate. (19)

- "You sure set this town on its ass They oughta run you for people's mayor."

(12) To print and publish

When we want to mean that something is offered in one of the media, then use ‘run’:

- Fortunately, most papers prefer to run stories that include real news, not stuff about some prep school’s efforts to get ready for a presidential visitation. (3:112)

- As part of an information offensive in Iraq, the U.S military is secretly paying Iraqi newspapers to run stories written by American troops in an effort to burnish the

Vietnamese equivalent should be ‘đăng’; ‘đăng tải’; ‘giật tít’, etc.

(13) To convey or transport

We can use the verb run when we want to express act of taking someone to a place by acertain means of transportation, e.g

- Can you run me to the station?

- I will run you home Ok?

(14) To be affected/ be subjected to

This is a quite special meaning of the verb ‘run’ Normally, referring the same sense,people use the verb ‘have’ By using ‘run’ we put the emphasis on the progress of theeffect:

- She found him covered in little red spots and running a temperature of one

- When she tucked William up in bed that night, she found that he had been as good as his word and was running a slight fever. (9:78)

(15) To think about

When talking about ideas that suddenly happen to the mind or mentioning the process ofthinking we can make use of the verb ‘run’, for examples:

- Orsatti sat there, running the name through the computer in his brain (14:178)

- Paranoia was starting to run a little wild in my head. (7:142)

- It was two cases, both running concurrently in my mind (7:260)

(16) To smuggle

To the author’s surprise, the verb ‘run’ can be use to describe the act of bringing ortaking something into a country illegally and secretly, e.g

- He used to run arms across the border of Cambodia.

- Obama win triggers run on guns in many stores. (17)

(17) To pass/ to become

The verb ‘run’ is also used to denote the act of passing into or reaching the specifiedstate In other words, it can be understood as becoming in cases below:

- The river ran dry during the drought.

- I’ve run short of money.

- A spirit, too, needs fuel It can run dry. (1:2)

‘Run’ is also used to show the tendency, such as:

- Finally, my music style runs to classical.

- The fashion will run to yellow this season.

Vietnamese equivalent should be ‘trở nên’ or ‘trở thành’, ‘có xu hướng’, etc.

(18) To dissolve/melt

This meaning is often used to refer to the state of dye of color in a piece of clothing:

- She was afraid the color ran when she washes her new skirt.

By means of a solid substance, run can be understood as melting, e.g

- The tears blurred her eyes and the words of his letter began to run into one another.

(19) To pursue

The verb ‘run’ is well defined for the meaning of pursuing or chasing We can use ‘run’

in ‘man runs after woman’; the poor runs for a better life; or even dog runs after deer; etc.

(20) To cost

By means of costing, we often use ‘run’ to imply that we have to spend a large amount

of money buying or getting something, e.g

- Buying a house in Hanoi this time will run you years in debt.

- The luxurious wedding runs him a million USD.

(21) To be valid

With this meaning, run can be used to show the state of being valid in a given area orbeing present as a valid accomplishment, e.g

- The speed limit runs only in the town line.

- The benefits run together with the duties.

(22) To be stated or worded (in a certain manner)

‘Run’ can be used to show the particular form, order, or expression, e.g.

- The report runs as follows.

- The story ran a very happy ending

(23) Other meanings

‘Run’ can be understood as to say (in a certain manner) We discover this interesting

meaning in the novel ‘The big rusty lie’ by American writer Ryan Speck shown in the sentence: You might get in less trouble if you learned not to run that mouth , boy.” (13:83)

Run can be used to describe the state of unraveling of such types of material as nylon;silk, cloth or cotton, e.g

- Her nylons were running.

- Her stocking ran.

Sometimes, people use ‘run’ to indicate the state of appearing recurrently as a feature orquality, e.g

- Musical talent runs in the family

- Stubbornness runs in the class.

2.1.1.2.2 Meanings in Some Idioms

Being a typical action verb, ‘run’ does not only function as polysemy but also the root

of many related idioms The combination of ‘run’ with its favorite words makes a lot ofsenses for the treasure of the English language

In the table below, the author tries to list some of the most popular idioms that run with ‘run’

1 A run for one’s

- I feel I've had an excellent run for my money and now I'm happy

undone in the short run determines the long run ’( Harris,

Sidney J)

3

Hold with the hare

and run with the

hounds

- To oppose an action or behavior and yet engage

in the same action or behavior

- To remain neutral by attempting to placate twofactions or both sides of acontroversy

- Well, if you ask me, Pastor Hawkins is trying to hold with the hare and run with the hounds by opposing casino gambling when his church operates a bingo game every Thursday night.

- Julianna needs to be careful if she keeps holding with the hare and running with the hounds; she might wind up making enemies of both labor and management.

4 (One) can run but

(one) can't hide

There is nothing someone can do to evade something

- You can run away but you can't hide (Cry on my shoulder’s lyric)

5 Make somebody's

blood run cold

To frighten or horrify somebody

- Her voice makes his blood run cold.

6 Run a risk

Expose oneself to the possibility of something unpleasant occurring

- It is impossible to win the great prizes of life without running risks, and the greatest of all prizes are those connected with the home (Roosevelt, Theodore)

7 Run deep

If a feeling or a problem goes deep, it is very strong or serious and has existed for a long time

- Still waters run deep (English

proverb)

8 Run before you can

walk

To try to do something complicated and difficult before you have learned the basic skills you need

to attempt it

- I think you should stick to a simple menu for your dinner party There's no point trying to run before you can walk

9 Run like the wild To run very fast She's very slight in build and she

can run like the wind

II.1.1.2.3 Synonyms of ‘Run’

When the Creator brought human being to this world, the language was bornsimultaneously It is the demand for people’s communication that enriches the treasury ofvocabulary English itself does not run off these common rules

The verb ‘run’ in the English language, as we mentioned previously, functions typically

as a polysemantic word This naturally brings about great numbers of other relevant words

or phrases that conform to the synonymic features of the verb ‘run’

Theoretically, synonyms can be classified into five main kinds: semantic synonyms,stylistic synonyms, semantic-stylistic synonyms, phrase-logical synonyms and territorialsynonyms Here, we would like to focus its semantic synonyms of eighteen basic meanings

of the verb ‘run’

(1) With the sense of moving fast by using one's feet, with one foot off the ground at

any given time run is synonymous with ‘travel rapidly’, ‘speed’, ‘hurry’, ‘zip’, ‘run away’.

For example:

- Don't hurry! You will be out of breath.

- I travel not to go anywhere, but to go I travel for travel's sake The great affair is

to move (Stevenson, Robert Louis)

(2) Concerning the act of stretching out over a distance, space, time, or scope; run or

extend between two points or beyond a certain point, ‘run’ has such synonyms as ‘go’,

‘pass’, ‘ lead’, ‘extend’, ‘be’, ‘run along’ For examples:

- His knowledge does not go very far.

- My memory extends back to my fourth year of life.

- The facts extend beyond a consideration of her personal assets

(3) In respect to describing the act of directing or controlling projects, businesses, etc,

‘run’ is similar to ‘operate’, direct’, ‘manage’, ‘control’.

- She is controlling/running a relief operation in the Sudan.

- If you want to manage somebody, manage yourself Do that well and you'll be ready to stop managing And start leading.

(4) With regard to the state of having a particular form, ‘run’ can be replaced by ‘go,

be’, as in ‘the story/argument is/goes/runs/ as follows’; ‘as the saying goes/runs ’

(5) By the meaning of moving along (of liquids), such words as ‘flow’, ‘feed’, ‘course’,

‘move’, ‘run over’ can be used instead of ‘run’:

- Water flowed into the cave.

- The Missouri feeds into the Mississippi.

(6) When using ‘run’ to mean performing as expected when applied, user can also make

use of words like ‘function’, ‘work’, ‘operate’, ‘go’:

- The washing machine will not go unless it is plugged in.

- This old radio doesn't work anymore.

(7) With the meaning as to change or be different within limits, ‘run’ is synonymous

with ‘range’, ‘be’

- Estimates for the losses in the earthquake range as high as $2 billion.

- Interest rate is from 5 to 10 percent.

(8) Concerning the act of standing or competing for an office or a position, user can

replace ‘run’ by ‘campaign’, ‘race’

- He campaigned for governor of Florida while running his company. (10:46)

- Although I raced at the top of my speed, the thing was gaining upon me (6:70)

(9) Relating to the sense of having a tendency or disposition to do or be something,

‘run’ has such synonyms as ‘ tend’, ‘be given’, ‘lean’,’ incline’, ‘be’

- The same corrupt dispositions which incline men to sinful ways of getting, will incline them to the like sinful ways of spending." (Henry, M.)

(10) In order to show the act of processing or carrying out a program or a machine,

‘run’ can be replaced by such synonyms as ‘execute’, ‘enforce’, ‘implement’, ‘explore’,

‘apply’:

- A good plan violently executed right now is far better than a perfect plan executed next week (Patton, George S.)

(11) ‘Run’ is synonymous to ‘become’, ‘go’, ‘get’ in case that we define the state of

changing from one state to another:

- Watch your thoughts; they become words Watch your words; they become actions Watch your actions; they become habits Watch your habits; they become character Watch your character; it becomes your destiny

(12) With the meaning ‘continue to exist’, ‘run’ is quite perfectly replaced by

‘prevail’, ‘persist’, ‘die hard’, ‘endure’, ‘continue’:

- It is well, I die hard, but I am not afraid to go (Washington, George )

- I believe that man will not merely endure; he will prevail (Faulkner, William)

(13) When being understood as to guide or pass over something, ‘run’ has such

synonyms as ‘guide’, ‘draw’, ‘pass’:

- Respect for ourselves guides our morals, respect for others guides our manners.

(Sterne, Laurence)

(14) If we use ‘run’ to describe the act of bringing or taking something into a country

illegally and secretly; just exploit ‘traffic’, ‘trade’, ‘merchandise’, ‘smuggle’, as in ‘By law, it’s illegal to traffic in drugs.’.

(15) ‘Run’ is a synonym of such words and phrases as ‘bleed’, ‘diffuse’, ‘spread’,

‘spread out’,and ‘fan out’ when referring to the sense ‘be diffused’:

- The benefits of education and of useful knowledge, generally diffused through a community, are essential to the preservation of a free government (Houston, Sam)

(16) Expressions like ‘melt’, ‘melt down’, ‘dissolve’, ‘resolve’, ‘break up’ can replace

‘run’ in the case of showing the state of reducing or causing to be reduced from a solid to aliquid state, usually by heating:

- Constant kindness can accomplish much As the sun makes ice melt, kindness causes misunderstanding, mistrust, and hostility to evaporate (Schweitzer, Albert)

These synonyms of the verb ‘run’ can be used to replace for each other in certaincontexts However, when they are near synonyms, our choices must be selected with greatcare if not you may misinterpret what we actually want to indicate

To put in a nutshell, by studying the verb ‘run’ in the English language the author hasattempted to figure out the overall grammatical features as well as semantic features of theverb ‘run’ Perhaps, it’s unfeasible to draw a perfect picture about the meanings of a singleword Together with the development of society, on one hand, a sense of a word might bedead, on the other hand, many others might be born Therefore, it is noteworthy that thetopics which we mentioned previously are the most popular ones and they are easily to befound in everyday communication

2.1.2 An Investigation into the Verb ‘Chạy’ in Vietnamese

2.1.2.1 Grammatical Features

2.1.2.1.1 Morphological features

‘Chạy’ is a monosyllabic word like any other Vietnamese word It has only one form inany mood, voices and tenses It has no derivates This means there is no change in its form

in any statement or sentence For examples:

- Ðến một cái cổng gạch lớn có dây leo, anh Hoàng giật dây chuông Một thằng bé

- Mọi việc đều sẵn sàng để nếu có động sẽ chạy luôn vào rừng. (27:225)

In Vietnamese, the verb ‘chạy’ is able to combine with other words to create principleand accessory compound words and jargons belonging to different parts of speech such as

nouns, verbs, or adjectives such as ‘chạy việt dã, chạy liên tỉnh’ chạy trốn, chạy vạy, chạy đua vũ trang, chạy làng, chạy tuồn tuột, etc The following paragraph quoted from the novel ‘Luật đời và Cha con’ by Nguyễn Bắc Sơn shows the typical examples for the

combining ability of the verb ‘chạy’ in the Vietnamese language:

- Em nghe Đài Truyền hình giới thiệu cuốn sách của một nhà báo tên tuổi có cái tên rất ấn tượng là Chạy Theo cuốn sách đó, bây giờ ở ta, chả có cái gì là không phải chạy: Chạy chức, chạy quyền, chạy bằng, chạy tuổi, chạy cô ta, chạy án, chạy tội… Đến huân chương cũng phải chạy Sắp đến kỳ đại hội lại càng chạy tợn Luật chơi nó thế mà Thế giả dụ, với chức vụ của mình, họ chạy đến anh, anh có nhận

2.1.2.1.2 Syntactic Features

(a) In a verb phrase, like other verbs in Vietnamese, ‘chạy’ can function as the centralcomponent and combine with other auxiliary components as follow:

* With auxiliary components before verbs For example:

- Không biết khi xả súng vào tôi, vào một con người nhỏ bé đang chạy cuống cuồng

- Không chạy hả Bốp Không chạy nè Bốp Thằng Điền gào lên. (43:245)

- Ngay từ lúc ấy, tôi đã muốn chạy về và nói với cha… (43:213)

* With auxiliary components after verbs They may be nouns, adjectives,expletives, numbers, adjuncts or conjuncts As in:

- Những nếp nhăn chạy dài trên vầng trán rộng ưu tư. (34:156)

- Các sản phẩm liên quan đến Becks đều bán chạy như tôm tươi… (46:1)(b) The verb ‘run’ has many grammatical functions listed as follow:

* As direct, independent predicative For example:

- Những đòn giáng trả cộng với tiếng anh kêu, đã làm cho hai bóng đen hốt hoảng

* As subjects, e.g

- Chạy chức, chạy quyền đã trở thành một vấn nạn của toàn xã hội (47)

- Ngoài ra, chạy đà còn có thể giúp cho cầu thủ tạo ra một tốc độ nhất định để từ

* As complements e.g Hồi tham gia cuộc thi chạy vũ trang 10.000 mét (41:45)

(c)‘Chạy’ is both a transitive and intransitive verb This means that it can be followed

or not by an object For example:

- Mươi phút sau như có linh tính, mọi người cùng bứt lên chạy, mặc cho cành lá

- Cuộc thi hoa hậu vừa rồi, nó bỏ tiền ra chạy Ban tổ chức cho con Phương được

(d) ‘Chạy’ can be used in indicative, interrogative, imperative and exclamativesentences For example:

- "Chúng tôi rất muốn biết người bỏ tiền chạy chọt để được thăng chức là ai?", ông

- Khốn nạn Ông giáo ơi! Nó có biết gì đâu! Nó thấy tôi gọi thì chạy ngay về, vẫy

- Chạy ngay đi! Mày muốn chết à.

2.1.2.2 Semantic Features

Perhaps, when the first “Quốc ngữ” dictionary was published in the seventeenth

century by Vicar Alexan Derot, he could not imagine such a great development of thevocabulary in the modern Vietnamese language Among the development of Vietnamesevocabylary, the verb ‘chạy’ is used by Vietnamese people in everyday communication inmany contexts and usages