Volume 2 wind energy 2 10 – electrical parts of wind turbines

Volume 2 wind energy 2 10 – electrical parts of wind turbines Volume 2 wind energy 2 10 – electrical parts of wind turbines Volume 2 wind energy 2 10 – electrical parts of wind turbines Volume 2 wind energy 2 10 – electrical parts of wind turbines Volume 2 wind energy 2 10 – electrical parts of wind turbines Volume 2 wind energy 2 10 – electrical parts of wind turbines Volume 2 wind energy 2 10 – electrical parts of wind turbines

2.10.1 Introduction

2.10.2.1 Pitch Control

2.10.2.1.1 Theory and implementation

2.10.2.1.2 Active stall-controlled wind turbines

2.10.3 Electricity Production

2.10.3.2 Wind Turbine Generators

2.10.3.2.1 Asynchronous (induction) generators

2.10.7 Wind Turbine Industry

2.10.7.1 Major Wind Turbine Manufacturers

Glossary very fast Used in both solar wind regulators to efficiently Blade The part of a wind generator rotor that catches the provide regulation

Rotor (1) The blade and hub assembly

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) A normal‘ ’wind generator (2)The disc part of a vehicle disc brake (3) The turbine design, in which the shaft is parallel to the ground, armature of a permanent magnet alternator, which spins and the blades are perpendicular to the ground and contains permanent magnets

Hub The center of a wind generator rotor, which holds the Slip ring Devices used to transfer electricity to or from blades in place and attaches to the shaft rotating parts Used in wound-field alternators, motors, Induction motor An AC motor in which the rotating and in some wind generator yaw assemblies

armature has no electrical to it (i.e no slip Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) The ratio of how much faster thanrings), and consists of alternating plates of aluminum and the wind speed, the blade tips are moving

Nacelle The protective covering over a generator or motor laminate core Transfers power from one circuit to another Permanent magnet A material that retains its magnetic using magnetic induction Usually used to step voltage up properties after an external magnetic field is removed or down Works only with AC current

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) A regulation method Yaw Rotation parallel to the ground A wind generator basedon Duty Cycle At full power, a pulse-width­ yaws to face winds coming from different directions.modulated circuit provides electricity 100 percent of the Wind generator A device that captures the force of the time At half power, the PWM is on half the time and off wind to provide rotational motion to produce power with half the time The speed of this alternation is generally an alternator or generator

A(γ(t)) turbine rotor swept area (time-varying due to yaw R turbine rotor radius

v(t) hub-height uniform wind

γ(t) rotor yaw angle

ns rotor synchronous speed ω(t) rotor angular velocity (mechanical)

P, Pm mechanical power

2.10.1 Introduction

The quest of man for harnessing wind energy goes back into the centuries Windmills have been used for many purposes but it is only lately that the wind power has been effectively exploited to produce electricity (Figure 1) Specifically, during the past 20 years, the wind power industry has evolved into the most important renewable energy sector

A wind turbine is a complex machine In order to design efficient and optimally operating wind turbines, knowledge from diverse scientific fields is required: aerodynamics, mechanical engineering, electrical and electronic engineering, materials and industrial engineering, civil engineering, meteorology, and automatic control among others

A typical grid-connected wind turbine installation is shown in Figure 2 Though wind turbines can be operated in isolation, this configuration is of diminishing concern Large offshore wind parks, comprising 10 MW wind turbines, seem to be the renewable future

As seen in Figure 2, a typical wind turbine is erected on solid, concrete foundation and properly earthed Its output of 690 V is connected through a transformer station to the 20 kV grid line The wind turbine itself consists of the main tower, its three blades, and the nacelle Inside the nacelle and the tower base are housed the various electrical and electronic parts necessary for the efficient and safe conversion of wind power to electrical energy These include the power controls (pitch and yaw), the generator, and the power electronics This is a typical example that is not always followed The transformer station, for example, may be housed in the tower base

The ‘electrical system’ of a wind turbine comprises all components for converting mechanical energy into electric power, as well

as auxiliary electrical equipment and the control and supervisory system The electrical system thus constitutes the second essential subsystem, following the mechanical one, in a wind turbine (Figure 3)

- Clima sensors Rotorblade

- Main control cabinet

- Wind park communication

e.g., 20 kV/690 V Cable route Figure 1 Seventeenth-century flour mill rebuilt by Acciona at the Guerinda wind park, Navarre, Spain From Acciona leaflet, www.acciona-energia.com/

Figure 2 Grid-connected wind turbine

The main components of the electrical subsystem are shown in Figure 4 They will be subsequently analyzed in functional order, that is, the power control/positioning components (pitch and yaw motors) first, followed by the generator, the power electronics and grid connection, and finally, the lightning protection elements

From the electrical engineering point of view, wind turbines are nothing more than electricity-generating power plants, like hydroelectric ones or diesel-powered Their electrical systems are similar and must meet the common standards for systems connected to utility grids Therefore, similar safety, supervision, and power quality standards must be met

Grid operation requirements are laid out by international and local institutions On the global level, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has issued a set of general conditions that must be met by the wind farm operators

Figure 3 Subsystems of a wind turbine From Blaabjerg F and and Chen Z (2006) Power Electronics for Modern Wind Turbines San Rafael, CA: Morgan

& Claypool

Figure 4 Wind turbine electrical parts

Design of wind turbines is aimed at optimum operation, that is, at maximizing conversion of wind energy to electric power, while maintaining fault-free or fault-tolerant working conditions Therefore, a wind turbine’s performance must be judged on three factors:

1 Efficiency of wind power use (through the use of pitch and yaw control and generator selection)

2 Reliability (e.g., lightning protection)

3 Safety (grid connection regulations compliance)

Wind turbines have been rapidly evolved in the past years Though a classification of various implementations may seem a little risky, nevertheless it may serve as a useful guide In Figure 5 is shown such a possible picture

2.10.2 Power Control

Wind turbines are designed to produce electrical energy as cheaply as possible Wind turbines are therefore generally manufactured

so that they yield maximum output at wind speeds around 15 m s−1 (30 knots or 33 mph) It does not pay to design turbines that maximize their output at stronger winds, because such strong winds are rare In case of stronger winds, it is necessary to waste part of

Conventional synchronous machines Induction machines

Heat loss dump load

Wound rotor (field control)

Permanent magnet

Cage rotor M/C

Wound rotor or brushless DF

Power conversion

Small PE converter

Wound

Large PE converter

Electrical energy source Fixed frequency or DC

Figure 5 Wind turbine classifications Modified from Wallace AK and Oliver JA (1998) Variable-speed generation controlled by passive elements International Conference on Electric Machines Istanbul, Turkey, 2–5 September [1]

the excess energy of the wind in order to avoid damaging the wind turbine, while in case of weaker speeds some sort of speed regulation is desirable All wind turbines are therefore designed with some sort of power control

There are different ways of doing this safely on modern wind turbines:

2.10.2.1.1 Theory and implementation

The ability of a wind turbine to extract power from wind is a function of three main factors:

1 Wind power availability

2 Power curve of the machine

3 Ability of the machine to respond to wind perturbations

The equation for mechanical power, Pm, produced by a wind turbine is given by,

v

Figure 6 Pitch control

where ρ is air density (kg m− 3), θ is blade pitch angle (rad), γ is rotor yaw angle (rad), v is wind velocity (m s−1), ω is rotor angular velocity (rad s−1), R is rotor diameter (m), A(γ) is wind turbine rotor swept area (m2

), Cp(ωR/v, θ) is power coefficient, and ωR/v = λ is tip speed ratio (TSR)

Looking at eqn [1], it is seen that in an actual turbine, power can be regulated through pitch angle, rotor speed, and yaw angle, and all other parameters being exogenous It is interesting to note, however, that air density affecting power production is not the same in all wind sites since it decreases with increasing altitude Excluding yaw variation, Figure 7 shows a typical power surface

Figure 7 Power vs pitch angle/TSR for NREL’s CART machine From Wright AD and Fingersh LJ (2008) Advanced control design for wind turbines part I: Control design, implementation, and initial tests Technical Report NREL/TP-500-42437, March 2008: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, USA

corresponds to changing the pitch value such that the leading edge of the blade is moved into the wind (increase of θ) The range of blade pitch angles required for power control in this case is about 35° from the pitch reference Therefore, for safe regulation, the pitching system has to act rapidly, with fast pitch change rates of the order of 5° s−1 resulting in high gains within the power control loop

2.10.2.1.1(i) Implementation

On a pitch-controlled wind turbine, the turbine’s electronic controller checks the power output of the turbine several times per second When the power output becomes too high, it sends an order to the blade pitch mechanism that immediately pitches (turns) the rotor blades slightly out of the wind Conversely, the blades are turned back into the wind whenever the wind drops again Presently, pitch motors are of very compact design They are mounted on the outside flange ring of each blade (Enercon E-40, Figure 8) or inside the rotor hub (Lagerway, Figure 9) Meteorological data from anemometers and sensors atop the nacelle measure wind speed and other environmental conditions The power supply, data, and control signals for the pitch system are transferred by a slip ring from the nonrotating part of the nacelle, or stationary-enclosed pivot behind the hub The slip ring is

Electrical blade pitch motor

Figure 8 Enercon’s pitch control From Enercon, www.enercon.de

Figure 9 Blade pitch system inside the rotor hub (Lagerwey LW-72) From Lagerwey, www.lagerweywind.nl

Figure 10 Weier 10 kW pitch motor From Weier, http://www.weier-energie.de/

Figure 11 Bosch Rexroth Mobilex GFB pitch motor From Bosch, http://www.boschrexroth.com

connected to a central control unit, which includes clamps for distributing power, and control signals for the individual blade drive units Each blade drive unit consists of a switched-mode power supply, a field bus, the motor converter, and an emergency system Pitch motors are manufactured in various sizes to suit wind turbines specifications Output torques range from 3 to 1100 kNm, with corresponding ratios from 60 to over 1600 (Figures 10 and 11)

In case of power failure, emergency operation via batteries or capacitor bank is employed ‘Maxwell Techonologies’ has recently introduced a series of ultracapacitor modules that promise a simple, solid state, high-reliability alternative to batteries for energy storage in this type of burst power application Ultracapacitors offer excellent performance, with wide operating temperature range, long life, flexible management, and reduced system size; they are cost-effective as well as highly reliable, particularly when designed with a total systems approach (Figure 12)

2.10.2.1.2 Active stall-controlled wind turbines

An increasing number of larger, fixed-speed wind turbines (1 MW and up) are being developed with an ‘active stall’ (also called

‘negative pitch’) power control mechanism

Technically, the active stall machines resemble pitch-controlled machines, since they have pitchable blades In order to get a reasonably large torque (turning force) at low wind speeds, the machines will usually be programmed to pitch their blades much like a pitch-controlled machine at low wind speeds (often they use only a few fixed steps depending upon the wind speed) When the machine reaches its rated power, however, an important difference from the pitch-controlled machines is evident: if the generator is about to be overloaded, the machine will pitch its blades in the opposite direction by a few degrees (3–5°) from what a pitch-controlled machine does In other words, it will increase the angle of attack of the rotor blades in order to make the blades go into a ‘deep stall’, thus wasting the excess energy in the wind

Only small changes of pitch angle are required to maintain the power output at its rated value, as the range of incidence angles required for power control is much smaller in this case than in the case of pitch control Compared to the pitch-to-feather technique,

Figure 12 Ultracapacitor From Maxwell, http://www.maxwell.com/ultracapacitors/products/modules/bmod0094-75v.asp

the travel of the pitch mechanism is very much reduced; significantly greater thrust loads are encountered, but the thrust is much more constant, inducing smaller mechanical loads

Additionally, in active stall one can control the power output more accurately than with passive stall, so as to avoid overshooting the rated power of the machine at the beginning of a gust of wind Another advantage is that the machine can be run almost exactly

at rated power at all high wind speeds A normal passive stall-controlled wind turbine will usually have a drop in the electrical power output for higher wind speeds, as the rotor blades go into deeper stall

Typical active stall representatives are the Danish manufacturers Bonus (1 MW and over) and NEG Micon (1.5 and 2 MW)

2.10.2.2 Yaw System

The rotor axis of a wind turbine rotor is usually not aligned with the wind, since the wind is continuously changing its direction (Figure 13) The yawed rotor is less efficient than the nonyawed rotor and so it is vital to be able to dynamically align the rotor with the wind (Figure 14) Furthermore, unaligned rotors impose higher loads on the blades, causing additional fatigue damage The output power losses can be approximated by,

where ΔP is the lost power, γ the yaw error angle, and α a suitable constant (Figure 14)

For these reasons, almost all horizontal-axis upwind turbines use forced yawing, that is, a mechanism which uses electric motors and gearboxes to keep the turbine yawed against the wind (Figure 15) Yaw control usually includes several drives and motors to distribute gear loading

Active yaw is especially useful in providing maximum adaptability in complex terrains The image in Figure 16 shows the yaw mechanism of a typical 750 kW machine seen from below, looking into the nacelle

C p max

0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Yaw angle (degrees) Figure 14 Maximum power coefficient variation with yaw angle γ

Figure 15 Yaw control

Figure 16 Yaw mechanism From Windpower, www.windpower.org

yaw rate is usually kept very low Also the nacelle is often parked and the yaw drive is not operated unless the wind direction change reaches some predefined minimum

In a novel approach described in Reference 4, a new yaw control technique through actively varying blade pitch angles is presented It focuses on the feasibility of active yaw control through periodic state-space individual pitch control on the WindPACT 1.5 MW three-bladed upwind turbine The periodic control technique has been used in many other control applications, particularly in the aerospace field As the dynamic behavior of wind turbines is often periodic with the rotor revolution, due to asymmetric wind inflow, the control of turbine motion is more effective with periodic feedback gains With the development of periodic state-space control and individual pitch algorithms, possibilities of controlling yaw through pitching the blades is made possible One obvious benefit from controlling yaw through pitching the blades is that the motorized yaw drive can be removed In addition to this, pitching the blades to yaw the rotor essentially takes advantage of asymmetric aerodynamic loads on the rotor plane This means the rotor will be working with the wind through the blades instead of receiving rotational moments from the yaw motor This could result in smoother continuous yaw responses and possibly a reduction in loads

2.10.3 Electricity Production

To produce electricity, a wind turbine must conform to ‘power quality’ standards, such as voltage stability, frequency stability, and the absence of various forms of electrical noise (e.g., flicker or harmonic distortion) on the electrical grid To accomplish this, a typical wind turbine’s electrical system comprises a series of subsystems as shown in Figure 17

2.10.3.1 The Generator

In a wind turbine, the generator plays a central role in the functional chain, since it is the actual ‘converter’ of mechanical into electric energy However, since it has to face a highly fluctuating torque load, supplied by the wind turbine rotor, it is significantly different from other generators used in electrical grids

It is outside the scope of this chapter to give a detailed description of how generators work, but only the most important features will be outlined The interested reader can consult any standard textbook for further insight, as for example [5]

Generators are known by many names: DC (direct current), synchronous, induction, permanent magnet (PM), brushless, and

so on Although, these different types look dissimilar, the physical properties underlining their behavior are quite similar: in fact the torque-producing characteristics of all types stem from the fact ‘the flux distributions of the stator and the rotor tend to align’ The generator operation is based on the principle of ‘electromagneticinduction’discoveredin1831by MichaelFaraday,aBritishscientist Faraday discovered that if an electric conductor, like a copper wire, is moved through a magnetic field, electric current will flow (be induced) in the conductor So the mechanical energy of the moving wire is converted into the electric energy of the current that flows in the wire Faraday’s law can be stated in mathematical terms as,

d

where E is the electric field intensity around the closed contour C and B is the magnetic flux

Equation [3] states in words that the line integral of the electric field intensity E around a closed contour C is equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux passing through that contour In magnetic structures with windings of high electrical conductivity (Figure 18), it can be shown that the E field in the wire is extremely small and can be neglected, so that the left-hand-side (LHS) of eqn [3] reduces to the negative of the induced voltage or ‘electromotive force’ e at the winding terminals Additionally, the flux on the right-hand-side (RHS) of eqn [3] is dominated by the core flux φ Since the winding links the core flux N times, eqn [3] reduces to,

Voltage source inverters MV

N turns

Magnetic flux lines

Rotor Pole face,

area A g

I

Figure 18 A simple synchronous machine From Fitzgerald AE, Kingsley C, Jr., and Umans SD (2003) Electric Machinery New York, NY: McGraw-Hill

Equation [4] can be used to determine the voltages induced by time-varying magnetic fields Electromagnetic energy conversion occurs when changes in the flux linkage η result from mechanical motion In generators, a time-varying voltage is generated in windings or set of coils, by any of the following three ways:

1 by mechanically rotating the windings through a magnetic field,

2 by mechanically rotating a magnetic field past the windings, or

3 by designing the magnetic circuit so that the reluctance varies with rotation of the rotor

This set of coils is termed the ‘armature winding’ In general they carry alternating current (AC)

In AC generators, such as synchronous or induction machines, the armature winding is usually on the stationary part of the generator called the ‘stator’ (Figure 19)

In DC generators, the armature is wound on the rotating member, called the rotor In this case, a rotating mechanical contact must be used in order to supply current to the rotor winding (Figure 20)

Synchronous and DC generators include a second set of windings that carry DC and are used to produce the main operating flux This is referred to as ‘field winding’ The field winding on a DC generator is on the stator, while on a synchronous machine it is found on the rotor An alternative to DC is to use ‘PMs’ for the production of DC magnetic flux

Figure 19 Stator winding assembly of a wind turbine

Figure 20 DC motor armature

2.10.3.2 Wind Turbine Generators

In principle, any type of generator can be used in a wind turbine However, there are a number of factors that influence this choice,

as well as specific performance criteria that must be met by the overall wind turbine electricity producing system, in order to be able

to connect to the grid safely and effectively

To satisfy grid criteria, downstream inverters can be used, even if the generator supplies AC of variable quality or even DC

AC generators fall into two basic categories: ‘synchronous’ (from Greek συν + χρόνος: concurrent) and ‘asynchronous’ or

‘induction’ In synchronous machines, rotor winding currents are supplied directly from the stationary frame through a rotating contact In induction machines, rotor currents are induced in the rotor windings by a combination of the time variation of the stator currents and the relative motion of the rotor with respect to the stator

There are three different concepts for the generators of wind power plants; the following points describe them:

• Synchronous generators: the output voltage of the generator is transmitted to an inverter via a power rectifier The output frequency of the inverter is 50/60 Hz

• Asynchronous generators with slip-ring rotor: an inverter supplies power to the rotor so that the stator side is regulated to 50/60 Hz

• Asynchronous generators: the power supply network forces the 50/60 Hz frequency onto the stator The voltage is provided in the oversynchronous area

Specifically, the three main types of wind turbine generating systems currently in wide use are:

1 The ‘direct-grid squirrel-cage induction’ generator, used in constant-speed wind turbines The wind turbine rotor is coupled to the generator via a gearbox Power control is effected either using the passive stall effect (in constant speed machines) or by active pitch control

• The doubly fed (wound rotor) induction generator (DFIG), used in variable-speed machines The rotor winding is fed using a back-to-back voltage source converter Gearboxes are used to connect to the wind turbine rotor Active pitch control is used to limit rotor speed

• Direct-drive synchronous generator, also allowing variable-speed operation The synchronous generator can have a wound rotor or can be excited using PMs It is a multipole low-speed generator, with no need for a gearbox to be coupled to the wind turbine rotor Active pitch control is used

In the sequel, all types of generators will be presented, even though some are in less common use than others today

2.10.3.2.1 Asynchronous (induction) generators

‘Asynchronous’ or ‘induction’ generators were not the first choice for most applications, until the wind power industry found a suitable use for them

In the induction generator, the stator windings are essentially the same as those of a synchronous one However, the rotor windings are electrically short-circuited and frequently have no external connections; currents are ‘induced’ by transformer action from the stator windings

An important fact for operating an induction generator is that the rotor must be supplied with a magnetizing current for generating and maintaining its magnetic field This is called ‘reactive power’ and depends on active power When a grid is present, reactive power can be taken from it; otherwise, capacitors must provide power factor compensation

The synchronous speed, ns, of the rotor of an induction generator is given by:

f

p

3-phase high-voltage asynchronous motor with

1 Housing

2 End shield

3 Cooler

4 Rotor with winding

14 5 Stator stamping pack with winding

6 Air guide plate

7 Bearing housing with grease slide valve

15 9 External bearing cover

2.10.3.2.1(i) Fixed-speed squirrel-cage induction generators (SCIGs)

In this type of generator, the rotor windings are solid aluminum bars that are cast into the slots of the rotor and that are shorted together by cast aluminum rings at each end of the rotor (Figure 21)

Squirrel-cage induction generators were used in early fixed-speed wind turbine designs with active or passive stall control They consisted of the rotor, a squirrel-cage induction generator, and a gearbox interconnection The generator stator winding is connected

to the grid (Figure 22) The generator slip varies with the generated power, so the speed is not, in fact, constant; however, as the speed variations are very small (just 1–2%), it is commonly referred to as a ‘fixed-speed’ turbine Since a squirrel-cage generator always draws reactive power from the grid, this is undesirable, especially in weak networks The reactive power consumption of squirrel-cage generators is therefore nearly always compensated by capacitors

A machine that utilized this design was NEG Micon’s NM72 1500 kW, three-bladed, upwind turbine (currently managed by Vestas) It had a synchronous rotational speed of 1200 revolutions per minute (rpm), rated speed at rated power of 1214 rpm, and rated voltage of 600 V It used an active stall aerodynamic power regulation system The wind speed input to the pitch controller determined the range of pitch angle and the gain for the power regulation controller The output power of the generator, Pelec, actively controlled the pitch angle in high wind speeds

The fixed-speed squirrel-cage design has been utilized extensively in small turbine sizes This is due to its robust design, since it is built with very few components The weakest part is the gearbox, which has to withstand a lot of torque fluctuations, whose energy cannot be stored because of the almost fixed-speed nature of the overall design These fluctuations are of course transmitted on to the grid voltage In a wind park, these are smoothed out and do not pose a problem

Another drawback is that the reactive power cannot be controlled This means that the reactive power consumption of the wind turbine will increase when the power production increases If the reactive power consumption is to be compensated for more, electronically switched capacitors or a Static Var Compensator can be used In this case, there is the risk that the generator will be self-excited leading to severe overvoltages

Figure 21 Three-phase asynchronous squirrel-cage generator (drawing by VEM motors) From Vem motors leaflet, www.vem-group.com

IG

Capacitor bank

Grid Gearbox

Figure 22 Squirrel-cage generator interconnection

A method to increase efficiency is to employ two different generators, a small one for low wind speeds and a larger one for higher wind speeds In Figure 23 can be seen the effect of using such a configuration [6], where the generators change occurs at 6.5 m s−1 Suslon’s S64 1.25 MW wind turbine is an example of such a configuration

Another possibility is to change the rotational speed of a squirrel-cage motor in steps by means of ‘pole reconnection’ This requires two separate windings for the stator with different number of pole pairs The advantages of this design are questionable and they have been implemented only in low-wind areas Siemens’ generator is an example of such a configuration

A variation of this design is the ‘semi-variable-speed turbine’, in which the rotor resistance of the squirrel-cage generator can be varied instantly using fast power electronics (Figure 24) So far, Vestas alone has succeeded in commercializing this system, under

Wind speed

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Figure 24 Vestas ‘semi-variable’-speed induction generator

Wind ASG

the trade name OptiSlip® A number of turbines, ranging from 600 kW to 2.75 MW, have now been equipped with this system, which allows transient rotor speed increases of up to 10% of their nominal value

2.10.3.2.1(ii) Slip-ring induction generators

The rotor of an induction generator can also be designed with additional slip rings as a so-called ‘slip-ring’ configuration (Figure 25) The slip-ring rotor allows the electrical characteristics of the rotor to be influenced externally By changing the electric resistance in the rotor circuit, greater slip can be attained and consequently greater compliance for direct coupling to the grid

By using an inverter in the rotor circuit, variable-speed operation is possible

The external resistors will only be connected in order to produce the desired slip when the load on the wind turbine increases Using external resistors instead of a rotor with higher slip has a positive effect on the cooling of the generator Actual examples of this idea include Suslon’s FlexiSlip® system, employed in their larger turbines (Figure 26)

2.10.3.2.1(iii) Doubly fed induction generator

A doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) is basically a standard, wound rotor induction machine with its stator windings directly connected to the grid and its rotor windings connected to the grid through a converter (Figure 27)

The AC/DC/AC converter is divided into two components: the rotor side and the grid side These converters are voltage-sourced converters that use forced-commutated power electronic devices to synthesize an AC voltage form a DC source, that is, a capacitor A coupling inductor is used to connect the grid-side converter to the grid The three-phase rotor winding is connected to the rotor-side converter by slip rings and brushes and the three-phase stator windings are directly connected to the grid (Figure 28)

The control system generates the pitch angle command and the voltage command signals Vr and Vgc for the rotor- and grid-side converters in order to control the power of the wind turbine, the DC voltage, and the reactive power (voltage at grid terminals) The system works in either subsynchronous or supersynchronous mode:

• In the subsynchronous operating mode (partial load range), the stator of the DFIG feeds all generated electrical power to the grid and additionally makes slip power available, which is fed from the frequency converter to the rotor via the generator’s slip rings

Figure 25 Slip-ring rotor

Figure 26 Slip-ring induction generator with resistors

Figure 27 Bolting up a double-fed induction generator (photo by VEM motors) From Vem motors leaflet, www.vem-group.com

Figure 28 Geared double-fed induction generator

• In the supersynchronous operating mode (nominal load range), total power consists of the components fed by the stator of the DFIG plus slip power, which is fed from the rotor to the grid via the frequency converter

These different operational modes require a complex control system for the inverter On the other hand, the controlled DFIG offers the advantage of separate active and reactive power control A further advantage is the fact that only about a third of the nominal generator power flows via the inverter, resulting in much smaller and economical design, while at the same time it increases efficiency Though this concept was proved satisfactory since its first implementation in the experimental Growian turbine, it was not pursued further due to high costs Today, however, it is being offered as an off-the-shelf generator system and is one of the main choices in many large wind turbines in the megawatt range

2.10.3.2.2 Synchronous generators

Synchronous generators have a rotor (pole wheel) that is excited with DC conducted to it via stationary carbon ‘brushes’ with contact rotating ‘slip rings’ (Figure 29) An alternating voltage is generated in the stator windings This voltage is sinusoidal with frequency in cycles per second (Hz) equal to the rotor speed in revolutions per second, that is, the electric frequency of the generated voltage is ‘synchronized’ with the mechanical speed, a fact that explains the designation of this type of generator

The rotors of most synchronous wind turbine generators have ‘salient’, or projecting poles with ‘concentrated windings’ In order

to explain the reason for this, it is necessary to have a look at the relationship involving frequency, number of poles, and rotor speed

of revolution (for details, see Reference 5)

The coil voltage of a multipole machine passes through a complete cycle every time a pair of poles sweeps by, or (poles/2) times each revolution The electrical frequency fe of the voltage generated in a synchronous machine is therefore,

Figure 29 Salient pole rotor (left) and rotor

Hence, for a grid frequency of 50 Hz, 1500 rpm is required with two pole pairs, whereas in a 60 Hz grid, the rotational speed needed is 1800 rpm Increasing the pole pairs decreases the necessary rpm In wind turbines, rotational speeds are comparably low, and are sometimes increased by appropriate gearboxes Salient pole machines (as opposed to ‘cylindrical’ or ‘nonsalient pole’ ones) are more suited ‘mechanically’ to these conditions

The efficiency of a synchronous machine is generally higher than a similar induction one by 1–2% Efficiency, as usual, increases with rated power, but in wind turbines size must also be taken into account Faster rotating generators are usually lighter, but at the expense of more complicated gearbox design

As has been repeatedly pointed out, the generator is but a part in the conversion chain, so let us look at the various options for connecting a synchronous generator to its inputs and outputs

2.10.3.2.2(i) Fixed-speed direct-grid coupling

Even though this is an outdated option, it is presented for the sake of completeness (Figure 30)

Perhaps the best-known example of a machine utilizing this kind of setup was Boeing’s ‘second-generation’ MOD-2 2.5 MW turbine, built in collaboration with NASA in the early 1980s (Figure 31) It was an upwind, two-blade machine with a diameter of 91.4, rotating at 17.5 rpm For economical reasons, partial pitch control was used Its generator produced 4.16 kV, line to line [7] Coupling a synchronous generator directly to the grid is a hard case It possesses, however, a critical characteristic: it has the ability to remain in synchronism during and after major voltage sags, a property termed ‘transient stability’ [8] The main parameters influencing this condition are:

• Rotor inertia/turbine power during the fault

• Depth of voltage sag

• Duration of voltage sag

Figure 30 Synchronous generator directly couple to the grid

Figure 31 Boeing’s MOD-2 wind turbine

• Simplicity and compatibility with current technology for feeding the three-phase grid

• Easy control of reactive power via DC rotor excitation

These advantages are overbalanced by the following disadvantages:

• Very small load angles are possible for compensating the dynamic loads exerted by the wind rotor

• Poorly damped oscillations in response to grid frequency fluctuations or sudden load peaks

• Difficulty in synchronizing with the grid, complex automatic synchronization equipment needed

To partly overcome poor damping, active electric damping was proposed in Reference 7 This solution uses two independent stator coils and suitable control forming an integrated generator controller

It must be noted that despite the advances made in variable-speed machines today, cost considerations may dictate the use of this combination despite its considerable drawbacks

2.10.3.2.2(ii) Variable-speed direct-grid coupling

A promising new type of synchronous generator machine directly coupled to the grid is a variable-speed wind turbine equipped with a ‘hydrodynamically controlled gearbox’ This new type of gearbox effects variable-speed operation by continuously control­ling the gearbox ratio The product named WinDrive® is developed by the German mechanical engineering firm Voith [9] (Figure 32), and has presently been installed in DeWind’s 8.2 machine (Table 1)

The idea of a hydrodynamic gearbox is not new In fact, it was first developed by Hermann Föttinger in 1905 Its basic principle is

as follows: in an enclosed housing containing a liquid, two bladed wheels (the pump wheel and the turbine wheel) face one another but are not in direct contact (Figure 33) The impeller is connected to the driving machine, the turbine wheel to the driven The rotation of the pump wheel sets the liquid in motion which in turn transmits the mechanical power to the blades of the turbine wheel The only connecting element is the liquid As a result, wear-free and smooth power transmission is effected

This basic setup has been successfully employed in other industries (e.g., oil rigs) and is now being tested in a complete configuration

in wind turbines Hereby follows a short description of its structure, which is quite complex Details can be found in Reference 10

Figure 32 Complete power train of the DeWind 8.2 From left to right: synchronous generator, WinDrive, gear Diameter 1.3 m, length 1.7 m (© Voith Turbo Wind Gmbh) From Yoh Y (2006) A new lightning protection system for wind turbines using two ring-shaped electrodes IEEJ Transactions on Electrical and Electronic Engineering 1: 314–319

Table 1 DeWind 8.2 technical data

1800 min−1 at 60 Hz Output voltage 4.16–13.8 kV

Pump wheel Turbine wheel

Liquid

Figure 33 Visualization of the hydrodynamic principle From Voith Turbo GmbH & Co KG, www.voithturbo.com

Figure 34 Longitudinal section of WinDrive showing its power flow From Voith Turbo GmbH & Co KG, www.voithturbo.com

The structure of the WinDrive is based on a torque converter combined with a planetary gear designed as a superimposed gear, comprising two interactive elements (Figure 34):

• The superimposed gear (red) adds two variable speeds: the rotor’s and the correction speed within the WinDrive that add up to a constant output speed

• The torque converter supplies the variable correction speed It is flooded by hydraulic oil (yellow) and consists of a pump wheel, which is driven by the main shaft, a turbine wheel (light blue), which supplies the correction speed to the superimposed gear, and the adjustable guide vanes (green), which change the transmission behavior of the torque converter

In weak winds, the generator is connected to the grid at low rotor speed When rated speed is reached, the rotor speed is not increased further, due to strength and noise considerations With increasing wind velocity, the drive train torque is continuously regulated by the hydrodynamic gearbox (Figure 35) Protection from wind gusts is ensured by the very fast adjustment of the guide vanes, which is of the order of 20 ms

The combination of variable-speed operation and the direct-grid coupling capability of the synchronous generator result in the following properties:

• Very good network input quality

• Reduced torque dynamics, due to temporary storage of energy in the driveline

• No need for voltage transformer, due to high voltage levels of synchronous generators

• High energy output from maximum speed range

• Equalization of peak loads by dynamic decoupling of input and output side

• Vibration damping

1000

Synchronous generator

Figure 35 Variable rotor speed-constant generator speed: the WinDriveTM concept From Voith Turbo GmbH & Co KG, www.voithturbo.com

• In offshore wind farm clusters connected to the main shore grid using conventional, thyristor-based high-voltage DC technology Disadvantages include:

• Complex construction, equaling or surpassing power electronics equivalent

• Weight (5.2 tons)

Whether mechatronics will succesfully replace power electronics, remains to be verified For the moment, the WinDrive system, installed on the Edwin 8.2 wind turbine, has been operated in three experimental wind farms: Cuxhaven (Germany), Argentina, and Texas (60 Hz version) A promising sign is the start of a new WinDrive development for a 6.5 MW offshore wind turbine for wind power plant manufacturer BARD (Figures 36 and 37)

2.10.3.2.2(iii) Direct-drive variable-speed indirect-grid coupling

As mentioned earlier, the use of a direct-drive synchronous generator is among the main technological choices today The generator is either connected directly to the turbine rotor operating at small rotating speeds (5–30 rpm) or uses a single-stage gearbox and operates at middle speeds It has a large number of poles (>60) with classical excitation or PMs The connection

to the power grid is carried out using full-size power converters of equal power rating to the generator Wind power is limited by individual active rotor blade pitching Due to the large number of poles and slow rotating speed, the generator must develop large torque, so it must have large weight and diameter This puts an extra degree of difficulty on the construction of the nacelle

The development and application of direct-drive generators is closely tied to the development and cost of the power converter Additionally, reduction of cost of PMs and their availability on the market have significantly influenced the development of such machines

The direct-drive concept is a serious alternative to the standard design that uses gears Nevertheless, its implementation problems cannot be overlooked As the size of the turbine increases, its assembly raises considerable questions Maintaining an accurate gap between rotor and stator becomes a problem as the large diameter rotor can only be assembled from several ring segments Moreover, it is not easy to cool the generator On the other hand, this gearless design can claim less maintenance and service costs

Figure 36 BARD 6.5 drive concept From Bard Engineering GmbH, http://www.bard-offshore.de

Figure 37 BARD 5.0 offshore wind energy system From Bard Engineering GmbH, http://www.bard-offshore.de

2.10.3.2.2(iii)(a) Electrically excited The first to develop a successful direct-drive synchronous generator was patented by Enercon They called it ‘annular generator’ This generator has proven to be very effective and is employed in all sizes of their wind turbine range (Figure 38)

The generator is electrically excited and has 84 poles A 500 kW machine needs a rotor with diameter of 4.8 m The nominal power is reached at a speed of 38 rpm, but has a usable range of 20–40 rpm The generator stator uses a single-layer basket copper winding, consisting of continuous, individual round wires gathered in bundles and varnish insulated (Figure 39) The magnetic field is excited via ‘pole shoes’ located on the disk rotor (Figure 40) In order to prevent overheating, the hottest areas of the annular generator are constantly monitored by temperature sensors, which activate an optimized temperature control system

The generator produces a nominal frequency of 16⅔ Hz, which is then fed to the grid via a DC-link circuit with an inverter which has virtually no harmonics (Figure 41) Electrical efficiency of the whole system is specified at 0.94 The output voltage, being at

20 kV, is suitable for direct use in medium-voltage grids Because of its synchronous nature, reactive power output (cos φ) is regulated

2.10.3.2.2(iii)(b) Permanent magnet An alternative to electrically excited synchronous generators is that of a PM Their main advantage is the lack of exciter power, resulting in greater efficiency in the partial load range and consequently increased revenues for wind power producers Furthermore, great power density means reduced mass and compact design, while the lack of slip rings improves reliability and maintenance Lastly, employing magnets instead of copper coils in the generator reduces electrical losses and current flow through the rotating parts of the generator

On the other hand, the lack of exciter frequency results in poor cos φ values and dictates the use of complicated inverter technology or special filters High cost of the material for PMs (neodymium iron or samarium cobalt) is another problem, though this is currently on the decline

There are generally three types of PM machines: radial, axial, and transversal flux In wind turbines, however, only the first two designs are currently used General theory about PM machines can be found, amongst others, in Reference 11

Figure 38 Enercon’s direct-drive synchronous generator From Enercon brochure, www.enercon.de

Annular generator

Figure 39 Enercon’s annular generator From Enercon brochure, www.enercon.de

Figure 40 Rotor’s pole shoes From Enercon brochure www.enercon.de

• Radial flux permanent magnet

The radial flux type (radial flux permanent magnet, RFPM) is the classic type and mostly used in wind turbines The rotor can have buried or surface-mounted magnets, the poles can be skewed, have pole shoes, etc The stator is quite similar to other AC machines both for windings and tooth shape It is common but not necessary to use semi-closed slots Magnetic slot wedges is also an option Two-layer fractional windings are mostly used even though the simplicity of concentrated windings is spreading The active materials are placed along the air gap (Figure 42) For large diameters, this means that the active material becomes a thin shell around the air gap, thus most of the volume to the machine is air or supporting structures to transfer the torque to or from the shaft

to the rotor rim Since the force is acting at a large radius, a high torque is produced

• Axial flux permanent magnet

Axial flux machines are magnetized in the axial direction The air gap is radial to the shaft Compared to RFPM, given the same outer diameter and the same force/area, axial flux permanent magnet (AFPM) have a lower (torque/volume of active material) The advantage of AFPM is the possibility to use the volume of the machine more efficiently AFPM are usually disk-shaped, with large diameter and short length (Figure 43)

Blade rotation

Ug, fg

Umr, fmr

n

Synchronus generator

Figure 42 Radial flux permanent magnet magnetization From Bang D, Polinder H, Shrestha G, and Ferreira JA (2008) Review of generator systems for direct-drive wind turbines Proceedings, EWEC : European Wind Energy Association, Brussels

Figure 43 An axial flux permanent magnet From Bang D, Polinder H, Shrestha G, and Ferreira JA (2008) Review of generator systems for direct-drive wind turbines Proceedings, EWEC : European Wind Energy Association, Brussels

Several disks can be connected in series and make a multidisk machine The rotor can be made with surface-mounted or buried magnets The stator can likewise use various teeth and windings designs It may employ ironless stators, a fact that reduces iron losses, which makes it possible to cool the windings more effectively and eliminates the attractive forces between the magnets in the rotor and the iron in the stator It, however, increases the need for magnets AFPM types are not used in machines with power over 1 MW

Figure 44 Lagerwey’s permanent magnet wind turbine From Lagerwey, www.lagerweywind.nl

Figure 45 The switch permanent magnet generator and performance From The Switch brochure, www.theswitch.com

It was the Dutch firm Lagerwey who first used a PM generator developed by ABB, in a large wind turbine (Figure 44) The Finnish firm, The Switch, manufactures a 3800 kW, 17.5 rpm low-speed PM wind generator Its rated frequency is 17.5 Hz, maximum speed is 21 rpm, cos φ is 0.85, has a diameter of 6.6 m, and weighs 85 tons (Figure 45) The company claims its generator produces 20% more energy than corresponding induction machines

2.10.3.2.2(iv) Planetary gearbox medium-speed PM

Directly driven generators are operated in low speeds and thus have disadvantages, such as large diameter, heavy weight, and high cost With increasing rated power levels, and the associated decrease of wind turbine rotor speeds, these systems are becoming even larger and more expensive, thus presenting higher technical difficulties of transport and assembly

To overcome these shortcomings, a mixed solution, introduced by Areva Multibrid, is proposed Their system, termed the M5000, consists of a single-stage planetary gearbox and a medium-speed PM generator (Figures 46 and 47) [12, 13]

In this technology, the generator, gearbox, main shaft, and shaft bearing are integrated in a common enclosure The common generator-gearbox housing is supported by a tubular bedplate structure A double-tapered roller-bearing connects the rotor with the machine housing The helical planetary gear train ensures the optimal lubrication of all shafts and wheels (Figure 48)

The PM synchronous generator is directly installed in the machine housing and its rotor is directly mounted on the output shaft

of the gearbox with no bearings (data in Table 2)

Similarly to other indirect to grid configurations, a back-to-back pulse-width modulator (PWM) full-scale power electronic converter is used to interface between the stator of the PM generator and the grid This consists of a generator-side converter, a grid-side converter, and a DC-link capacitor The use of the full-scale converter facilitates the operation of the wind turbine at its maximum efficiency (Figure 50)

Tower

Yaw bearing Hub

Planetary gear carrier Gearbox casing

Rotor bearing Water cooling jacket

Generator casing

Generator bearing Coupling

Figure 46 Configuration of Multibrid’s generator design From Li H, Chen Z, and Polinder H (2009) Optimization of multibrid permanent-magnet wind generator systems IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion 24: 82–92

Figure 47 Combined gearbox – permanent magnet generator system From Multibrid, www.multibrid.com

Figure 48 Rotor bearing/gearbox of AREVA Multibrid M5000 From Multibrid, www.multibrid.com

2.10.3.3 Power Electronics

Power electronics is of increasing importance in current wind turbines Surely, they are most needed in variable-speed types, since the generator frequency has to be decoupled from the grid However, even in fixed-speed machines, thyristors are used as soft starters Power electronics serve two parallel purposes:

1 To ensure compliance of the wind turbine’s generated power waveform with the grid requirements

2 To protect the wind turbine elements from possible grid faults (voltage drop or rise, etc.)

The most important grid-related properties of a wind turbine’s electricity production system are briefly discussed These are not applicable of course in stand-alone systems

Power factor (grid) 0.9 inductive, 0.9 capacitive

a The actual power curve is as shown in Figure 49

Figure 49 Multibrid M5000 power curve From Multibrid, www.multibrid.com

Grid Single-stage

Convertergearbox

PMSG Figure 50 Interconnection of the planetary gear PM synchronous generator

2.10.3.3.1 Harmonics

Only variable-speed wind turbines inject significant harmonic currents into the network Fixed-speed wind turbines, particularly those with power factor correction capacitors, alter the harmonic impedance of the distribution network and, in some circumstance, create resonant circuits This may be important if fixed- and variable-speed wind turbines are installed in the same wind farm It is noted in IEC (2000b) [26] that harmonic currents have been reported from a few installations of fixed-speed induction generator wind turbines but there is no known instance of customer annoyance or equipment damage due to harmonic currents from fixed-speed wind turbines

2.10.3.3.2 Ride through

The emergence of new grid codes poses a new challenge: the ride-through capability during voltage sags, that is, the wind farms should be able to continuously supply the network during voltage sags One such grid code voltage sag profile for ride through is shown in Figure 51 [14]

The compliance of the various types of wind turbines to the grid requirements depends on the specific type In Table 3 is summarized the response of various configurations to the most important grid conditions [15]

2.10.3.3.3 Fixed-speed systems

As already discussed, fixed-speed systems employ induction generators directly connected to the grid This configuration dictates the need for power electronics aiming at two targets:

1 Smooth connection–disconnection from the grid

2 Compensation of generator no-load reactive power consumption

These two requirements are met by the use of soft starters and capacitor banks (Figure 52)

0

0 0.25 0.50 0.75

Figure 51 Voltage sag response requirement From Molinas M, Naess B, Gullvik W, and Undeland T (2005) Cage induction generators for wind turbines with power electronics converters in the light of the new grid codes In EPE 2005, 11th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications, Dresden, Germany

Table 3 Grid-related performance of wind turbines

FSS – SR/ASR VSS – PR, DFIG VSS – PR, full-power PEC Steady-state voltage impact Uncontrolled Controlled Controlled

Start-up voltage disturbances Medium Low Low Fault response Uncontrolled Semi-controlled Controlled ASR, active stall-regulated turbine; DFIG, doubly fed induction generator; FSS, fixed-speed system; PEC, power electronic converter; PR, pitch-regulated turbine; SR, stall-regulated turbine; THD, total harmonic distortion; VSS, variable-speed system

2.10.3.3.3(i) Soft starter

The soft starter is an electronic device aiming at reducing transient currents during connection or disconnection from the grid The latter happens when the generator speed exceeds the synchronous speed Using thyristors controlled by their firing angle, the generator is smoothly connected to the grid over a predefined number of grid periods (Figure 53)

The commutating devices are two thyristors for each phase, connected antiparallel The relationship of the firing angle, α, and the soft-starter amplification is nonlinear and also depends on the power factor of the connected element For resistive loads, α varies between 0 and 90°, while in the case of an inductive load between 90 and 180°

Usually, when the generator is completely connected to the grid, a contactor (Kbyp) bypasses the soft starter in order to reduce the losses

In this way, the device produces varying harmonics as the firing angle of the thyristors is altered, but since they are only used for a few seconds during the connection of the induction generator, for this short period the effect of the harmonics is considered to be harmless and may be ignored (IEC, 2000b) If the antiparallel thyristors are not by-passed, then their harmonic currents need to be assessed

2.10.3.3.3(ii) Capacitor banks

For the power factor compensation of the reactive power in the generator, AC capacitor banks are used The generators are normally compensated into whole power range The switching of capacitors is done as a function of the average value of measured reactive power during a certain period In order to reduce the current at connection/disconnection of capacitors, a coil, L, can be connected in

Various configurations have been used for partial load converters in slip-ring induction generators [18] These include:

• Simple uncontrolled diode rectifier at the machine slip-rings and a line-commutated phase-controlled thyristor inverter [19] (Figure 55) This configuration suffers from poor power factor and harmonic distortion problems, generator operation limited only at supersynchronous speeds and nonharmonic distortion currents injected to the network

• Cycloconverters, implemented in very large wind turbines [20], interface the rotor circuit to the bus In this case, the generator operating region is extended below synchronous speed, although the overall speed control range is typically restricted between

 15% of synchronous speed In addition, reactive power control at the output is possible and improved efficiency and torque behavior can be achieved through the implementation of field-oriented control schemes Yet, the high cost and complexity of the cycloconverters render this solution unfavorable

Grid

IG

Step-down transformer

Diode rectifier Line-Commutated

thyristor inverter Figure 55 Slip-ring power conversion From Kundur P (1994) Power System Stability and Control New York, NY: McGraw Hill, Inc

2 < Ng < 8

8 < Ng < 18

2.10.3.3.4(ii) Full-power converters

The back-to-back PWM voltage source inverter (VSI) is a bidirectional power converter consisting of two conventional PWM VSIs The topology is shown in Figure 56

To achieve full control of the grid current, the DC-link voltage must be boosted to a level higher than the amplitude of the grid line–line voltage The power flow of the grid side converter is controlled in order to keep the DC-link voltage constant, while the control of the generator side is set to suit the magnetization demand and the reference speed

The PWM VSI is the most frequently used three-phase frequency converter Many manufacturers produce components especially designed for use in this type of converter (e.g., a transistor pack comprising six bridge-coupled transistors and antiparalleled diodes) Due to this, the component costs can be low compared to converters requiring components designed for a niche production

A technical advantage of the PWM VSI is the capacitor decoupling between the grid inverter and the generator inverter Besides affording some protection, this decoupling offers separate control of the two inverters, allowing compensation of asymmetry both

on the generator side and on the grid side, independently The inclusion of a boost inductance in the DC-link circuit increases the component count, but a positive effect is that the boost inductance reduces the demands on the performance of the grid-side harmonic filter, and offers some protection of the converter against abnormal conditions on the grid