Production Function of Planted Mangroves in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve, Mekong Delta, Vietnam Authors: Nguyen Thi Kim Cuc and Erik D.. Production function of planted mangroves in Thanh Phu
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Production Function of Planted Mangroves in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve,
Mekong Delta, Vietnam
Author(s): Nguyen Thi Kim Cuc and Erik D de Ruyter van Steveninck
Source: Journal of Coastal Research, 31(5):1084-1090.
Published By: Coastal Education and Research Foundation
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-13-00104.1
URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-13-00104.1
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Trang 2Water Science and Engineering Department
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education
Delft, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
Cuc, N.T.K and Ruyter van Stenvenick, E.D de, 2015 Production function of planted mangroves in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve, Mekong Delta, Vietnam Journal of Coastal Research, 31(5), 1084–1090 Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208
Through assessment of forest structure, biomass of mangrove plantations in the Thanh Phu Nature Reserve, Mekong Delta, Vietnam was analyzed in correlation with diameter at breast height (DBH, i.e at 1.3 m height) Study plots were set up in 7, 11–22, and 26-year-old planted Rhizophora apiculata Blume plantations There is a significant inverse correlation between DBH and tree density (R2¼ 0.73; p , 0.01) To derive an allometric relation to estimate aboveground biomass, 32 trees representing all ages were chosen randomly and harvested at ground level to examine allometric relations We measured the fresh and dry weight of stems (WS), branches (WB), leaves (WL), and aboveground stilt roots (WR) in situ Allometric relationships were satisfied best with DBH as an independent variable (R2¼ 0.72, 0.89, 0.87, 0.98, and 0.97 for leaves, branches, stilt roots, stem, and total aboveground biomass, respectively; p , 0.001) The total aboveground biomass was estimated in the plantations to vary between 76 and 320 tons/ha Of this, more than 50% of total aboveground biomass was represented by stems The estimated biomass value of this study is consistent with that
of other mangroves in the world Total biomass of R apiculata plantation in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve accounted for about 170,057 tons dry weight or 8056 tons C
ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Mangrove plantation, Rhizophora apiculata, aboveground biomass
INTRODUCTION
Mangroves are among the most important and productive
ecosystems in tropical and subtropical regions (Ong, 1993)
They provide a variety of ecosystem services, such as sources
of food (fish, shellfish, crabs, etc.) timber, fuel wood, and
nursery grounds for many commercially important aquatic
organisms Mangroves stabilize coastlines and in many cases
promote coastal accretion, providing a natural barrier
against storms, cyclones, tidal bores, flooding, and other
potentially damaging natural forces (Alongi, 2008, 2009;
Giesen et al., 2007; Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007; Peter, 1999;
Tri, Adger, and Kelly, 1998)
However, mangrove forests have declined significantly in
SE Asia over the past four decades (1970s–2000s) The main
reasons for mangrove loss and degradation have been
population pressure resulting in wood extraction and
con-version to other land uses such as shrimp ponds, agricultural
fields, salt pans, settlements, ports, and industrial estates
The resulting environmental impacts have contributed to the
decline and degradation of mangrove resources (Hong, 1991;
Hong and San, 1993; Macintosh, Ashton, and Havanon, 2002;
Ong, Gong, and Clough, 1995) Recently, people have begun
to appreciate the true value of mangroves, and a growing awareness of the impacts of forest loss has led to renewed efforts to protect and restore mangroves There are also increasing efforts by governments, nongovernmental orga-nizations, and local communities around the world to conserve and rehabilitate mangroves and to manage them
in a more sustainable way
In the context of climate change, mangroves are known to provide options for both adaptation and mitigation According
to Alongi (2008), mangroves function as coastal protection to chronic disturbance events (including climate change) How-ever, the future of mangroves in the face of global change is at risk In order to maintain mangrove functions and services, both quantity and quality of mangrove forest should be preserved Therefore, to support the effort to protect, conserve, and develop mangrove areas, quantitative studies on their functions and services are essential
Estimation of total biomass in woody ecosystems is important because of its relevance to nutrient turnover and the potential to store carbon There are several studies on the biomass of mangroves worldwide However, their values are very site specific For example, in low latitudes, primary or mature mangrove forests generally have high aboveground biomass On the other hand, the aboveground biomass is always low in temperate areas and may be related to
DOI: 10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-13-00104.1 received 4 May 2013;
accepted in revision 21 July 2013; corrected proofs received
12 November 2013; published pre-print online 19 December 2013
*Corresponding author: nguyencuc@wru.edu.vn
ÓCoastal Education and Research Foundation, Inc 2015
Trang 3different climatic conditions, such as temperature, solar
radiation, precipitation, and frequency of storms
(Komiya-ma, Ong, and Poungparn, 2008) This study focuses on a
quantitative assessment of aboveground biomass and its
partitioning over various tree components with the primary
objectives of deriving allometric regression equations for
total aboveground biomass and for leaf, branch, stem, and
stilt root biomass of Rhizophora apiculata in plantations in
Thanh Phu Nature Reserve, Mekong Delta, Vietnam
RESEARCH SITE AND METHODS
Research Site
This study was carried out in 2010 and 2011 in Thanh Phu
Nature Reserve, Ben Tre Province, Vietnam (Figure 1) Ben
Tre is a coastal province in the Mekong Delta Thanh Phu
Nature Reserve covers an area of 4800 ha and comprises the
section of the Mekong Delta coastal zone between the Co
Chien and Ham Luong estuaries (two of the mouths of the
Mekong River) It is strongly controlled by tides from the sea
and the water regime of the Mekong River As is the case with
other sites on the eastern coastline of the Mekong Delta,
Thanh Phu Nature Reserve is strongly affected by erosion as
well as accretion The coastal landscape at Thanh Phu is
made up of the following elements: natural mangrove
swamp, mangrove plantation, mudflat, sandy beach belts,
natural water ways, and shrimp ponds (Pham, 2003)
About 60 species of real mangroves were recorded in the
reserve The dominant species in the site are R apiculata,
Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis, Sonneratia spp.,
and Excoecaria agalloccha More than 80% of the study site is
covered by R apiculata plantation Rhizophora apiculata is
found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the midintertidal region It is a hardy, fast-growing species that can grow up to
30 m Although it can tolerate a salinity of 65 ppt, for optimal growth a salinity range of 8–15 ppt is required (Robertson and Alongi, 1995)
Several other communities consist of natural vegetation, such as Sonneratia alba on mudflats inundated by low tide, Avicennia alba on clay or sandy soils inundated by medium tide, mixed communities of A alba, A officinalis, Rhizophora mucronata, Bruiguiera sexangula on hard clay soil inundated
by medium tide, and R mucronata, A alba, A officinalis, B sexangula on hard clay inundated by high tide However, these communities occur as fringes covering only small areas close to channels or river banks
These mangroves are an important habitat for a number of aquatic organisms, including some with high economic value The site provides habitats for 60 bird species, 27 species of reptiles, 8 species of frogs, and 16 species of mammals Five species of the 20 shrimp species are of high commercial value Ninety-eight species of fish use habitats at the site, including
63 saltwater fish, 32 brackish water species, and 3 fresh water species The site is very valuable to local communities for extensive aquaculture (Pham, 2003)
MATERIALS AND METHODS Coverage and Stand Structure
Current mangrove coverage in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve is the result of long-term succession of the vegetation in the area from a series of human impacts Before the 1960s, 90% of Thanh Phu was covered by natural mangroves (Sub-FIPI II, 1998) During the war, the mangroves were destroyed by sprayed Figure 1 Study area in Thanh Phu Natural Reserve, Vietnam.
Trang 4dioxin Most of the existing mangroves in Thanh Phu Nature
Reserve now are planted forest of R apiculata Another small
percentage of the area is natural regeneration of Sonneratia
caseolaris intermixed with A alba and A officinalis
According to the Vo Van Nagan Head of Thanh Phu Nature
Reserve Management Board (personal communication, 2011),
R apiculata was planted in mud flats with existing A alba at a
density of 10,000 trees/ha The forest that was planted before
1985 was totally harvested as production forest in 1995 All the
remaining mangroves in the area were planted from 1985 to
2004, with the highest proportion planted in 1995 and 1997
(Table 1)
Existing mangroves in the study site range from 7 to 26 years
old and cover an area of 803.9 ha The highest proportion
belongs to 14 and 16-year-old forest covering more than 140 ha
Thirty plots each of 10 m 3 10 m were set in 7, 11–22, and
26-year-old planted R apiculata forest Following English,
Wilkinson, and Baker (1994) and Clough, Dixon, and Dalhaus
(1997), we measured the following variables of all the R
apiculata trees present in the plots:
(1) density of trees and stilt roots
(2) root diameter and height
(3) tree diameter at breast height (DBH), a height of 1.3 m
(4) height from stratum (bed of sediment/sediment level) to
the first branch
(5) height from stratum to the first leaf
(6) height from stratum to the top of the tree
The number of trees of other species was counted
Aboveground Biomass
Aboveground biomass was measured for 32 trees
represent-ing all ages to assess allometric relations These trees were
chosen randomly and harvested at ground level Fresh weight of
stems (WS), branches (WB), leaves (WL), and aboveground stilt
roots (WR) were measured in situ Subsamples of each part were
taken for determining the fresh weight to dry weight ratio Dry
weights were obtained after oven drying for 2 days at 808C The
aboveground dry weight of trees (wAB) was estimated from the
dry to fresh weight ratios of the samples (wSþ wBþ wLþ wR)
Allometry makes use of the fact that there is proportionality
between the relative growths of two different parts of the plant
The relationship between the two variables can be expressed by the generalized allometric equation:
where x is the independent variable, y the dependent variable, and b and k are the allometric constants
Following Boone et al (2011), carbon content of trees was calculated as the product of tree biomass multiplied by wood carbon content However, the content in different species and structures is different For example, in Micronesia in the western Pacific Ocean, carbon content in Bruguiera gymnor-rhiza was 46.3%, in R apiculata 45.9%, and in S alba 47.1%, with an average for all species of 46.4% (Boone et al., 2011) This carbon content of 45.9% for R apiculata has been used to calculate the partitions and aboveground carbon of mangrove trees in the present study
RESULTS Coverage and Stand Structure
In the study area, R apiculata accounted for more than 90%
of the number of trees The two species, S alba and Avicennia spp coexisted in the vegetation The stem density of R apiculata in the area varied with stand age and ranged from
1850 to 14,700 trees/ha (Table 2) Correlation between density and DBH of the mangrove trees in the study area is significant
at the 0.01 level with R2¼ 0.73 (Figure 2) The height of the trees in the study area ranged from 7.92 m to 13.22 m
Aboveground Biomass
Aboveground biomass correlated positively with stem DBH for leaves, branches, stilt roots, stems, and total aboveground biomass (R2¼ 0.72–0.97; p , 0.001; Figure 3) Combining these equations with tree densities in the study plots, total aboveground mangrove biomass ranged from 76 to 320 tons/
ha, depending on the age of the plots (Table 3) More than 50%
of aboveground biomass was accounted for by stems Stilt root and branches have almost the same proportion of 18% The smallest contribution came from leaves Total biomass of the planted mangroves in Thanh Phu Nature Reserve equals 170,057 tons dry weight, with an estimated 8056 tons of carbon (Table 3)
Trang 5In newly planted plots, the density of the vegetation is mainly
dependent on mortality rates Results from previous research
in the area show that density of planted mangroves was 8500–
8800 trees/ha in 2–5-year-old plantations (Sub-FIPI II, 2003)
Subsequently, density relies upon self-thinning and natural
regeneration processes Besides natural processes, the density
of vegetation in the study area is affected by human activities
Mangrove species are long-lived perennials with long
reproductive lives According to Hutchings and Saenger
(1987), flower primordials develop on plants when they are 3
to 4 years old Kandelia candel in Longhai, Fujian, China,
started flowering and producing propagules at about 8 years
old, and the number and density of flowers varied among plants
of different ages (Chen, 2000) In our study area, R apiculata
begins to flower and produce propagules after about 5 years
(personal observation) Natural regeneration led to an increase
of tree density with stand age and to increased variation
between the smallest and the largest tree diameters, heights,
and basal areas This early start of flowering resulted in an
increase of tree density in older plantations
As Clough and Scott (1989) have pointed out, in dense
mangrove stands, height is not a parameter that can be
estimated rapidly for each tree over relatively large mangrove
areas, but since the simple form of the relationship (using only
DBH) provides an accurate estimate, there is no need for
additional input variables
The coefficient of determination of the relationships between
DBH and weight of tree organs was the highest in stem weight,
and coefficients exceeded 0.8 for all components except weight
of leaves (R2¼ 0.72) These results agree well with those of
Clough (1992) that allometric relationships between stem
diameter and weight of leaves and propagules are generally
less robust than those for stem weight or total weight, because
leaves and propagules are more easily broken off the tree by
strong winds and waves Moreover, weights of leaves and
propagules may have phenological variations even within trees
of the same age
Selected allometric equations for various mangrove species
for aboveground biomass in relation to DBH (in centimeters)
are provided in Table 4
The allometric relations were stronger when only DBH was
used as the independent variable Several studies suggested
that estimation of biomass on the basis of a combination of tree height and stem diameter is less robust than when either are measured alone (Clough, Dixon, and Dalhaus, 1997;
Komiya-ma et al., 1988, 2000; Tam et al., 1995) Moreover, the height of individual trees is difficult to measure accurately in an extensive closed canopy These factors make diameter easier
to obtain in the field than height, and thus DBH is a useful variable for estimating mangrove biomass, in addition to the accuracy of the allometric relation Diameter at 1.3 m height was also used to estimate biomass components of mangroves in Biscayne National Park, Florida (Michael et al., 2001); in Satun Province, southern Thailand (Komiyama et al., 2000); and in the north of Vietnam (Cuc and Ninomiya, 2007)
Several studies that have used regressions to investigate biomass adopt the DBH or the perimeter at breast height as the independent variable (Soares, 1997) For mangrove communi-ties the following studies have adopted these independent variables: Amarasinghe and Balasubramaniam (1992); Cin-tron and Schaeffer-Novelli (1984); Clough and Scott (1989); Fromard et al (1998); Gong and Ong (1995); Imbert and Rollet (1989); Ong, Gong, and Wong (1980, 2004); Ong et al (1984); Putz and Chan (1986); Silva (1988); Slim and Gwada (1993); Steinke, Ward, and Raijh (1995); Sukardjo and Yamada (1992); Tam et al (1995) However, some studies used equations based
on height and DBH for the estimation of aboveground biomass
of mangrove species (Cintron and Schaeffer-Novelli, 1984; Imbert and Rollet, 1989; Lee, 1990; Suzuki and Tagawa, 1983) Mackey (1993) calculated the biomass of individuals using predictive regression of biomass on height or girth In the same way, Sherman, Fahey, and Martinez (2003) found high significant allometric relationships between tree parabolic
Figure 2 Correlation (p , 0.01) between diameter at breast height (DBH at
1.3 m in cm) and tree density of the mangrove trees in Thanh Phu Natural
Reserve, Vietnam.
Figure 3 Allometric relations (p , 0.001) between diameter at breast height (DBH at 1.3 m in cm) and leaves, branches, stilt roots, stem, and aboveground biomass in Thanh Phu Natural Reserve, Vietnam.
Trang 6volume (which is based on height and DBH) and aboveground
biomass components (total, leaf, trunk, branch, and prop roots)
Ross et al (2001) studying Avicennia germinans,
Laguncu-laria racemosa, and Rhizophora mangle mangroves in America
used both simple and multiple regression models for the
estimation of aboveground biomass They developed models for
stem, branch, leaf, stilt root, and total biomass estimation,
based on diameter at 30 cm above ground, height, and crown
volume Fromard et al (1998) also estimated the biomass of A
germinans, L racemosa, and Rhizophora spp through the use
of DBH as an independent variable Komiyama et al (2002)
explain that the allometric relationship for stem weight is
usually expressed as a function of stem diameter and height,
such as DBH2H, which differs between tree species, forcing the
determination of a series of allometric equations for all tree
species The species-specific allometric relationships were
analyzed based on the specific gravity of stems, with the aim
of establishing a common equation for predicting the stem
weight of mangroves
The total aboveground biomass of the mangrove stands
ranged from 76 to 320 tons dry weight (DW)/ha (Table 3) The
differences in biomass were due mainly to the differences in
stand age The ratio of partitioning biomass to total
above-ground biomass ranged from 10% to 55% for leaves, branches,
stilt roots, and stems The proportion of stem biomass is highest This result is normal for woody plants that add secondary growth A similar trend of high biomass accumula-tion in nonphotosynthetic organs in mature forest was reported
by Komiyama et al (1988)
The biomasses in this study are comparable with those of some other primary forests, such as those in Halmahera, Indonesia, and Andaman Island, India (Komiyama et al., 1988); 15-year-old R apiculata in Phuket, Thailand (Christensen, 1978); and 28-year-old forest in Matang, Malaysia (Ong, Gong, and Wong, 1982) of 357, 159, and 212 tons/ha, respectively, but smaller than those estimated in some natural mangroves or very mature forests (Komiyama et al., 1988; Putz and Chan, 1986) of 270 and 299 tons/ha, respectively The variation in net primary productivity of mangrove species may be related to the geographical location (Clough, 1992), species, stand density, and growing season (Aksornkoae, 1993), as well as stand age (Ong, Gong, and Wong, 1985) Apart from the geographical location and forest structural attributes, the net primary productivity depends on abiotic factors such as hypoxic conditions, tidal height, frequency of tidal inundation, avail-ability of nutrients, salinity, and climatic factors (Aksornkoae, 1993; Hutchings and Saenger, 1987)
Table 4 Allometric relations between diameter at breast height (DBH at 1.3 m in cm) and aboveground tree weight (W top in kg) for various mangrove species Data compiled from Komiyama, Ong, and Poungparn (2008).
Trang 7More and more mangroves around the world are affected by
human activities, and all may be influenced by global changes
in climate or sea level Because mangrove coverage is being
reduced, we hope that future exploitation of mangroves will be
preceded by environmental impact assessments that will
include estimates of biomass
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Department of Agriculture and Rural
Develop-ment of Ben Tre Province and Thanh Phu Nature Reserve’s
Management Board for their unstinting support for data
collection and field survey The work reported here was
undertaken as part of the research programme ‘‘PRoACC—
Post-doctoral Research Programme on Climate Change
Adaptation in the Mekong River Basin.’’ The project is
funded by the Netherlands Ministry of Development
Cooper-ation (DGIS) through the UNESCO-IHE Partnership
Re-search Fund This reRe-search project is a joint initiative of
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education and many
partner institutions in the Lower Mekong countries and
China
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