Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)

Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam (LV thạc sĩ)

國立屏東科技大學熱帶農業暨國際合作系 Department of Tropical Agriculture and International Cooperation National Pingtung University of Science and Technology

碩士學位論文 Master’s Thesis 改善企業組織跨文化溝通 ─ 以在越南之台灣企業為例

Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation Organizations - A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in

Vietnam

指導教授 Advisor：陳啟政 博士 (Chee-Cheng Chen, Ph.D.)

研 究 生 Student：阮梅香(Nguyen Mai Huong)

中 華 民 國 1 0 5 年 6 月 1 5 日

June 15, 2016

這項研究的重點是越南和臺灣的個人和團隊之間的互動與合作，通過文化理論的視野，包括價值取向，跨文化溝通和跨文化經營的行為。本研究著手探索和面對越南和臺灣的個人和團隊合作的挑戰提出報告，並發展出這兩個國家的人民之間的未來合作的想法。本文提出了一種質性研究代表並討論了調查中的越南和臺灣之間勞動力的互動溝通行為的調查結果 調查結果。這項調查是在 49 台公司與越南和臺灣員工進行了越南合作，與代表探討兩個民族的個體之間相互作用的跨文化的目的。

研究闡明在越南和臺灣人民之間的文化特色和團隊協作的風格很多不同之處。這些差異有潛在創造出障礙，但也許更重要的是，這些差異顯然也可以成為依賴于跨文化意識，能力和反思走向新的思路和所涉及的個人觀點職場優勢。文章的結論是，個人和團隊，越南和臺灣應該追求實現其他文化的更廣泛和更深入的理解與著眼於提高個人之間的合作互動為目標的過程。結果表明，不同類型的跨文化培訓的外籍人士的影響“的調整，提高臺灣企業在越南的跨文化溝通的有效性。

關鍵字：跨文化溝通、商務溝通、跨文化、越南、臺灣

Abstract

Student ID: M10322040

Title of Thesis: Improving Intercultural Communication in the Cooperation

Organizations - A case study on Taiwanese Organizations in Vietnam

Total Page: 78 pages

Name of Institute: Department of Tropical Agriculture and International

Cooperation, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology

Name of Student: Nguyen Mai Huong Adviser: Chee-Cheng Chen, Ph.D

The Content of Abstract in This Thesis:

The demands of marketing globalization find many business managers operating in countries other than their own Multinational corporations (MNCs) are having difficulty retaining expatriates for their global operations

It is estimated that 10–80% of expatriates sent on foreign assignments return home prematurely One of the reasons for expatriates’ failure has been cited

as the inability of these managers and/or their spouses to adapt to the country’s culture The economic relationship between Vietnam and Taiwan has been established for several decades In fact, Vietnam is one of the most important markets for Taiwan Most of the Taiwan companies located in Vietnam are subsidiary companies or joint ventures or owner companies

host-Thus, it is not surprising that the issue of intercultural communication between the Taiwanese and the Vietnamese has gained attention

This research focuses on interaction and cooperation between Vietnamese and Taiwanese individuals and teams through lenses of cultural theory, including values orientations, intercultural communication and cross-cultural business behaviors The research set out to discover and report on cooperation challenges faced by Vietnamese and Taiwanese individuals and teams, and to develop ideas for future cooperation between people from these two nations This paper presents a qualitative and quantitative study which represents and discusses the survey results of investigating the communication behavior among interacting between Vietnamese and Taiwanese workforces The survey was conducted with Vietnamese and Taiwanese employees in forty nine Taiwan Company worked in Vietnam, with the purpose of exploring intercultural interactions between individuals representing the two nationalities

The research illuminated many differences in cultural characteristics and teamwork styles between Vietnamese and Taiwanese people These differences have the potential for creating barriers, but perhaps more importantly, these differences clearly can also become advantages in the workplace depending on the intercultural awareness, competence and reflexivity toward new ideas and perspectives of the involved individuals The paper concluded that individuals and teams, both Vietnamese and Taiwanese should pursue a course of attaining a broader and deeper understanding of the other culture with the goal of focusing on improving cooperative interaction between individuals The results show that different types of cross-cultural training affect expatriates’ adjustment and improve effectiveness of intercultural communication in Taiwan companies in Vietnam

Keywords: intercultural communication, business communication,

cross-culture, Vietnam, Taiwan

In grateful recognition and sincerest thanks for the encouragement, guidance and unselfish of their knowledge, time, effort and skills, and for the untiring motivation that leads to the completion of this study, the Researcher acknowledges the following:

Supervisor Dr Chee-Cheng Chen, Ph D for his untiring effort and belief that is collaboration is possible thus enabling us to pursue the MBA degree, I will always be thankful to him for all the hard work and efforts his have put in, for educating me Thank You for all the things his have done for me

National Pingtung University of Science and Technology for give me scholarship and support when I am study in our school

Dr Nguyen Tuan Anh, Ph.D Dean of the International School, Thai Nguyen University of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, for his enormous pursuit to provide the Vietnamese people an opportunity to grow through education;

My family and friends for the love and support in one way or the other; and to all

From bottom of my heart, sincerely thank you!

Contents

摘要 I

Abstract III Acknowledgement V List of Figures X List of Tables XII

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Research Background and Motivation 1

1.2 Research Objectives 4

1.3 Research Contribution 4

1.4 Research Process 5

1.5 Research Organization 6

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 Intercultural Communication 8

2.1.1 Communication – A Definition 8

2.1.2 Intercultural Communication – A Definition 13

2.1.3 Intercultural Communication in a Working Environment 14

2.2 Culture 16

2.2.1 Introduction culture 16

2.2.2 The importance of culture 16

2.2.3 Culture and society 17

2.3 Intercultural Competence & Training 18

2.3.1 Intercultural Competence 18

2.3.2 Intercultural business communication 21

2.3.3 Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication 23

2.3.4 Intercultural Communication and power 26

2.3.5 Intercultural Communication and Technology 26

2.3.6 Intercultural Training 27

2.4 Research gaps 30

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 34

3.1 The nature of the research 34

3.2 Qualitative & Quantitative research 34

3.3 Data collection methods 35

3.4 Population and Sample 37

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 39

4.1 Designation 39

4.2 Nationality 40

4.3 Gender 40

4.4 International Work Experience 40

4.5 The Main Means of Communication with other Nationalities 41

4.6 Preferred type of Communication 43

4.7 On Business Alone or with Family 45

4.8 Training required equipping expatriates with skills to live in a foreign country 46

4.9 Major Cultural Adjustments Experienced 47

4.10 Time Keeping 49

4.11 The Most Preferred Method of Working 50

4.12 Preferred type of rules and instructions 51

4.13 Different cultural ways of dealing with business 52

4.14 Interaction with international partners 54

4.15 Cultural influence on business communication 55

4.16 Enquiring about the possible barriers to successful intercultural communication 56

4.17 Improving knowledge of the other culture 58

4.18 The most preferred way of learning about other cultures 59

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION 61

5.1 Reaearch Conclusions 61

5.2 Research Recommendations 63

References 65 APPENDIX A: Personal Information 70 APPENDIX B: Questionnaire Checklist 72

List of Figures

Figure 1-1: Research Process 7

Figure 2-1 Communication model (Lustig & Koester, 2003) 10

Figure 2-2 Components of the Communication Process 12

Figure 2-3 Intercultural Communication Model 31

Figure 4-1 Job titles (Vietnamese & Taiwanese) 40

Figure 4-2 International Work Experience 41

Figure 4-2 Communication with other Nationalities 42

Figure 4-4 Preferred type of Communication 44

Figure 4-5 Major Cultural Adjustments Experienced 47

Figure 4-6 Positive or negative of Cultural 48

Figure 4-7 Time Keeping 49

Figure 4-8 The Most Preferred Method of Working 50

Figure 4-9 Preferred type of rules and instructions 51

Figure 4-10 Different cultural ways of dealing with business 52

Figure 4-11 Interaction with international partners 54

Figure 4-12 Cultural influence on business communication 55

Figure 4-13 Possible barriers to successful intercultural communication 57

Figure 4-14 Knowledge of the other culture 58

Figure 4-15 Preferred way of learning about other cultures 60

List of Tables

Table 4-1 Gender composition 40

Table 4-2 Type of Business 45

Table 4-3 Training required 46

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background and Motivation

Owing to i come from Vietnam, I can claim that I have a profound understanding of Vietnam, its culture and its traditions In the living time, I have met many people from all over the world who came to Vietnam for distinct reasons and with various objectives Generally, one can categorize these people into three groups: tourists, foreign students and business people who work or seek to found their own business in Vietnam When encountering with people from these groups I discovered that most of them face numerous problems predominantly based on cultural differences and misunderstandings In colloquial terms, many people do not understand Vietnam However, it is crucial to acquire a sophisticated knowledge about Vietnamese culture, especially if one obtains the objective of becoming a valuable and more importantly competitive business person Obviously, the language barrier creates a number of obstacles one must overcome Intercultural misunderstandings arise when people from different cultural backgrounds, interpret communication signals in different ways (Broszinsky-Schwabe, 2011) Nevertheless, being fluent in Vietnamese language does not consequently lead to being a competent and competitive member of the business world Unfortunately, often people are under the impression that adequate language skills are sufficient to work successfully in an international environment Through talking to lots of people and been living in Vietnam now, I have come to the point of view that additionally to the language barrier

it is vital also to acquire profound knowledge about the host country’s culture and become aware of the inevitable differences to one’s own culture This is because culture has strong effects on every aspect of life, which includes how people do business and communicate Communication is a crucial factor in a working environment It can be the crucial factor that decides whether a

meeting, a deal pitch, work performance or the launch of a new product is successful or a lost opportunity “Culture […] is a significant factor in how people communicate and how they perceive any form of communication.” (Patel, Li, & Sooknanan, 2011) However, as mentioned in many literary sources, companies neglect the importance of cultural knowledge and its benefits Thus, the paper in hand will focus on these issues

Furthermore, I argue that cultural differences have a strong influence on corporate culture and developing company Corporate culture is increasingly becoming one of the most important competition factors in the process of globalization (Rothlauf, 2012) Therefore, it is crucially important to investigate to how national and foreign culture affect corporate culture and what issues may arise For these reason, I believe one has to enlarge his or her social, communicative, and business competences When working in an international setting it is vital to realize that approved modus operandi, proceedings and courses of action regarding communication and employee management often are ineffective and abortive (Blom & Meier, 2004) People from different cultural backgrounds differ in many aspects, such as values, beliefs, religion, tradition, history, family structure, education and social norms Continuously, these aspects have an effect on how people communicate and do business “Effective cross-cultural business communication depends on acquiring an understanding of basic cultural differences and the various patterns of verbal and nonverbal behavior among members of different cultures” (Maude, 2011) Thus, it is not surprising to conclude that in comparison to companies that deal with national corporate management in rather commonly known socio-political environment international managers have to make important decisions in much more complicated and relatively unknown settings (Blom & Meier, 2004) One who wants to internationally successful will face novel problems which result from having contact with foreign countries, cultures, economic and socio systems One must not neglect these aspects but include these in every decision making processes as “[c]ultural concepts provide the framework for action” (Rothlauf,

2012) To do so one must identify the main cultural concepts and differences Furthermore, one has to comprehend in what way these cultural distinctions affect daily business life and to what extent “Anticipating and understanding cultural differences and being able to adapt to the way you communicate accordingly is the foundation of any successful international business”(Carté, 2008) This will be the major objective of this paper

As already indicated above, one must identify communicational, cultural and behavioral patterns For the most part literary sources mutually agree on the importance of these factors However, even though many researchers stress the importance of the discrepancies these concepts may contain in itself, they ignore the fact that the essence of this knowledge and competences is a two way street In other words, Vietnamese may have a different understanding of the essence and objective of concepts, which have been characterized as very important by numerous books and surveys dealing with how to do business in Vietnamese Many Western researchers have neglected this thought Generally, intercultural communication and other concepts that are significant in the business world are biased towards a Western worldview (Patel et al., 2011)

“The universal application of these concepts and theories (communication competence and moral competence), which unfortunately inform many of the current trends of academic inquiry, not only invites misunderstanding, but also imposes unfair judgments on non-Western cultures” (Xiao & Chen, 2009) Only recently very few researchers came to that realization Thus, it is important to understand how Vietnamese identify these concepts

The survey in hand will look at one issue with special interest, namely improving effectiveness of intercultural communication through Cross - cultural Training using the Example of Taiwanese Organizations that are located in Vietnam I have chosen this example because now have many

country in the world want investment in Vietnam, the economic relationship between Vietnam and Taiwan has been established for several decades, Vietnam is one of the important markets for Taiwan, also because of my own ethnicity

1.2 Research Objectives

This study has five specific objectives including:

1 Identify cultural similarities and differences,

2 Investigate the significance of cultivating intercultural awareness,

3 Identify the role culture plays in communication,

4 Determine the problems and consequences related to intercultural communication,

5 Understand the term cultural shock and its significance to intercultural communication

1.3 Research Contribution

A survey about intercultural business communication among Vietnamese and Taiwanese employees is nowadays very important due to several factors First, the literature has been neglecting important aspects in the field of international communication Researchers have been focusing on the Western point of view while eliminating the Vietnamese understanding of significant concepts Furthermore, during my research I could not find a profound survey focused on the communication relationship between Taiwanese and Vietnamese employees working together in Vietnam that also attached importance to cultural concepts and its influences on communication behavior It is crucial to notice that both counterparts are influenced by its culture and consequently outline the scope of these influences It is imperative

to identify these cultural concepts, its substance and in what way they affect daily business life While doing research on this topic, I had to conclude that researchers predominantly have been focusing on either how to do business with Vietnamese or how to meet the needs of Vietnamese customers However, again I could not find a proper survey about how cultural traditions

affect cooperation between Vietnamese and Taiwanese working for the same company on a daily basis No researcher has made a distinction between how employees communicate with members of distinct hierarchy levels either which seems to be an obvious aspect to investigate for someone who does research about Vietnamese business culture and communication habits Surprisingly, I was unable to find such surveys Do employees from different cultural backgrounds use different communicative patterns when talking to subordinates, equals or superiors? If so, in which aspects does communication behavior differ? In addition, I could not find a survey that deals with the importance of intercultural training and how members of the intercultural working environment perceive its necessity and importance Thus, I decided

to conduct an empirical research to qualitative and first hand data with the purpose to fill the research based on improving intercultural communication

in the cooperation organizations - A Case study of Taiwanese Organizations

in Vietnam

1.4 Research Process

The structure of the work in hand consists of three main parts First, I will give more details about the questionnaire I conducted which serves as the basis of this paper I will explain the design of the survey; how I accrued the data and finally I will present the evaluation

Because “it is important to understand the basic theories and concepts of both culture and communication” (Patel et al., 2011) the following chapters will provide a profound explanation In both chapters, I will give an insight of the general understanding of these concepts Continuously, the chapters will also focus on the managerial and business aspect of culture and communication, and the interrelated connection of all The following leading questions will assist when examining the field of culture:

 What are the main cultural concepts of both ethnicities?

 To what extend do cultural concepts affect daily business life?

 How can one avoid, prevent and solve cultural issues?

 How can a company successfully implement national culture with corporate culture?

When investigating the area of communication these subsequent questions will be of high importance:

 What are the main barriers in a company’s internal communication between its Vietnamese and foreign employees?

 Is there a difference in Taiwanese and Vietnamese conceptions of communication and culture?

 To what extend do communicational issues arise and affect daily business life?

Chapter 3: Methodology - Address the methodology of the research

Chapter 4: Analysis Results–Address key findings of the research through a case study analysis

Chapter 5: Conclusion – Summarize the conclusions of the research, give suggestions and recommendations and point out research limitation

Figure 1-1: Research Process

 Communication – A Definition

 Intercultural Communication – A Definition Social factors

 Intercultural Communication

in a Working Environment

Intercultural Competence

 Intercultural Competence Intercultural business communication

 Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication

 Intercultural Communication and power

 Intercultural Communication and Technology

 Intercultural Training

Reseach gaps

Data Collection

(Questionnaire)

Case Study Analysis

Taiwan Organizations in Vietnam

Conclusion

Suggestions and Recommendations

Research Objectives

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

The paper in hand deals with intercultural communication among Vietnamese and Taiwanese in a working environment In order to understand communication and its characteristics and if so, differences given in an intercultural setting, first one has to fully understand the concept of communication among human beings in a more general sense Interestingly, this is has been ignored by a large number of authors and scientists who engage with the topic of intercultural communication Instead, they focus only

on what communication in an intercultural setting means However, it is vital

to first understand the concept of communication One has to become aware

of the fact that communication is not only the bare conveyance of information between two or more persons, but a complex process of language exchange which can take place verbally, non-verbally, virtually, and so on Therefore,

in the next chapter I first will discuss communication from a theoretical rather general point of view Secondly, communication will be highlighted within the scope of the international working world to provide the reader with necessary knowledge in order to understand the later discussion about how cultural concepts affect the communication process

2.1 Intercultural Communication

2.1.1 Communication – A Definition

Communication is a term that one comes across in all kinds of situations, contexts and cultures Thus, it is not surprising that different scientific fields, for instance anthropology, psychology, economics and linguistics to name a few, have been employing themselves with finding a definition Precisely because of this, it is simply impossible to come up with a definition of communication that is universally true Even though the term is an integral part of everyday language, its meaning is not always as clear as it seems The

following examples of definitions show how the term communication can be perceived in different ways:

“Communication is a symbolic, interpretative, transactional, contextual process in which people create shared meanings.” (Lustig & Koester, 2003)

“Communication is social interaction through symbols and message systems.” (Gerbner, 1966)

“[T]he two terms communication and behavior are used virtually

The activity of communication does not only involve verbal but also vocal and non-verbal elements such as intonation, tone, mimics and gestures

It is important to understand that communication is a two-way process in which both counterparts act as a sender and as a receiver This means, one person does not only send a message but also receives one which results in an

interactive communication which goes in line with the etymological meaning

of the term (latin communicare which means sharing or imparting)

Figure 2-1: Communication model (Lustig & Koester, 2003)

When the counterpart reacts to the message received and sends feedback,

it becomes clear whether he or she decoded the messages correctly, that is to say that the meaning of the message send by the sender and the message received by the receiver are congruent The sent message, however, is not necessarily a verbal one but can also be transmitted non-verbally, e.g through body language, in written form etc In either case, the sender encodes the message that the receiver has to decode It is crucial to encode the message in such a way so that it is easy to decode correctly When the receiver of a message understands its meaning as intended and in return is able to send the same meaning back to its sender, one speaks of effective communication Consequently, is the recipient unable to decode the message correctly, the communication is ineffective The process of encoding and decoding can be interfered by a number of things that result in misunderstandings because it makes is more difficult for a receiver to decode the message as the sender

intended it Such a interference can be the use of symbols that unknown to the receiver “A symbol is a word, action, or object that stands for or represents a unit of meaning” (Lustig & Koester, 2003) We use these symbols to decode messages However, symbols can be perceived differently For instance, tears can be an expression of sadness but also of joy Context, setting and the interpersonal relationship influences how the receiver interprets the symbols which, again, affect whether the initial message is decoded correctly

“Whenever people communicate, they must interpret the symbolic behaviors

of others’ actions This idea suggests that each person in a communication transaction may not necessarily interpret the messages in exactly the same way.” Communication partners from different cultural background use different sets of communication patterns and symbols This means that in terms of encoding and decoding, difficulties on both ends are likely to occur

The general concept of communication, as we understand it in the Taiwan world and explained above, mainly confirms with the Vietnamese understanding of the concept Also from the Vietnamese point of view, communication is an interactive process between sender and receiver in order

to transmit messages through different channels The goal of communication seems to be similar, too, that is to convey meaning in a way that is properly decoded by the receiver The process of encoding and decoding is mainly influenced by what is considered good and bad, respectively competent and incompetent communication behavior The perception of what is competent communication behavior, though, greatly differs among cultures and thus impairs a flawless communication process Before I will explain how Taiwanese and Vietnamese communicate, I will discuss what it means when one talks about intercultural communication

Figure 2-2: Components of the Communication Process

2.1.2 Intercultural Communication – A Definition

As the expression itself suggests, intercultural communication describes the message exchange between interlocutors who both derive from a different cultural background, meaning they are “culturally different from each other

on such important attributes as their value orientations, preferred communication codes, role expectations, and perceived rules of social relationships” (Lustig & Koester, 2003) The two main components that define this kind of conversation are ethnicity and language The intention of intercultural communication is congruent with the concept of communication explained above, that is to share information In an intercultural communication process the conversational partners face different sets of codes, symbols and communicational behavior that might be alien to the counterpart Thus, here lies a potentially high risk of misunderstandings because unknown codes and symbols as well as unfamiliar communication behavior hinder the successful process of encoding and decoding Therefore, communicational issues in an international environment occur due to linguistic but also cultural differences (Emrich, 2011) Because both counterparts don’t share the same cultural background it is safe to say that at least one person participates in that language exchange using not his or her mother tongue, but a second language Consequently, there is a higher risk of conversational problems to arise that have a strong impact on the outcome of the message exchange process, that is to say whether the message was transmitted and received as intended There are a number of reasons for this First of all, the language proficiency plays an important factor Someone who has an advanced level of the language skills required consequently will have fewer problems to express his message as he has in mind However, proper language skills do not guarantee someone to be able to encode a message in a proper way so that the receivers are able to decode its content properly As Patel correctly points out “selecting the appropriate words as well as the non-verbal elements of communication such as body language, gestures, […] intonation, concepts of time and space can consciously or unconsciously

affect our communication:” The process of decoding becomes more difficult because one has to fully understand the symbols that attribute to the counterparts’ communication behavior As it will be explained later, symbols are not only influenced by linguistic aspects, but also are impacted by cultural

communication behavior may not be as conspicuous and easy to spot as one might assume which makes it even more difficult to become aware of their presence

People from different cultures communicate using different styles Thus,

to understand social customs and social identity of the individual plays a major factor The issue of encoding a message correctly is also applicable to the process of decoding It is likely, that one makes judgments based on the perspective of one’s own culture Misinterpretations, irritations and ambiguity are a common issue that occurs frequently in an international communication environment

As already mentioned, one of the main components of intercultural communication is the cultural background of the conversation partners

“People, therefore, are the human factor, that affects intercultural communication” (Patel et al., 2011) However, misunderstandings are not unavoidable Misinterpretations, ambiguity and other communicational issues are created by the speaking partners; they do not exist per se as an integrative element of the process of intercultural communication They are created by a lack of cultural knowledge as well as “stereotyping, prejudice, ethnocentrism and perception”

2.1.3 Intercultural Communication in a Working Environment

The ability to communicate and negotiate with co-workers, clients, customers, supervisors and subordinates in an effective and competent way is one of the most important aspects what makes a business successful, sustainable and competitive At the same time, it is also one of the most

challenging one Being a good communicator is a quality business people do not want to lack However, it is not as easy as one might assume For many people it is hard to become skilled at communication in the environment they grow up in To become a skilled speaker in an intercultural environment is even more challenging due to cultural and obviously linguistic barriers The former chapter has already suggested that the communication process between people from different cultures is more likely to be interfered But what does that mean in an intercultural working environment? How important is intercultural communication in a working environment and to what extend does it influence the daily working life and performance? Johnson explains it

as follows:

Effective workplace communication is important in companies with workplace diversity Good communication skills help to reduce the barriers erected because of language and cultural differences Effective communication causes productivity to increase, errors to decrease and operations to run smoother The difference in cultures requires managers to understand terms commonly used in America that another culture finds offensive Effective communication in the workplace helps employees and managers form highly efficient teams

It is safe to claim, that effective communication within the workforce is vital to a company’s success story Whether a company is successful or not depends to a large degree on its personnel To deal with each one of these disadvantages in order to not only reduce but eventually obliterate them competent communication skills are of vital importance As a matter of fact, if these kinds of disadvantages turn into actual problems employees and managers have to deal with it has an enormous negative effect on the working performance of each individual Furthermore, it creates a hostile atmosphere

to build collaborative working relations among the diverse staff members The working performance of a company’s workforce is highly influenced by how effective or ineffective communication is within a company Good

communication creates a conducive and friendly working atmosphere which motivates employees to work in a productive manner and to increase their output which again the company benefits from It also is an important factor

to establish good relations and ensure solid teambuilding among co-workers,

as well as it creates trust between subordinates and supervisors

2.2.2 The importance of culture

Sensitivity to Cultural Differences: As humans we have become increasingly sensitive to cultural differences For example, society is moving away from assimilationist perspective (the idea that people should leave their native cultural ways) With some notable exceptions (like hate speech, racism, sexism, homophobia, and classism) people are becoming more concerned with saying the right thing and ultimately with developing a society in which all cultures can coexist and enrich one another (DeVito, 2011)

Economic Interdependence: DeVito (2011) state that in today‟s society most countries are economically dependent on each other Our economy depends on our ability to communicate effectively across cultures Likewise, every countries political well being depends greatly on that of other cultures

Communication Technology: The accelerating growth of communication technology has brought different cultures from around the world right into our homes Technology has made intercultural communication easy, practical, and predictable It has created opportunities that allow individuals to have a social network of friends from a wide range of geographical areas and from different countries and cultures The Internet has also contributed in making intercultural communication as easy as writing a note on your laptop and sending it to an individual from a different culture in a different geographical location

It is therefore apparent that communication is heavily influenced by the culture in which we are raised; culture is extremely significant to communication, and having a cultural perspective serves numerous essential purposes as highlighted in the previous paragraphs (DeVito, 2011)

Kendall (2001) concludes that culture is essential for survival and communication between people People are not born with information, instead

we learn how to dress, behave, and eat through others around us Therefore,

we learn about culture through interaction, observation, and imitation in order

to participate as members of a particular group or within a specific culture However, just as culture is essential for individuals, it is also vital for societies

to survive

2.2.3 Culture and society

Schaefer (2002) states that culture is totally learned by socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behaviour It includes ideas, values, customs, and artefacts (for example DVDs, books, and CDs) of

groups of people Patriotic attachment to the flag of Taiwan is an aspect of culture, as is the national addiction of vuvuzela‟s at a soccer match in South Africa

Sharing a similar culture helps people define the group or society to which they belong A large number of people are said to have constituted a society when they live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people outside their space, and participate in a common culture

Schaefer (2002) explain that a society comprises of individuals who share a common heritage and culture Members of the society learn a specific culture and pass it on from one generation to another Distinctive culture is also preserved through literature, art, video recordings, and other means of expression

It is clear that having a common culture also simplifies day to day interactions Being a part of a society also allows us to take certain cultural patterns for granted For example, people assume that physicians will not disclose confidential information, and that parents will be careful when crossing the street with a young child These are assumptions that reflect the basic values, beliefs, and customs of cultures in general (Schaefer, 2002)

2.3 Intercultural Competence & Training

2.3.1 Intercultural Competence

The term intercultural competence has gained more presence as globalization has taken over the business world and created diverse workforce, intercultural joint ventures and managers travelling back and forth

to operate in different countries However, a manager who is successful in his home country is not automatically an adequate candidate to for a manager position in an intercultural environment International managers must have a certain set of skills and competences in addition to managerial skills that are required in their home country They must have extensive qualities in the

fields of intercultural competence and intercultural communication Intercultural competence is an important requirement and a set of interdisciplinary basic skills for people who face diversity and the unknown in

an intercultural environment (Emrich, 2011) More precisely, intercultural competence is the ability to communicate with members of other cultures in a conflict free manner and to understand them on the basis of their value system (Broszinsky-Schwabe, 2011) Broszinsky-Schwabe names three main basic skills one has to acquire: knowledge about the other culture, particularly the foreign view of the world, connection to nature, openness, social hierarchies, identity and behavioral orientations to name a few; to distance oneself from the perception that one’s own culture is the universal norm but rather see oneself as a product of the socialization of that culture; and the decomposition

of anxiety and anguish through acquiring knowledge about foreign cultures The goal of intercultural training is a rather practical one: to provide individuals with necessary skills that are needed in an intercultural setting in order to ensure the success of intercultural interactions that again lead to the achievement of objectives that adds to the success of a company What may appear to be an easy task at first glance can quickly turn into a complex and difficult mission because “cultural differences create dissimilar meanings and expectations that require even greater levels of communication skills” (Lustig

& Koester, 2003) Communication skills that are required in an intercultural setting do not only mean that one has decent language proficiency in the foreign language What is most important is that one has profound knowledge

in the complexity of communication processes and which elements can tamper messages as shown in both communication models Lustig & Koester describe intercultural communication competence as follows:

[Intercultural] communicative competence is a social judgment about how well a person interacts with others […] Competent interpersonal communication results in behaviors that are regarded as appropriate That is, the actions of the communicators fit the expectations and demands of the situation Appropriate communication means that people use the symbols they

are expected to use in a given context Competent interpersonal communication also results in behaviors that are effective in achieving desired personal outcomes

The key word in that quotation is symbols As discussed earlier symbols vary in different cultures or symbols of one culture are absent in other cultures and thus not understood or misinterpreted However, it is important to be able

to decode verbal and non-verbal messages in order to understand the intended messages (Broszinsky-Schwabe, 2011) If one has acquired that knowledge and has learned to act accordingly and appropriately, he or she has intercultural competence It is vital to bear in mind that “competent intercultural communication is contextual […] and it requires sufficient knowledge, suitable motivations, and skilled actions.” (Lustig & Koester, 2003)

Furthermore, international managers and anyone else who works in an intercultural environment must be aware of the fact that everything one does and says is dependent on that person’s cultural background and is always dependent on situation and context Thus, intercultural competence is based

on behavior-oriented principles (Emrich, 2011) Intercultural competence does not only help to understand the behavior of business partners, co-workers and employees but also serves as a handy tool to comprehend the foreign market and demands of its customers Thus, intercultural competence

is critical to an international manager A broad variety of models and theories exists that deal with intercultural competence For instance, listing models describe relevant subcomponents of intercultural competence, e.g empathy, ambiguity tolerance, self-reflective behavior, cultural awareness, cultural openness, respectful treatment of other cultures, self-awareness and adaptability However, listing models remain unfinished because they are based on subjective evaluation Another frequent approach is the structure model Structure models derive from listing models and divide intercultural competences into different partial constructs, namely affective, cognitive and

conative constructs Affective competences include a minimal sense of ethnocentrism, openness and empathy Cognitive skills describe a cultural awareness, self-awareness and realistic expectations while conative competences are respect, flexibility, language skills and ambiguity tolerance The acquirement of these consequences is understood to ensure effectiveness and appropriateness in a foreign country Critics however point out that structure models lack an all-around approach Process models consider intercultural competence as a successful, all-around interaction of individual, social, professional and strategic behavior and are thus understood as a synergetic process The ability to differentiate between one’s own cultural connection, the connection of the foreign culture and the intercultural connection is an important tool to build cultural competences

Many aspects of intercultural competence can be trained, for instance a coach can introduce communication models and make cultural concepts comprehensible Nevertheless, some aspects of intercultural competences can only be pointed out and coaches can at its best encourage participants to improve and refine these skills However, these skills are rather a natural given Namely, these skills include empathy, self-reflection, cultural openness, tolerance and not being biased These are qualities that can hardly

be learned They can rather be considered as characteristics a person should have naturally Otherwise it is doubtful that a person lacking character traits such as empathy and tolerance is suitable to fill a position in an intercultural environment Now, if one has these qualities one must further develop and solidify these skills in terms of the intercultural context In order to train employees that face temporary employment abroad companies have them attend special training in form of intercultural training sessions

2.3.2 Intercultural business communication

The era of globalization has given rise to individuals working and living with other individuals from around the world According to Gamble &

Gamble (2010) globalization is related to two concepts viz diversity and globalization Diversity refers to the acknowledgment and significance of difference surrounding factors such as education, age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, ability, marital status, sexual orientation and income Globalization is

a new concept describing the affects and merges of globalization with local interests and environments All three aspects (i.e., globalization, diversity and globalization) are important and affect communication It is therefore crucial

to learn about other cultures and to refrain from stereotyping them; welcoming diversity is becoming more and more important

Digital technology assists in erasing the concept of territorial boundaries between countries, increasingly eroding the term nation People we once considered strangers are now friends and co-workers, creating the need for us

to be multiculturalists [being respectful of and engaged with individuals from different cultures] (Gamble & Gamble, 2010)

Jandt (2007) and Pearson et al., (2006) affirm that intercultural communication encompasses face to face interactions between individuals who are unalike culturally Alberts et al., (2007) confirm that increased knowledge and expertise in intercultural communication improves business efficiency, inter-group relations, and self-awareness The increase in low-cost and easy travel allows for the increase in intercultural contact Another source

of intercultural diversity contact is the growing cultural diversity within the different countries and nations

Chaney & Martin (2011) established that intercultural business communication is a relatively new term in the business environment and is defined as communication within and between businesses that involves individuals from more than one culture As contacts develop between cultures, diffusion takes place Diffusion refers to the process by which different cultures learn, adapt materials and adopt practices from each other The concept of a world culture has emerged; with the increase in globalization

of the economy and the interaction of different cultures As traditional barriers among people of differing cultures collapse, emphasizing the commonality of human needs, a single culture will emerge, a culture to which all people will adhere to, thereby moving towards a melting-pot society A melting pot is described by Chaney & Martin (2011) as a social assimilation of people of varying backgrounds and nationalities; implying that individuals are losing their ethnic differences and forming one large society also known as macro-culture

The results of the literature confirm that intercultural communication is

of utmost importance to every person in society, especially international organizations However, in order to be able to communicate effectively and successfully across cultures, individuals are required to learn, recognize and value other cultures

2.3.3 Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication

Littlejohn & Foss (2008) explain the term dialectic as the tension between opposing forces within a system Dialectics is referred to as a concept in philosophical thought and logic Alberts et al., (2010) affirm that a dialectical approach helps people respond to the complexities of intercultural communication and to override any tendencies to stereotype people based on cultural patterns

Unlike most formal education which emphasizes dichotomous thinking,

in which things are “either/or” – good or bad, big or small, and right or wrong, the dialectic approach recognizes that things may be “both/and” For example a palm tree may be weak and strong While its branches may look fragile and weak, in a tornado it remains strong because the “weak” branches can bend without breaking Similar dialectics are present in intercultural communication; for example Keiko may be a Taiwanese person who shares many cultural characteristics of other Taiwanese people, but she is also an individual who possesses characteristics that make her unique So, she is both

similar to and different from other Taiwanese people It is evident that the dialectic approach emphasizes the fluid, intricate and paradoxical nature of intercultural interactions (Alberts et al., 2010)

Martin & Nakayama (2000:44) identify six major dialectics that characterize intercultural communication

Cultural-Individual Dialectic: Intercultural communication is both cultural and individual Communication is also cultural in that individuals share communication patterns with members of the groups to which you belong However, individuals also have individual patterns of communicating for e.g., a person’s gesture when communicating Martin & Nakayama (2000) emphasize that this dialectic should be considered when individuals are trying

to understand and develop relationships across cultural differences

Personal-Contextual Dialectic: This dialectic encompasses the role of context in intercultural communication In any intercultural scenario, both the individual and the situation are simultaneously significant For example,

if we look at a conversation between a Vietnamese and Taiwanese at a bar, as compared to the same individuals communicating at a synagogue or church, it

is certain that the nature of their conversation would be different, depending

on the environment (Alberts et al., 2010)

Differences-Similarities: Alberts et al (2010) verify that authentic and essential differences exist between all cultural groups, as identified during this study However, it is also significant to note that just as there are many differences between the various cultures there are also similarities between cultures across the globe, for example all cultures have values and norms, as well as the different religions that are followed in the different cultures throughout the world

Static-Dynamic: While some cultural patterns remain relatively stable and static for years, they also can undergo dynamic change For example,

many people get their information about South Africa from watching popular documentaries and international news channels like CNN, which portrays South Africa as a place where there are animals running around and traditional African lifestyle is practiced daily This may be so in the past decades, but in the contemporary South Africa, it is not so A static–dynamic dialect therefore requires that people recognize both traditional and contemporary realities of a culture (Alberts et al., 2010)

History: Past/Present/Future: Another dialect in intercultural communication focuses on the current and the history For example, one cannot totally understand contemporary relations between Arabs and Jews, Muslims and Christians, or even in the case of South Africa, whites and nonwhites, without knowing something of their history (Alberts et al., 2010)

Privilege – Disadvantage: When engaging in intercultural interactions, people can be simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged (Johnston, 2001) This is most evident when travelling to developing countries While people in

a first world country may be privileged with having more money and the luxury of travelling abroad, they can also feel vulnerable in foreign countries

if they are ignorant of the local languages and customs As a student in South Africa, you may feel privileged (compared to others your age within your community) in that you are acquiring a high level of education, but you may also feel economically disadvantaged because of the high cost of education that you may not be able to afford Therefore, this dialect approach helps people resist making quick, stereotypical judgments about others and their communication behaviors (Alberts et al., 2010)

The dialectic approach helps individuals prevent making irrational, stereotypical judgments about other people and cultures and their communication behaviors The above dialects are relative to intercultural communication as it affects communication both in the business and personal arena

2.3.4 Intercultural Communication and power

Chaney & Martin (2011) define power as the ability to influence others; authority on the other hand refers to the power to give commands and make the ultimate decisions Power can be both advantageous and disadvantageous, depending on how it is executed; however, it should be carried out with moral and ethical behavior (Lewicki et al., 2003)

According to Alberts et al (2010) there are a number of factors that influence who is considered powerful in a culture For example, being a male has been historically proven to be valued more that being a female, and being wealthy is more valued than being poor Being able- bodied is traditionally viewed as being more valued than being physically disabled (Johnson, 2001) However, every society, regardless of power distance values, has these kinds

of traditional hierarchies of power

2.3.5 Intercultural Communication and Technology

DeVito (2011) confirm that the rapid increase of communication technology has brought diverse cultures from around the globe into our homes News from remote countries is now ordinary Technology has made intercultural communication simple, practical, convenient, and inevitable In the current society, it is common to have social network friends from wide geographical areas, from different countries and cultures; something that would was unattainable before the dawn of computer-mediated communication

Gamble & Gamble (2010) state that the internet pervades national precincts and erodes the association between location and experience It enables individuals to interact more easily with others who have different worldviews than they do Technology and computer networks are also changing the traditional definition of a community The term communication community in today’s society no longer limits individuals to their „real‟

neighborhoods The concept of community has expanded to virtual neighborhoods and communities such as Facebook and Twitter which also populate the communication landscape Facebook and Twitter are virtual worlds, a social networking site that people use to travel around and interact with others across the world Being able to meet and contact people from different cultures and geographical locations so speedily provides a new sense

of communication power

It can therefore be concluded that over time the internet aids in bringing diversity and new cultures into society and it is expected to bring about change in our social and business lives

2.3.6 Intercultural Training

Effective intercultural training “comes from considering your own mindset, comparing with your counterpart’s mindset […] and then deciding how to proceed on the basis of what you have learned.”(Fleming, Feng, & Byram, 2009) It is crucial to become aware of one’s own mindset, how it is perceived by oneself and by others and how it is different from other cultural mindsets This is because the perception of the self and others is not always congruent, especially when the counterpart has a distinctive cultural background Perception of the self and others is a vital element in the 4 steps that are crucial in the learning circle of intercultural training described by Tomalin: activity, debrief, conclusion, implementation, under which the last one is the key step Activity is an important interactive phase in regards to reflect and consider one’s own mindset and compare it to the mindset of the cultural counterpart In the second phase participants get a chance to “discuss their experience with others in the group or with the facilitator” Again, this phase is based on interaction and perception In the third phase participants reflect what they have learned and how it may have changed their way of thinking and behavior The implementation phase is most important, as Tomalin points out, because it helps participants to create an action plan of