Leadership and communication the realtions of leaders leadership styles with communication styles of intermediate managers of ESSONS group vietnam

LEADERSHIP AND COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION STYLES OF INTERMEDIATE MANAGERS OF ESSONS GROUP VIET NAM... LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 ~12 : General Information about Essons Group Viet Nam Figu

LEADERSHIP AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION STYLES OF INTERMEDIATE MANAGERS OF

ESSONS GROUP VIET NAM

STUDENT’S FULL NAME : BUI VAN THIEU STUDENT ID : CGS00019081 INTAKE : NOV, 2014 ADVISOR?S NAME & TITLE : DR BUI PHI HUNG

_ HCMC, Apr 2016 HUTECH LIBRARY

Advisor’s assessment

Advisor’s signature

TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FLGURES - 55-5-5552 S914 410483018019 110100100000800010010000 5 LIST OF TABLIES - <5 n9 11111E1110000000000000010101801 0 5 ABSTR.ACTT - 5< << 5< 5< s4 E253 3198040010590 12100110740140007000100000021 056 6 CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION 2< 55<5<s<Sseesssieesaierarseseranssee 6 1.1 Company IntroductiOn -. + cnteeererthhhrtttrrrrrrrrrrrtrrrrrrrrrerrrree 6 1.2 Research Introduction cece seeeee recess nee rseesenseeeneeeneeveeraeteereessenseestensennenee 14 1.2.1 xo ong 15 1.2.2 Purpose of the sfudy - chim nrrre 15 1.2.3 The scope of the research - ccnehnhhrrhrrrdrririrrrdrrrerrrrre 16 1.2.4 Research queSfIO'S 5-5 nhe rrrrrrrrrirrrrrrrere 16 CHAPTER II — LITERATURE REVIEW :ccscsssssessesssoserssecsnenscescensenesssensonens 16 2.1 Leadership definition 0.0.0.0 ccs ceneteeeeeeseeeseeteseeserseresessenenenenensnenenensanaes 16

2.2 Leadership styles .cescscsecseseeseseseneenseenensaseseensesrsneseesesenenensaeneeeeagy se J7

2.3 Communication defimition 0 cece esceceseeeeneeseeseneceersenseseaeeensesenseneeneens 20 2.4 Communication styÌes Ăn tri 20 2.5 Communication and Leadership styÌes - + ssnnrhirrrrrrirrrrdirie 24 CHAPTER III: RESEACH MODEL AND HYPOTHESES se 28 E8: (Có on 28 3.1.1 Depenđent Variables: - + cennneneenrrrrrdrrrrrrrrrrrrrrirrrrrrirrr 29 3.1.2 Independent Variables: -.-. -:cnnhrrrrrrrtrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr 29 3.2 Research Hypothese€s - sec srnrrtnrnhtehhehrritrrrrrrrrrrrtrirrrrrrmerrrre 30

3.4 Research PartiCiparis - sec tren 31

3.5 Procedure for Data Collection and Analyze sen 39 CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS AND RESUL,TS . -es<seseeeersneeseerersee 33 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of the respondents - sọ 33 8) On e e ẽe eeằeằằe 34 4.2.1 Leadership Styles analysis -cehnenrrrrrretrrmerirrrreree 35

4.2.2 Communication styles anaÌy§iS_ niehhererrrrtrrrrrre 36 4.3 Hypotheses Testing cntrthhntrrrrrtrrrrrrrrtrrrrrrrrrrrrrrirrrrrrrrrre 38 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION -csesằSeSeeseeieriniesieeeseereereereerene +238 5.1 Leadership Styles: .c.cccccscesesseeteesrererssestenesesnamenenerseasananetensonensaeensereney 39 5.2 Communication Styles: 2 cccccscseeeeneteeererseerssseneneneneneescnenensnsianeneraceneny 40 5.3 Leadership styles and Communication Styles cccsseteeereteeees se eeeeeteenes 41 5.4 Limitations and Further Research Recommendation - 50

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 ~12 : General Information about Essons Group Viet Nam

Figure 13: The Organization of Essons Group Viet Nam

Figure 14: Proposed Research Model of Leadership styles and Communication Styles

in Essons Group VN

Figure 15: A summary of demographic characteristics of the respondents

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Leadership styles analysis

Table 2: Leadership Styles Summary

Table 3: Leadership Styles Allocation Percentage

Table 4: Communication Styles Analysis

Table 5: Communication Styles Allocation Percentage

Table 6: Leadership Styles and Communication Styles relations Assumption

Table 7: The relationship between Leadership Styles and Communication Styles in General

Table 8: The relationship between Authoritarian Leadership Style and Agpressive

ABSTRACT This article focuses on discussing the existence of Leadership Styles and Communication Styles as well as the correlation between them The core of leadership contains power and traits; cognitive, affective, and technical competence overlay the leadership core The core and its overlaid competences express leadership existence Three main styles of leadership existence are Authoritarian (task — oriented) style, Democratic (charismatic) Style, Laissez-faire (human-oriented)

style Each leadership style has its own specific competence

Communication styles:

The way you communicate has a big impact on how you get on with people and get the things you want Good communication skills can help you avoid conflict and solve problems — they’re also important for making friends and having healthy relationships

There are three main styles of communicating — passive, aggressive, and

assertive

Passive communication involves putting your needs last You don’t express your thoughts or feelings, or ask for what you want When you use passive communication

it feels like others are walking all over you because you don’t assert your own needs

So you bottle things up and might feel resentful The assumption behind passive communication is ‘my needs don’t matter’ (you win/I lose — and I resent you for that) Aggressive communication is expressed in a forceful and hostile manner, and usually involves alienating messages such as ‘you-statements’ (blaming the other person and accusing them of being wrong or at fault) and labelling In addition, the person’s tone of voice and facial expressions are unfriendly The assumption behind aggressive communication is ‘your needs don’t matter’ (I win/you lose)

Assertive communication involves clearly expressing what you think, how you feel and what you want, without demanding that you must have things your way The basic underlying assumption is ‘we both matter — let’s try to work this out’ Assertive

communication increases your likelihood of getting what you want, avoiding conflict and maintaining good relationships (I win/you win) When you are assertive you can: express your own thoughts, feelings and needs make reasonable requests of other people stand up for your own rights say ‘no’ to requests from others at times, without feeling guilty

Poor communication often creates tension and bad feelings within relationships

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relations between leaders’ communication styles and Authoritarian (task — oriented) style, Democratic (charismatic) Style, Laissez-faire (human-oriented) style of inter-mediate managers of ESSONS Group Viet Nam

Asurvey was’ conducted among 12 Intermediate Managers of a firm organization The following three communication styles were operationalized: passive, aggressive, and assertive Correlation analyses were employed to test three main hypotheses

Findings In line with expectations, the study showed that Democratic (charismatic) Style and Assertive Communication Style are mainly Leadership Style and Communication Style, while Authoritarian (task — oriented) Leadership Style and Aggressive Communication Style are significantly less than the others

Implications: This study offers potentially invaluable input for leadership

training programs by showing the importance of leader's supportiveness, assuredness, and preciseness when communicating with subordinates Originality/value although one of the core elements of leadership is interpersonal communication, this study is one of the first to use a comprehensive communication styles instrument in the study of leadership

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Company introduction

ESSONS (TAJAN) RUBBER INDUSTRIAL Corp

v The company is a member of ESSONS Group which was established in

Taiwan, in 1978 by Mr Yu Chia Shun

Y Manufacturer of rubber and engineered plastic parts for Motorbike,

Automotive Industrial parts for O.E.M and aftermarket

Y Provide precise, custom molded seals specially manufactured to meet

customers' requirements with Short-medium run, quick turn-around

production capabilities

Y The first verse as-funded Rubber Manufacture in Vietnam with more than 18

years of experience in OEM supply

Y Became an OE Supplier of Motorcycle Industry in Vietnam since 1994

The Company received:

Y Honored the Best Supplier in 2006 by Yamaha Motor Vietnam

Y In 2010 has been awarded the excellent supplier by MAHLE, China

Head office of the Company

Tajan Rubber tndustrial Corp

“Established : Vear 1904 ucts:

-Production Area : 14.000 squere meter Rubber Parts for Motorcycles

“Location: Bienhos Clty, Dongnal Province, Vietnam - Oo Rings -Tota! investment : USD 6 Millions - Waaners -Empioyees : 500 ~ Ol) Seate 180/75 16949: 2009 Certified - Custom Moided Parts -ISO9001: 2008 Certified - Fabric Reinforced Olaphragms -One of the Beat Suppliers tor YAMAHA Motors + Valve Stem Soste - Rubber Gaekete

- Rubber-Bonded to Metal Parte

F1: Essons Group Factory VN

The product market of the Group

Vietnam (North) FO%

Vietnam

Goeouth)

OVictnam (North)

F2: Market share of Essons Group VN The awards Company received

ISO 9001:2000 & ISO/TS16949:2002

Ra Certificat

Some pictures about the products and production line of the Company

Molding

Compression Machines Injection Machines

Inspection

100% Visual Inspection

F5: Inspection line of Essons Group VN

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Laboratory |

Dim Measurement Machine&

Automatic Inspection Machine

Typical Products of Essons Group VN

Custom Molded Parts

ESSONS 7L

Typical Products of Essons Group VN

12

ESSONSSZ

F11: Typical Products of Essons Group VN

13

Application

in industries

ESSONS 1?

F12: Typical Products of Essons Group VN

BS TAJAN RUBBER IXID CORP

1.2 Research introduction

1.2.1 Problem statement

A leader must be able to communicate effectively When CEOs and other

senior executives in all industries and countries are asked to list the most

important skills a manager must possess, the answer consistently includes — good communication skills Managers spend most of their day engaged in communication; in fact, older studies of how much time managers spend on various activities show that communication occupies 70 to 90 percent of their time every day

(Mintzberg, 1973; Eccles & Nohria, 1991) With cell phones, e-mail, text messaging, if that same study were done today, it would yield even higher percentages The sheer amount of time managers spend communicating underscores how important strong communication skills can be for the manager desiring to advance to leadership positions; thus, mastering leadership communication should be a priority for managers wanting their organizations or the broader business community to consider them leaders

Connecting Leadership and Communication

Researchers seldom agree completely on how best to define leadership, but most would agree that leaders are individuals who guide, direct, motivate, or inspire others They are the men and women who influence others in an organization or in a community They command others’ attention They persuade others to follow them or pursue goals they define They control situations They improve the performance of groups and organizations They get results These individuals may not be presidents of countries or the CEOs

of companies, but they could be They could also be employees who step forward to mentor less experienced or younger employees, managers who direct successful project teams, or vice presidents who lead divisions and motivate their staff to achieve company goals

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Through effective communication, leaders lead Good communication skills enable, foster, and create the understanding and trust necessary to encourage others to follow a leader Without effective communication, a manager accomplishes little Without effective communication, a manager is not an effective leader

In fact, being able to communicate effectively is what allows a manager to move into a leadership position An early Harvard Business School study on what

it takes to achieve success and be promoted in an organization says that the individual who gets ahead in business is the person who “is able to communicate,

to make sound decisions, and to get things done with and through people” (Bowman, Jones, Peterson, Gronouski, & Mahoney, 1964) By communicating more effectively, managers improve their ability to get things done with and through people

1.2.2 Purpose of the study

The primary focus of my research paper will be to examine two main areas of management—leadership and communication as it applies in ESSONS GROUP VN intermediate managers setting

1.2.3 The scope of the research

The primary objective of my research paper is to review the leadership and communication styles utilized by Intermediate managers of ESSONS GROUP VN It is also my goal to provide the necessary tools to Intermediate managers to help identify their current leadership and communication styles I believe that as managers once we become aware of our leadership styles, only then can we endeavor to improve Through my research I will describe and categorize the major types of leadership and communication styles, traits and characteristics of each

1.2.4 The methodology

The initial examination of this topic began with the review of materials taken from a leadership and communication course from HUTECH

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AND OUM University, which forms part of MBAOUM program Further information was sought from the Business Management Course, of which this paper forms part of the curriculum Additional information was reviewed from other sources, including articles, books, and online information There is a significant amount of information in written text on the subject of leadership and communication

A number of websites were also found to contain useful articles and research on the subject of leadership and communication The links provided

on these websites provided additional relevant information and further areas

of research

In addition to the aforementioned areas of research, surveys were given

to a sample of the ESSONS (TAJAN) rubber intermediate managers with the intention of identifying their leadership and communication styles The information gathered forms part of this paper and the surveys themselves are located in the appendix The intention of the surveys is to expose areas of -weakness and strengths to work or build upon

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Leadership definition

What is leadership and how can it be defined?

Leadership is not easily defined, but there are many definitions in the literature to assist in describing it Sadly, leadership is most recognizable when there is a lack of it Leadership is not something that can be pigeon holed or definitive; it has many faces and styles Leadership is a process through influence of others by example, discussion, or direction to accomplish goals or tasks, or to achieve the vision of an organization or team Leaders also inspire individuals to become the very best they can be

as people, as well as good team members or employees

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Good leadership is honorable and trustworthy, dedicated to a particular cause or organization Leaders create trends and characteristics within organizations or teams in which employees or colleagues will emulate and follow; thereby leading by example Good leaders are not self- serving but apply methods to achieve goals without misusing authority

In other words the objective is to lead and not just have employees simply obey commands Good leaders want to empower their staff and colleagues and not only give orders

There are a countless methodologies and theories concerning leadership practices and styles that have been documented and discussed Leadership styles are often chosen based on the situation or the group you are involved with, or in some cases we are driven into certain situations which dictate the need for variations in a particular style

Leaders also have to handle diversity in the workplace Working with people that do not share your values can lead to conflict Strong leadership can promote a bias free environment, without prejudice, and thus reduce the need for conflict resolution

2.2 Leadership styles

Aleadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people There are many

different leadership styles that can be exhibited by leaders in the political,

business or other fields

2.2.1 Authoritarian (task - oriented) style

The authoritarian leadership style keep main emphasis on the distinction of the authoritarian leader and their followers, these types of leaders make sure to only create a

distinct professional relationship Direct supervision is what they

believe to be key in maintaining a successful environment and

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follower ship Authoritarian leadership styles often follow the vision of those that are in control, and may not necessarily be compatible with those that are being led Authoritarian leaders have a focus on efficiency, as other styles, such as a democratic style, may be seen as a hindrance on progress

Examples of authoritarian leadership is the wrong type of

information that can be edited communicative behavior: a police officer directing traffic, a teacher ordering a student to do his or her assignment, and a supervisor instructing a subordinate to clean

a workstation All of these positions require a distinct set of characteristics that give the leader the position to get things in order or get a point across Authoritarian Traits: sets goals individually, engages primarily in one-way and downward communication, controls discussion with followers, and dominate interaction

Several studies have confirmed a relationship between bullying, on the one hand, and an autocratic leadership and an authoritarian way of settling conflicts or dealing with disagreements, on the other An authoritarian style of leadership may create a climate of fear, where there is little or no room for dialogue and where complaining may be considered futile

2.2.2 Democratic (charismatic) Style

The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality

The boundaries of democratic participation tend to be circumscribed by the organization or the group needs and the

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instrumental value of people's attributes (skills, attitudes, etc.) The democratic style encompasses the notion that everyone, by virtue of their human status, should play a part in the group's decisions However, the democratic style of leadership still requires guidance and control by a specific leader The democratic style demands the leader to make decisions on who should be called upon within the group and who is given the right to participate in, make and vote on decisions Traits of a Good Leader compiled by the Santa Clara University and the Tom Peters Group:

Honest — Display sincerity, integrity, and candor in all your actions Deceptive behavior will not inspire trust

Competent — Base your actions on reason and moral principles

Do not make decisions based on childlike emotional desires or feelings

Forward-looking — Set goals and have a vision of the future The vision must be owned throughout the organization Effective leaders envision what they want and how to get it They habitually pick priorities stemming from their basic values Inspiring — Display confidence in all that you do By showing endurance in mental, physical, and spiritual stamina, you will inspire others to reach for new heights Take charge when necessary

Intelligent — Read, study, and seek challenging assignments Fair-minded — Show fair treatment to all people Prejudice is the enemy of justice Display empathy by being sensitive to the feelings, values, interests, and well-being of others

Broad-minded — Seek out diversity

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« Courageous— Have the perseverance to accomplish a goal,

regardless of the seemingly insurmountable obstacles Display a confident calmness when under stress

» Straightforward — Use sound judgment to make a good decisions

at the right time

« Imaginative — Make timely and appropriate changes in your thinking, plans, and methods Show creativity by thinking of new and better goals, ideas, and solutions to problems Be innovative!

Research has found that this leadership style is one of the most effective and creates higher productivity, better contributions from group members and increased group morale Democratic leadership can lead to better ideas and more creative solutions to problems because group members are encouraged to share their thoughts and ideas While democratic leadership is one of the most effective leadership styles, it does have some potential downsides In situations where roles are unclear or time

is of the essence, democratic leadership can lead to communication failures and uncompleted projects Democratic leadership works best in situations where group members are skilled and eager to share their knowledge It is also important to have plenty of time to allow people to contribute, develop a plan and then vote on the best course of action

2.2.3 Laissez-Faire (human — oriented) style

The laissez-faire leadership style is where all the rights and power to make decisions is fully given to the worker This was first described by Lewin, Lippitt, and White in 1938, along with the autocratic leadership and the democratic leadership styles

Laissez-faire leaders allow followers to have complete freedom to make decisions concerning the completion of their work

It allows followers a self-rule, while at the same time offering guidance and support when requested The laissez-faire leader using guided freedom provides the followers with all materials necessary to accomplish their goals, but does not directly participate in decision making unless the followers request their assistance

This is an effective style to use when:

¢ Followers are highly skilled, experienced, and educated

« Followers have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own

» Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants are being used

« Followers are trustworthy and experienced

This style should NOT be used when:

¢ The leader cannot or will not provide regular feedback to their

followers ©!

2.3 Communication definition

Communication is simply the process in which people share information, ideas, and feelings It can be either in the spoken word, written word, or in non-verbal ways, such as facial expressions, gestures

or body stance It can even be pure silence The communication process

is made up of various elements: sender and receivers, messages, channels, noise, feedback, and setting.”

2.4 Communication Styles

The three main Styles of Communication

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2.4.1 Passive communication

is a style in which individuals have developed a pattern of avoiding expressing their opinions or feelings, protecting their rights, and identifying and meeting their needs As 4 result, passive individuals do not respond overtly to hurtful or anger-inducing situations Instead, they allow grievances and annoyances to mount, usually unaware of the buildup But once they have reached their high tolerance threshold for unacceptable behavior, they are prone to explosive outbursts, which are usually out of proportion

to the triggering incident After the outburst, however, they may feel shame, guilt, and confusion, so they return to being passive Passive communicators will often:

# Fajl to assert for themselves

# Allow others to deliberately or inadvertently infringe on their rights

® Fail to express their feelings, needs, or opinions

# Tend to speak softly or apologetically

@ Exhibit poor eye contact and slumped body posture

The impact of a pattern of passive communication is that these individuals:

© Often feel anxious because life seems out of their control

® Often feel depressed because they feel stuck and hopeless

© Often feel resentful (but are unaware of it) because their needs are not being met

® Often feel confused because they ignore their own feelings

® Are unable to mature because real issues are never addressed

A passive communicator will say, believe, or behave like:

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Ø=_“J*m unable to stand up for my righfs.”

* “J don’t know what my rights are.”

@ “I get stepped on by everyone."

® “J'm weak and unable to take care of myself.”

& “People never consider my feelings.”

2.4.2 Aggressive communication

is a style in which individuals express their feelings and opinions and advocate for their needs in a way that violates the rights of others Thus, aggressive communicators are verbally and/or physically abusive

Aggressive communicators will often:

@ Try to dominate others

* Use humiliation to control others

* Criticize, blame, or attack others

& Be very impulsive

@ Have low frustration tolerance

@ Speak in a loud, demanding, and overbearing voice

® Act threateningly and rudely

* Not listen well

#* Interrupt frequently

®& Use “you” statements

@ Have an overbearing or intimidating posture

The impact of a pattern of aggressive communication is that these individuals:

# Become alienated from others

@ Alienate others

# Generate fear and hatred in others

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@ Always blame others instead of owning their issues, and thus are unable to mature

The aggressive communicator will say, believe, or behave like:

rr

@

re

“I’m superior and right and you’re inferior and wrong.”

“I’m loud, bossy and pushy.”

“T can dominate and intimidate you.”

“I can violate your rights.”

“Ill get my way no matter what.”

“You're not worth anything.”

“It’s all your fault.”

of the rights of others

Assertive communicators will:

@ State needs and wants clearly, appropriately, and respectfully

@ Express feelings clearly, appropriately, and respectfully

®& Use “I” statements

# Communicate respect for others

# Listen well without interrupting

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œ Feel in confrơl of self

@ Have good eye contact

® Speak in a calm and clear tone of voice

# Have a relaxed body posture

© Feel connected to others

= Feel competent and in control

@ Not allow others to abuse or manipulate them

@ Stand up for their rights

The impact of a pattern of assertive communication is that these individuals:

# Feel connected to others

® Feel in control of their lives

@ Are able to mature because they address issues and problems

# “J am confident about who I am.”

# “J realize I have choices in my life and I consider my options.”

@ “T speak clearly, honestly, and to the point.”

* “J can’t control others but I can contro] myself.”

@ “I place a high priority on having my rights respected.”

@ “I am responsible for getting my needs met in a respectful manner.”

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®' “| respect the rights of others.”

® “Nobody owes me anything unless they’ve agreed to give it

to me.”

*& “I’m 100% responsible for my own happiness.”

Assertiveness allows us to take care of ourselves, and is fundamental for good mental health and healthy relationships 2.5 Communication and Leadership Styles

Several authors have noted that communication is central to leadership (Awamleh and Gardner 1999; Den Hartog and Verburg 1997; Frese et al.2003; Kirkpatrick and Locke 1996; Riggio et al 2003; Shamir

et al 1994; Spangler and House 1991; Towler 2003) But, except for studies devoted to oratory skills and content in highly specific speech-like contexts, few have attempted to operationalize the communication styles leaders use in their daily transactions with subordinates Even fewer have attempted to find out what the relations are of these communication styles with general leadership styles and outcome variables This is somewhat surprising, given that one of the core elements of leadership is a leader’s interpersonal communication style In this study, I will consider leadership from this communicative perspective, and I will define a leader’s communication style as a distinctive set of interpersonal communicative behaviors geared toward the optimization of hierarchical relationships in order to reach certain group or individual goals In line with Daft (2003) and McCartney and Campbell (2006), I make a distinction between the interpersonal aspects of leadership, which revolve around communicative activities in interpersonal relationships, and the managerial aspects of leadership, which revolve around non-interpersonal activities such as planning, organizing, decision-making, problem- solving, and controlling, and J will focus our work on the first of these two, i.e., a leader’s interpersonal communicative behaviors The goal of

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this paper is to operationalize a leader’s interpersonal communication style, to uncover the relations between common leadership style measures and our measure of a leader’s communication style, and to find out about

-the differential and incremental prediction of several important leadership

outcomes using both common leadership style measures and our leader’s communication style measure

The Nature of Communication Styles

Although there are a great number of instruments to measure somebody’s interpersonal communication style, several authors have noted the lack of parsimony and integration in the burgeoning area of communication style studies (McCroskey et aj 1998) Several authors have attempted to redress this state of affairs by integrating diverse communication style scales with the interpersonal circumplex model (Leary 1957), which consists of the following two main interpersonal (communicative) dimensions: friendliness/affiliation and dominance (Dillard et al 1999; Hansford and Hattie 1987; Sorenson and Savage 1989) Others have suggested that there are more than two communication style dimensions For instance, Gudykunst et al (1996) factor-analyzed

96 items from existing communication style instruments (Booth Butter- field and Booth Butterfield 1990; Norton 1978; Singelis 1994; Takai and Ota 1994; Wiemann et al 1986) and 62 additional items based on Hall’s (1976) and Gudykunst and Ting Toomey (1988) conceptualization of low- and high- context communication, and arrived at eight factors: Inferring Meaning, Indirect Communication, Interpersonal Sensitivity, Dramatic Communication, Use of Feelings, Openness, Preciseness, Positive Perception of Silence However, according to De Vries et al (2009), some

of the scales based on these factors (e.g., Inferring Meaning, Use of Feelings, and Positive Perception of Silence) do not pertain to interpersonal

communication styles, but to intrapersonal cognitions and feelings with

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respect to communication, and consequently may be less useful in assessment situations or in cases in which an observer (e.g., a subordinate) has to rate somebody else’s (e.g., a leader’s) interpersonal communication style

To arrive at a framework of communication styles, De Vries et al (2009) carried out a lexical study to uncover the main communication style dimensions The basis of a lexical study is the idea that anything which can

be said about a construct, such as somebody’s communication style, will become encoded in language (Galton 1884; Goldberg 1990) Factor- analysis of a sample of all

dictionary words which pertain to communication should provide the best description of the nature, number, and size of the principal communication style dimensions Having carried out a lexical study using 744 adjectives and 837 verbs, De Vries et al (2009) arrived at seven main communication style dimensions, which they labelled: Expressiveness, Preciseness, Niceness, Supportiveness, Verbal Aggressiveness, (Expressed) Emotional Tension (or, reversed, Assuredness), and Argumenta- tiveness Regression

of the Communication Style Scale (CSS) of Gudykunst et al (1996) on the lexical communi- cation factors revealed strong correspondence between Gudykunst et al.’s Openness and Dramatic Communication on the one hand and lexical Expressiveness on the other, Gudykunst et al.’s Preciseness and lexical Preciseness, and Gudykunst et al.’s Interpersonal Sensitivity and lexical Niceness The so-called intrapersonal communication scales of Gudykunst et al (1996) were less well covered

by the lexical scales Conversely, lexical (Expressed) Emotional Tension, Verbal Aggressiveness, and Argumentativeness were less represented in Gudykunst et al.’s scales

Outcomes Associated with Communication Styles

Although it appears that there are more than two main

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