Textiles in sport TÀI LIỆU NGOẠI VĂN NGÀNH MAY

3.3 The evolution of layering 334.2 Identifying the needs of the end-user: developments in sport-specific clothing from postwar to the present day 454.3 The design development process: t

Textiles in sport

Textiles for protection

(ISBN-13: 978-1-85573-921-5; ISBN-10: 1-85573-921-6)

In today's climate there is an increasing requirement for protective textiles Whether it isfor personal protection, protection against the elements, chemical, nuclear or ballisticattack, textiles that aid in protecting the wearer are a major requirement Thiscomprehensive new book brings together the leading protective textiles expertsthroughout the world It covers a wide variety of areas, from materials and design,through protection, to specific hazards and finally concluding with specific applicationcase studies It is the first book of its kind to give a complete coverage of textiles forprotection

Materials in sports equipment

(ISBN-13: 978-1-85573-599-6; ISBN-10: 1-85573-599-7)

Improvements in materials technology have produced a significant impact on sportingperformance in recent years The relationship between material technology and designand their effects on sporting performance is the focus of this important new handbook.From topics related to the general use of materials in sports ± for example for sportssurfaces and the behaviour of balls and ballistics ± the book goes on to explore in detailthe particular requirements of materials for many of the most popular sports, includinggolf, tennis, cycling, mountaineering, skiing, cricket and paralympic sports This book is

an essential text for students on sports technology courses, manufacturers of sportsequipment and materials scientists working with new materials with potential for sportsapplications

Handbook of technical textiles

(ISBN-13: 978-1-85573-385-5; ISBN-10: 1-85573-385-4)

This major handbook looks at the manufacture, processing and applications of hi-techtextiles for a huge range of applications, including: heat and flame protection; waterproofand breathable fabrics; textiles in filtration; geotextiles; medical textiles; textiles intransport engineering; and textiles for extreme environments It is an essential guide fortextile yarn and fibre manufacturers; producers of woven, knitted and non-woven fabrics;textile finishers; designers and specifiers of textiles for new or novel applications as well

as lecturers and graduate students on university textile courses

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Textiles in sport

Edited by

R Shishoo

Woodhead Publishing Limited

Abington Hall, Abington

Cambridge CB1 6AH

England

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Contributor contact details xi

R SH I S H O O, Shishoo Consulting AB, Sweden

1.2 Innovations in fibres and textile materials for sportswear 2

Part I Current sportswear market

D BU I R S K I, WSA Performance & Sports Materials, UK

S BR A M E L, Sport PremieÁre Magazine, France

3.3 The evolution of layering 33

4.2 Identifying the needs of the end-user: developments in

sport-specific clothing from postwar to the present day 454.3 The design development process: the application of technical

M NE B O, HaÈme Polytechnic, Finland

5.4 Functional materials and components in sport footwear 80

Part II Innovative fibres and fabrics in sport

6 High-performance and high-functional fibres and textiles 89

6.5 Textile formations and their special advantages 103

6.7 Future trends 115

H ME I N A N D E R, Tampere University of Technology, Finland

8.2 Sports products from coated and laminated fabrics 135

8.4 Polymer or resin compounding, laboratory work and pilot

Part III Sportswear and comfort

V T BA R T E L S, Hohenstein Institutes, Germany

11 Is protection part of the game? Protection against

R M LA I N G and D J CA R R, University of Otago,

I HO L M EÂ R, Lund Technical University, Sweden

12.3 Energy metabolism, heat production and physical work 265

12.8 Specific materials and textiles for cold protection 278

J E RU C K M A N, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

13.4 The condensation problem in waterproof breathable fabrics

Part V Specific applications

K VA N D E VE L D E, Ghent University, Belgium

16 Textile use in sport shoes 339

E C FR E D E R I C K and C WO J C I E S Z A K, Exeter Research,Inc., USA

Co-founder and Editor-in-Chief

WSA Performance & Sports

Ms Jane McCannDirector of Smart Clothes andWearable TechnologyNewport School of Art, Media andDesign

University of Wales, NewportCaerleon Campus

PO Box 179Newport NP18 3YGUK

Tel: +44 (0)1633 432823Email: jane.mccann@newport.ac.ukjane@performance-design.co.ukChapter 5

Dr Merianne NeboHaÈme PolytechnicWetterhoffinkatu 2FIN-33100 HaÈmeenlinnaFinland

Tel: +358-3-6463641Email: merianne.nebo@hamk.fi

Chapter 6

Dr Thomas Stegmaier

Institute for Textile and Process

Engineering (ITV) Denkendorf

J Voyce

5 Gunner's MuseBishops Waltham SO32 1HXUK

Tel: +44 (0)1489 891726Email: jacqui@voyce.fsnet.co.ukChapter 11

Professor Raechel M Laing and

Dr Debra J CarrClothing and Textile SciencesUniversity of Otago

PO Box 56DunedinNew ZealandTel: +64 3 867 7536Email: raechel.laing@otago.ac.nzdebra.carr@otago.ac.nz

Chapter 12Professor Ingvar HolmeÂrThermal Environment LaboratoryDepartment of Design SciencesLund Technical UniversityBox 118

22100 LundSwedenTel: +46 46 2223932Fax: +46 46 2224431Email: ingvar.holmer@design.lth.se

Chapter 13

Dr J E Ruckman

Reader and Research Co-ordinator

Department of Clothing Design and

36 High StreetHalbertonTivertonDevon EX16 7AGUK

Tel: +44 (0)1884 820 653Email: roywbuckley@tiscali.co.ukChapter 16

Dr Edward C FrederickExeter Research, Inc

80 Haigh RoadBrentwood

NH 03833-6418USA

Email: nederick@exeter-research.com

1.1 Overview

Textile materials are used in all sports as sportswear, and in many games assports equipment and sports footwear Examples of sportswear are: aerobicclothing, athletic clothing, football clothing, cricket clothing, games shorts,gloves, jackets, pants, shirts, shorts, socks, sweatshirts, swimwear and tennisclothing Examples of sport equipment are: sails, trampolines, camping gear,leisure bags, bikes and rackets Examples of sports footwear are: athletic shoes,football boots, gym shoes, tennis shoes and walking boots

The consumption of textile fibres and fabrics in sportswear and sportingrelated goods has seen a significant increase in the last decade or so In ananalysis made in 2002 by David Rigby Associates, it was stated that theworldwide consumption of textiles for sports increased from 841,000 tons in

1995 to 1,153,000 tons (projected) in 2005 The forecast made for 2010 was1,382,000 tons This reflects to a large extent the significant rise in interest of thepopulation worldwide in active indoor and outdoor sports as well as in outdoorleisure pursuits This rising interest is due to a number of social factors thatinclude increased leisure time, increased considerations of well-being and goodhealth, growth of indoor and outdoor sports facilities as well as the everincreasing pursuit of the adult population of activities outside the home orworkplace Textile materials in various shapes and forms are being used in awide range of applications in sportswear and sporting equipment, and themanufacturers of these products are often at the forefront of textilemanufacturing technologies for enhancing the properties of performance fabricsand sportswear in order to fulfil various types of consumer and market demands.The strong rise in female participation in professional and outdoor sport has alsobeen an important factor responsible for the development trends in sportswear Itwas reported in Textile Outlook International (March/April 2003) that, in 2000,US$36.4bn was spent on sport apparel in the USA Of this, as much as US$21.8bn,

or around 60%, was attributed to purchases by women According to data compiledfrom warranty registered cards submitted by women who have purchased Oakley

1 Introduction

R S H I S H O O , Shishoo Consulting AB, Sweden

products, 25% play golf, 23% ski, 20% are involved in mountain biking, 11%snowboard and 5% surf In the UK, consumers spent £4.05bn on sportswear in

2002, representing 10.3% of the total UK clothing market

The sportswear and sports goods sector of the textile industry has not onlyseen market diversification for fibrous materials but has also contributedtowards the elevation of textile science and technology to a level approachingthat of other high-tech industrial sectors New technological developments, morefragmented niche markets and increasingly demanding customer expectationsare just some of the factors relentlessly driving this industrial sector To thrive inthis environment, companies are implementing radically new product develop-ment practices Global market volume of sportswear varies depending on thetype of end-use applications High-value products exist at the upper end of theprice scale, at low volumes, and these are very specialized products whereperformance, quality and design, and not price, seem to be the determiningfactors The sportswear market occupies an important place in the total textilescene and this segment of the textile market is growing at a high rate Theproducers of sportswear and sports goods have been concentrating their efforts

on improving their strategic position, productivity, added-value productassortment and niche positions in order to expand their markets

The performance requirements of many sporting goods often demand widelydifferent properties from their constituent fibres and fabrics, such as barrier torain, snow, cold, heat and strength, and at the same time these textiles must fulfilthe consumer requirements of comfort, drape, fit and ease of movement Amongthe contributing factors responsible for successful marketing of functionalsportswear and sporting goods have been advances made in the fibre andpolymer sciences, and production techniques for obtaining sophisticated fibre,yarns and fabrics The finishing and coating/laminating industries have donepioneering work in the area of developing these technologies towards the needs

of the sportswear and sporting goods sectors resulting in unique products

sportswear

Fibre developments

The evolution of fibre developments has gone through the phases of tional fibres, highly functional fibres and high-performance fibres Polyester isthe single most common fibre used for sportswear and active wear Other fibressuitable for active wear are polyamide, polypropylene, acrylics and elastanes.Wool and cotton fibres are still finding applications in leisurewear Syntheticfibres can either be modified during manufacture, e.g by producing hollowfibres and fibres with irregular cross-section, or be optimally blended withnatural fibres to improve their thermo-physiological and sensory properties

conven-Synthetic fibres with improved UV resistance and having anti-microbialproperties are also commercially available for use in sportswear.

Improved fibre spinning techniques in melt spinning, wet spinning, dryspinning as well as new techniques such as gel spinning, bi-component spinningand microfibre spinning, have all made it possible to produce fibres, yarns andfabrics with unique performance characteristics suitable for use in sportswearand sports goods New technologies for producing microfibres have alsocontributed towards production of high-tech sportswear

By using the conjugate spinning technique, many different types ofsophisticated fibres with various functions have been commercially producedwhich has resulted in fabrics having improved mechanical, physical, chemicaland biological functions The technique of producing sheath/core melt spunconjugate fibres has been commercially exploited for producing added-valuefibres Unitika produced the first heat-regenerating conjugate fibre with a corecontaining zirconium carbide (ZrC) Since ZrC absorbs sunlight (visible andnear-infrared radiation) and emits far-infrared radiation, one feels warmer whenone puts on a jacket made from such fibres Other types of heat-generating fibrescontain ceramic micro-particles

High-performance fibres

Today, a wide range of high-performance fibres is commercially available fortechnical and industrial applications These types of fibres are used in sportsprotective wear/equipment developed for impact protection and in textilereinforcement in sports products for different applications Among the specialityfibres already established are the following:

· Aramid fibres:

± p-aramid fibre to provide high strength and ballistics

± m-aramid fibre to provide flame and heat resistance

· Ultra-high tenacity polyethylene fibres (UHMWPE) Gel spun, ultra-highmolecular weight polyethylene fibres with extremely high specific strengthand modulus, high chemical resistance and high abrasion resistance

· Polyphenylene sulphide fibres (PPS) Crystalline thermoplastic fibre withmechanical properties similar to regular polyester fibre Excellent heat andchemical resistance

· Polyetheretherketone fibres (PEEK) Crystalline thermoplastic fibre withhigh resistance to heat and to a wide range of chemicals

· Novoloid (cured phenol-aldehyde) fibres High flame resistance, non-meltingwith high resistance to acid, solvents, steam, chemicals and fuels Goodmoisture regain and soft hand

· PBO (p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole) fibres The strength and modulus ofthis fibre exceed those of any known fibres

Highly functional fabrics

There has been a strong growth in the development and use of highly functionalmaterials in sportswear and outdoor leisure clothing The performancerequirements of many such products demand the balance of widely differentproperties of drape, thermal insulation, barrier to liquids, antistatic, stretch,physiological comfort, etc The research in this field over the past decade has led

to the commercial development of a variety of new products for highly tional end-uses By designing new processes for fabric preparation and finishing,and as a result of advances in technologies for the production and application ofsuitable polymeric membranes and surface finishes, it is now possible tocombine the consumer requirements of aesthetics, design and function insportswear for different end-use applications The fabrics for active wear andsportswear are also specially constructed both in terms of the geometry, packingdensity and structure of the constituent fibres in yarns and in terms of theconstruction of the fabric in order to achieve the necessary dissipation of heatand moisture at high metabolic rates Many smart double-knitted or double-woven fabrics have been developed for sportswear in such a way that their innerface, close to human skin, has optimal moisture wicking and sensory propertieswhereas the outer face of the fabric has optimal moisture dissipation behaviour

func-In addition to the innovations in highly functional man-made fibre-basedfabrics, advances have also been made in cotton and wool fabrics for sportswear

An example is the development of `Sportwool' weatherproof technology, wherethe constituent fibre, yarn and fabric properties and the fabric finishes of

`Sportwool' are supposed to create a drier and cooler microclimate

Since the introduction of Gore-Tex fabric in 1976, a variety of lightweightbreathable highly functional fabrics have been developed worldwide Highlyfunctional fabrics are generally characterized as being waterproof/moisturepermeable, sweat-absorbing and with high thermal insulation at low thicknessvalues These fabrics are now extensively used in making sportswear and sportsshoes One can say that these products are basically complex materials withdiverse functions In many of these products the requirements of comfort andfashion have successfully been integrated with segmentation in uses

Important developments are envisaged in making multifunctional coated orlaminated fabrics for different applications For example, some new innovativefunctional textiles for protective clothing were recently introduced by W Goreand Associates Gore-Tex Airlock is a functional textile which was developed byGore for the special needs of firefighters The concept of this product is toeliminate the conventional, bulky, thermal insulation layer and substitute it by aprotective air cushion Dots consisting of foamed silicone are discontinuouslyapplied to a fibre substrate and anchored within the microporous Gore-Texmembrane They measure only a few millimetres in height, creating a defined aircushion between the adjacent flame-retardant face fabric and the inner lining

This laminated fabric is characterized by thermal insulation, breathability,perspiration transport, absorption and quick-dry properties.

Biomimetics and textiles

The structure and functions of natural biological materials are precise and welldefined The imitation of living systems, `biomimetics', could make it possible

in future to replicate the molecular design and morphology of natural biologicalmaterials since their structure and functions are related Already in manylaboratories around the world, R&D work is going on in the field of biomimeticchemistry and fabric formation A typical example is the development of water-and soil-repellent fabrics produced by imitating the surface structure of a lotusleaf Water rolls like mercury from the lotus leaf, whose surface is micro-scopically rough and covered with a wax-like substance with low surfacetension When water is dropped on to the surface of a lotus leaf, air is trapped inthe dents and forms a boundary with water

Intelligent textiles

There have been some interesting developments taking place regardingintelligent textiles and interactive materials with great market potential in thesportswear sector These materials readily interact with human/environmentalconditions thereby creating changes in the material properties For example, thephase-change materials and shape-memory polymers embedded in fabric layerswill be able to interact with a human body and produce thermoregulatory control

by affecting the microclimate between the clothing and the human skin Inaddition to the two dimensions of functionality and aesthetics, if `intelligence'can be embedded or integrated into clothing as a third dimension, it would lead

to the realization of protective and safety clothing as a personalized wearableinformation infrastructure

Design requirements of active and performance sportswear have produceddesigners with skills and knowledge in graphics, textiles and fashion to conceiveaesthetically pleasing and ergonomically viable ranges which take advantage ofthe latest advances in functional and `smart' textiles Leading fashion designershave been quick to realize that the performance has actually become the aesthetics

in sportswear It is the fabrics and technology that set the trend Incorporation ofmicrofibres, breathable barrier fabrics, innovative stretch materials, intelligenttextiles, interactive materials such as phase-change materials and shape-memorypolymers, and wearable technology as a part of the functional design system insportswear, will become routine in the product development process

The development of new materials and designs for sports footwear hascreated an extremely competitive market for footwear design The needs ofconsumers for active sport and leisure are performance, protection and comfortrelated The design concepts are based on biomechanical analysis related to theknowledge of foot morphology, anatomy and lower extremity mechanics Theuse of lightweight, durable, and energy-absorbing and moisture/heat-regulatingmaterials is becoming a critical factor for functional design in sports footwear.Microfibres, breathable membranes and coatings, moulded polyurethane, aircushions and various forms of gel capsule, elastomeric fabrics and phase-changematerials (PCM) are becoming common features promoted in shoe design.Advances in innovative highly functional uncoated and coated textiles andcoatings as well as in garment manufacturing technology have resulted in moresophisticated sportswear and footwear specifically designed for different usercategories of performance sports and outdoor leisure activities All this helps tospeed the runner, keep the jogger dry and cool, streamline the swimmer, protectthe cricketer, hockey player and snowboarder, keep the football player andcyclist dry, and keep the user comfortable and warm in extreme weatherconditions The functional design of newly developed sportswear and sportsfootwear has a strong impact on leisurewear and leisure footwear as well.

In active and endurance sports, the performance of a sportswear is synonymouswith its comfort characteristics In active wear for outdoor use, the clothingshould be capable of protecting the wearer from external elements such as wind,sun, rain and snow At the same time, it should be capable of maintaining theheat balance between the excess heat produced by the wearer due to increasedmetabolic rate on the one hand, and the capacity of the clothing to dissipate bodyheat and perspiration on the other

Over the past two decades significant advances have been made in thetechnologies for spinning fibres and yarns, the production techniques forfunctionally designed knitted and woven fabrics as well as in the highlyfunctional coating and laminating technologies All these efforts have resulted insome of the most interesting fabrics which possess the desired characteristics ofgood tactile properties, thermal insulation, stretch, quick liquid absorption,ability to evaporate water while staying dry to the touch, and being capable oftransporting perspiration from the skin to the outer surface and then quicklydispersing it The performance category that has seen a large number ofinnovations is that of moisture management, which is directly related to comfort.Highly functional coated and laminated fabrics are now commerciallyavailable which are aesthetically attractive, breathable yet with the desiredbarrier characteristics against the external elements These fabrics areengineered by using either microporous or hydrophilic membranes, and the

water vapour transmission through these membranes is achieved by the physicalprocesses of adsorption, diffusion and desorption.

Thermally adaptive technology such as the incorporation of phase-changematerials into sportswear and active wear is gaining momentum in differentmarket sectors These materials interact with the microclimate between thehuman body and the clothing and respond to the fluctuations in temperaturewhich are caused by changes in activity level and the external environments.The textile structures with embedded PCM microcapsules have the followinginteractive functions:

· Absorption of surplus body heat

· An insulation effect ± caused by heat emission of the PCM into the textilestructure

· A thermoregulatory effect ± which keeps the microclimate temperaturenearly constant

Prevention of injuries is one of the primary concerns of participants in manytypes of sports and games and has lately attracted greater research attention Forimpact protection to be provided by the clothing or sporting equipment such asprotective helmets, it is necessary to use textiles and textile-based materialswhich possess high strength and durability as well as a high level of energyabsorption These materials are attached to the clothing in appropriate placesdepending on the sporting activity and the information available from injury riskanalyses of different sports and games A variety of textiles and textilecomposite structures are commercially available with the required mechanicalproperties of strength, impact resistance, abrasion resistance and tear strength forrugged outdoor and performance sports and games

The sportswear and sports footwear industry is one of the foremost innovators inthe textile and clothing sector and has been a launch pad for many new ideas andconcepts in material and product design The industry is composed of both largeand medium-sized enterprises with some of the most famous brand names, whereeach brand name is associated with special functional design, performancequality and the type of targeted sport or game Well-respected brandedsportswear and sports footwear companies with a global market include Nike,Adidas, Puma, Reebok, Russell Corporation, Umbro, Berghaus, Scanda, Arena,Paramo, Salomon, Rukkla, Sprayway, Helly Hansen and Oscar Jacobsson Wehave been noticing a strong trend towards the combination of multi-functionality

of materials and fashion in many items of sportswear and leisure clothing The

result has been the emergence of many different types of high-tech fabrics andgarment designs with some remarkable performance properties.

The sports clothing and footwear business have become very technicallyoriented, using highly functional textiles for specialized performances indifferent sports, e.g good thermal properties for cold-weather sport; aero-dynamic properties for downhill skiing and swimming, breathable waterproofingfor outdoor pursuits; strength and durability for sails With the advent ofintelligent textiles, functional design and wearable technology, innovativesolutions have become the name of the game for the sportswear businesses Theperformance sportswear of today has become a truly engineered productdesigned to fulfil the consumer's requirements of light weight, softness, injury-preventive, thermoregulatory, elastic, anti-microbial, durable, aesthetic, etc.This book brings together information about the state of the art of textiles insportswear and about the future trends in this important business sector

The objective of this book is to describe the developments in textile fibres andmaterials with specific reference to their use in sportswear and sporting goods.The sixteen chapters cover the following five general topics of interest:

· Current sportswear market

· Innovative fibres and fabrics in sports

· Sportswear and comfort

· Protection

· Specific applications

The contributors to this book represent a team of international experts at thecutting edge of textile research and clothing design relevant to sportswear andsporting goods

In Chapter 2, David Buirski gives an overview of the sportswear and sportinggoods market This chapter is a written as a personal view of how the author seesthe market with the benefit of the hindsight In addition to containing facts andfigures, the chapter tells us about the extraordinary development of sport itselfand how textiles are used to serve this market It also describes the future of thismarket and where the market will lead as far as textile developments areconcerned

In Chapter 3, Sophie Bramel has covered the key trends in sportswear designand describes in detail how advances in fibre and textile engineering offer greatopportunities for new creative garment design and enhanced wearer comfort.Innovations in textiles influence sportswear design at two basic levels: from thetechnical perspective, new materials enable improved performance regardingprotection as well as athletic performance and achievement, and at an aestheticlevel they facilitate the introduction of new styling options

In Chapter 4, Jane McCann has written about functional design of sportswearand material requirements for the design of performance sportswear.Developments in sport-specific clothing from postwar to present day aredescribed, keeping in mind the needs of the end-user The topics covered includematerial developments, commercialization of sport, sportswear for women,trends/styles and fashion, fibre branding and garment development This isfollowed by a description of the design development process addressing thefunctional needs of the end-user, the demands of the sport, and form and styleconsiderations The author then describes some emerging trends such ascommercial reality, smart clothes and wearable technology, biomimetics andenvironmental issues.

In Chapter 5, Merianne Nebo has written about the functional design of sportsfootwear Primary features of sports footwear are comfort, performance,protection, support and shock absorbance A functional footwear design meansunderstanding the shoe end-usage, sport/performance requirements, shoeconstruction and manufacturing techniques Topics covered include: functionalfit of sports footwear; biomechanics of the foot; fitting areas of the shoe such asflexing point, heel, toe and arch, heel-to-joint; shock absorbency; fasteningsystem; and shoe size systems Finally, functional materials and components insports footwear are described

In Chapter 6, Thomas Stegmaier, Joseph Mavely and Petra Schneider describethe structure±property relationship of high-performance fibres and textiles andhow fibres and textiles are treated to produce highly functional materials High-performance fibres are made of special polymers using specific fibre-spinningtechniques which result in fibres of high modulus, high strength, high shearstability, high thermal stability, high fire resistance and high resistance tochemicals An overview of different textile formation processes and of finishingand coating is also given The authors then describe the advances made in highlyfunctional fibres and textiles for applications in sportswear and outline how theseproperties can be obtained from the constitutive materials and by means of addingproperties using chemical, physical and mechanical methods

In Chapter 7, Harriet Meinander writes on the topic of smart and intelligentfibres and fabrics with particular reference to sportswear She describes somesmart textile materials including phase-change materials, shape-memorymaterials and chromic materials Some smart clothing solutions are alsodescribed, including clothing with adjustable thermal insulation, heating andcooling garments and wearable technology

In Chapter 8, Walter Fung writes about coated and laminated materials andsports products made from these materials He describes the basic fabric typesused and the technology available for producing highly functional coated andlaminated fabrics Testing of coated and laminated fabrics and quality assuranceare also described in brief Some environmental, health and safety aspects arealso discussed

In Chapter 9, Volkmar Bartels describes the importance of physiologicalcomfort of sportswear The wear comfort affects not only the well-being of thewearer but also the wearer's performance and efficiency Wear comfort hasbecome a major marketing strategy Bartels describes the methodology used tomake objective measurements of wear comfort which incorporates bothphysiological and mechanical comfort parameters The influence of fabric typeand construction and the finishing treatment on comfort properties are described.Some sportswear applications are discussed, giving examples of elasticknitwear, biofunctional textiles, foul weather protective laminates and theircombinations with functional underwear.

In Chapter 10, Jacqui Voyce, Petros Dafniotis and Simon Towlson writeabout the elastic textiles used in sportswear Minimizing a garment's resistance

to the body's demands in movement can be achieved through increased fabricfullness in the pattern or through fabric stretch Increasing the fabric stretchmeans garments can be cut to achieve a more streamlined appearance and canconform better to the body, whilst maintaining comfort for the wearer in motion.The methods for creating fabrics with optimal stretch properties are described,

as are important fabric properties in relation to maximizing comfort andperformance for participants in active sports Other aspects covered in thischapter include garment engineering, hydrodynamics in swimming, andaerodynamics for track, field and cycling The subject of well-being throughclothing is also discussed

In Chapter 11, Raechel Laing and Debra Carr consider human protectionagainst impact using clothing and personal equipment, or `Is protection part ofthe game?' Impact is relevant in many sporting activities, therefore theprevention of injury during sporting activity is of great importance Byconsidering the injuries sustained during a selected group of sporting activities,this chapter examines the issue of impact protection provided by protectivesportswear and equipment, and the effect of protective clothing and equipment

on human performance A description of guidelines, codes of practice andstandards is also given

In Chapter 12, Ingvar HolmeÂr considers the protective requirements ofthermal clothing for a wearer in a cold environment, such as that encountered inwinter sports, endurance sports, cross-country skiing, skating, alpine skiing,sleeping outdoors and water sports The issues discussed in this chapter arethermal stress factors in winter sports, metabolic heat production during theperformance of winter sports, human heat balance, requirements for protectiveclothing, measurement methods, performance of winter sports clothing, andspecific materials for cold protection in winter sports

In Chapter 13, Ji-Young Ruckman writes about water resistance and moisturetransfer properties of sportswear The subjects described in this chapter includewaterproof and breathable garments, performance and protection under steady-state conditions, performance and protection against windy conditions,

performance and protection against rainy conditions, performance andprotection under wind-driven rainy conditions, and the condensation problem

in waterproof breathable fabrics for sportswear

In Chapter 14, Kathleen Van de Velde looks at the development of textilecomposites for use in sports products and equipment The materials andtechnology used for manufacturing these composites are described, followed byseveral examples of combinations of materials, design features and productionprocesses for different sports goods applications, including pole vault, fishinggear, bicycles, golf clubs, baseball bats, tennis rackets, kayaks, skis/snowboardsand hockey gear

In Chapter 15, Roy Buckley writes about textiles in sailing Mostconsumption of textiles specific to sailing boats, yachts and ships, whether forcompetitive sport or for leisure, is in cloths for sails and spinnakers These twoproducts therefore receive most attention in this chapter, along with coverage oflaminates and cover fabrics Manufacture of polyester sailcloth is described indetail, including polyester sailcloth preparation, dyeing of polyester sailcloth,finishes and finishing of polyester sailcloth The author also describes theproduction and processing of nylon spinnakers Other items covered are: saildesign and the sail making process, laminated sails and cover fabrics

In Chapter 16, Edward Frederick and Craig Wojcieszak write about the use oftextiles in sports shoes It was in mid-1970 that the North American and, later,European general public's increased interest in jogging and fitness began tochange the face of sports shoe making, where textiles played a major role Abroad array of uses of textiles in footwear can be identified The authors describethe current use of textiles in sports shoes regionally within the shoe, starting withthe shoe upper with its constituent layers and ending up with the components inthe shoe sole They have also presented a wish list for future textiledevelopments to better meet the needs of the foot

This book is intended for a broad spectrum of readers worldwide, rangingfrom scientists, designers and technical staff employed at academic institutions,

to biomedical researchers, to material buyers, designers and productdevelopment staff working in companies that manufacture sportswear, sportsfootwear and sports equipment, to undergraduate students, to activesportspersons and consumers in general The contents and layout are designed

to provide information about a variety of important developments related totextiles in sport The book should be of great interest to the general public sincethe developments in materials and design of sportswear and sports footwearoften lead to new fashion trends in the leisurewear markets

Part I Current sportswear market

2.1 Introduction

To understand the scale of development of textiles in sport, it is necessary toappreciate the extraordinary development of sport itself and its all-encompassingnature As leisure pursuits expand, so must the use of textiles to service thismarket, which must surely also include sport The crossover between sport andleisure is blurred It is no longer sensible to take a purist's view of whatconstitutes sport and what constitutes leisure Is the highly trained professionalmarathon athlete taking part in sport while the weekend jogger is following aleisure pursuit? Is the high-tech fabric produced for the professional athlete to bedenied to the amateur?

To fully comprehend a global market edging its way towards a value ofUS$100 billion it is necessary to appreciate where it has come from and to beaware of the opportunities which sport (and leisure) provides for the furtherdevelopment of `textiles in sport'.1

Whilst the textile market is a matter of serious business, it should not beforgotten that sport and leisure are essentially about fun and well-being Thisshould not be overlooked, and one should not overlook, either, the potential innew, refreshed or modernised sporting activities Almost without fail, every yearsees new ways of putting excitement into the market, taking simple sports tonew extremes of physical effort or endurance As each new concept arrives, themarket for textiles in sport expands and, as niche markets develop in specificsports, so new twists can be added to the textiles needed to meet the demands ofthe innovators

There are figures available on participation in individual activities which,however, may be marginally distorted by what is fashionable and new (see Table2.1) Some sports endure whereas others are more transitory in their appeal (seeTable 2.2) Some individual markets may be too small for manufacturers of bulkmerchandise, but might be seen as profitable by others wishing to develop aniche market, such as polo It is assumed that this sport attracts the rich, thosewho are familiar with luxury brand names, but a little research will show that it

2 Market overview

D B U I R S K I , WSA Performance & Sports Materials, UK

is a game played by relatively few people in a handful of countries and thevolume of specialised clothing required is very limited An ordinary polo shirt,

to be found in almost any clothing store, will suffice on the field

Thinking back sixty years, the demand for sports textiles was limited, andthere were few if any cycling gloves, specialised footwear and certainly verylittle in the way of protective coverings for knees and elbows There were nospecial insert pads for shorts, no gel-moulding saddles There were no elastaneriding shorts which would help reduce muscle fatigue, and definitely noaerodynamic helmets Golf clubs often were made of hickory shafts or earlyforms of tempered steel Carbon fibre was a long way off Today the wealth of

Table2.1 Sports/activityintheUnitedStates:participationnumbers in2003

20 Stationary cycling (upright bike) 17.5

products to serve the different golfing requirements are immense, includinghigh-tech shoes, specialist silver-threaded socks, or antibacterial perspiration-controlling fibres in shirts or shorts.

It was possible to manage without UV-blockers in the fabric of clothing,without non-woven impregnated wipes with sun screen, tan-through gloves andspecialist head wear However, today, suitably attired and protected by theseinnovations, it is possible to play golf comfortably and safely in any climate, day

or night

This brief reminder should enable one to reflect on the astonishing growth ofsports and the sports market in what is a relatively short space of time Aworldwide industry has developed to service its needs and provide extra

Table 2.2 Trends in selected sports participation analysed over a 16-year period inthe United States (in '000s)

%change %changeAerobics1 13,961 10,356 7,460 5,423 5,875 ‡8.3 ÿ57.9

Baseball 15,098 15,586 12,318 10,402 10,885 +4.6 ÿ27.1Basketball 35,737 42,138 42,417 36,584 35,439 ÿ3.1 ÿ0.8Volleyball2 n.a 13,509 10,572 7,516 7,454 ÿ0.8 ÿ35.53Badminton 14,793 11,908 9,936 6,765 5,937 ÿ12.2 ÿ59.9

1 High impact Low impact aerobics has fallen by 25.9% in the16-year period.

2 Beach Net volleyball has declined from 35,984 in1987 to 20,286 in 2003, a decline of 43.5%.

comfort, performance and protection to its participants, and everyone can be aplayer.

Let's examine some of the requirements in just one sport for the moment: golf.Fifty years ago, golfing footwear was a pair of leather golf shoes with spikes,sometimes slightly waterproof To prevent ingress of water through the sole, someeven had a thin steel plate running the length of the sole, sandwiched between it andthe insole, but flexible enough to shape to the soles of the feet, but neverthelesssteel Considering the possibility of lightning strikes while playing, this was notvery desirable Today the golf shoe market is vast and a lot safer In the UnitedStates there are some 27 million people who play golf regularly It appears that theyaverage between two to three pairs of shoes each ± to be worn accordingly to matchthe weather and course conditions of the day In Florida alone there are over 1,000golf courses, and across the USA there are enough golf courses ± more than 17,000

± to cover the entire state of Connecticut (Great Britain and Ireland are home tosome 2,400 courses; even Belgium finds space for 51 courses.) This means thatthere are also an incredible number of golf gloves worn out in a year: and anextraordinary variety of gloves are on offer, in hair-sheep leather, in microfibresuede, in combinations of leather and fabric, and even tan-through fabric to meetthe demand Consider the golf shirts, sweaters, windcheaters, waterproofs, caps,hats, socks, skirts, slacks and a host of clothing items used by the 21st centurygolfer Then there are the towels to wipe and clean balls, the fabrics required forflags marking the target Golf bags themselves constitute a market for durable,abrasion-resistant fabric The clubs require head covers

Now consider watersports How many brands of swimwear are there in theworld today? Consider the R&D devoted to creating `faster' swimsuits, theunbelievable technology in design, structure and fibre as well as the choice.When world records are measured in hundredths of a second, it isn't toosurprising At the 2004 Olympics, swimmers were wearing new head coverings,made from materials which would shave another fraction of a second off theirperformance times

Consider, too, the vast increase in leisure and holiday time, the unceasingsearch for fresh holiday resorts in every conceivable corner of the globe and thedemand for swimwear that goes with this To take the water theme a littlefurther, the definition of textiles should be considered: any raw material that can

be produced as a woven, knitted or non-woven piece of fabric qualifies So nowconsider sailing, which has come a long way since linen sails were the choice ofsailors Nowadays they are produced in just about everything except the usualtextile fibres Glass fibre springs to mind, as do others such as Kevlar andSpectra Think of the extraordinary range of ropes required across the spectrum

of sailing activities

Besides hemp and linen for rope and sails, the real requirement of earlysailors was for waterproof clothing But with every advance in sporting prowess,

so there has developed a need for more specialist clothing A simple waterproofhat and jacket has been superseded by layered clothing, with each layer from theskin outwards having to provide different properties and benefits The fibrestructure of each individual layer has to work in harmony with the next.Breathability has become the overriding consideration ± water vapour andperspiration need to escape without difficulty whereas water should not beallowed in Membrane technology has grown in importance and completemarkets have been evolved as a result of its development

Inspiration today is sought in the natural world: biomimicry has entered thevocabulary, and no doubt technologists will find textile solutions from the world

of natural history and biology Already there are breathable wetsuits whichfunction in the same way as the pores in the structure of leaves The world ofphase-change materials has also become familiar to an increasing audience,where textiles can be modified to store surplus body heat and release that heat tokeep the body's temperature at a mean when it begins to cool down

Water, of course, is used as the perfect example of understanding thecomplexities hidden in the term `phase-change' Water, ice and steam are allessentially the same To that, snow should be added ± if only to allow theintroduction of the vast development in sports requiring either snow or ice Thespecialist requirements for clothing are enormous To give an idea of the scale ofthe industry it is worth noting that in the Winter Olympics of 1924 there wereonly five categories of sport By 2002, there were fifteen

The phase-change concept is no longer limited to temperature control Today

it can be applied to materials which change according to use ± gels which remainsoft under certain conditions and then mould to a person's shape when in activeuse As a result, shoes and saddles now take on the shape of the sole of the foot

or the derrieÁre of the rider Protective wear remains lightweight and soft untilrequired to provide instant impact protection Deodorising properties can now beencapsulated, as well as fragrances and oils, to create more performance-specificgarments and sports clothing

The functions that new technological advances have brought to everyday life cannow be incorporated into sports-specific clothing Soft-switch technology allowsthe introduction of electrical circuitry and communication systems to be builtinto the garment GPS (global positioning systems) life-saving technology can

be built into skiwear so that avalanche victims have a better chance of survival.The only requirement, apparently, is imagination Lateral thinking and theapplication of concepts developed for one sector of human endeavour can betranslated into the world of leisure, sport and textiles

With each new development, so there is opportunity for the textile industry

to broaden its market Happily, there are indications that consumers willdevote more time and money to their leisure and sporting activities It hasbeen seen that they are more prepared to read explanatory swing-tags andlabels when it comes to sportswear as opposed to when making ordinaryclothing purchases

The acquisition of the latest technology is important Perhaps it is amanifestation of the competitive urge in humankind Perhaps it is a matter ofpersonal well-being and safety To the average person, a suit is no more than asuit When it comes to sportswear, however, it is a different matter If newtechnology is going to provide a competitive advantage, then it must surely beworthwhile Or so the argument would go If the player will be able to performthat much better by buying into something new, then it must be worth theexpense Everyone wishes to play better, feel better and be more comfortable.Everyone wants to win in some way or another It is advanced technology in thetextile industry that can help supply that basic human need

What is the size of the market? In an adaptation of an old phrase, `that is the $64billion question?' It is therefore necessary to look at what is already known.Research has always been an excellent way of understanding trends of thefuture, and the United States is the leader when it comes to research SGMAInternational, the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association based in Florida,states that 55 million citizens in the country play bowls, more than 45 millionget involved in treadmill exercise, and nearly 44 million go freshwater fishing(15.2 million go saltwater fishing, another 6 million go fly-fishing) Campingout in tents is practised by just under 42 million people over 6 years of age,while a further 40.7 million play pool or billiards Basketball is played by 35.4million and even darts attracts the attention of 19.5 million players Tennis hasonly 17.3 million regular players ± but just think of the amount of fibre that isrequired to keep them supplied with balls According to research published inJuly 2004 by SGMA International, nearly 40% of all sports apparel spending isfor clothing worn by children aged 17 or under

If that is the United States, what about Europe? How many horse riders arethere? For that matter, how many horse blankets are needed and how many tons

of fibre are required to produce the vast acreage of fabric needed to keep thehorses comfortable? (Horseback riding is a regular activity of 16 million people

in the United States.)

All measures and statistics for the overall size of the market could be dwarfedwhen China enters the equation China is very much seen as a source of textilesand finished goods for the world market What if China becomes as taken withsport as, for example, the United States The Olympic Games provides some

clue to the sports which attract the Chinese As that country's success in recentOlympiads continues, so certain disciplines must become more enticing andexciting for the younger generations The Olympic Games of 2008, to be held inBeijing, will no doubt further increase participation in a broader spread ofactivities.

In 2000, the worldwide market was valued at US$92 billion.2In 2003 it wasestimated that the value of the US sports market was some US$50 billion atretail, which means that participants could be spending almost treble thatamount on indulging their sporting and leisure activities Analysts are alreadyhard at work trying to assess where the market is heading for 2010 The SGMAreleased a White Paper on the subject in early 2004 but does not place a figure

on the value of the market `Where the future will take us is, to an extent, a veryopen-ended question,' said SGMA International president John Riddle

`Nevertheless, as we produced this report, we spoke with such a large crosssection of the sports industry, that we are confident that many of our predictionswill be accurate.'

Although the report applies only to the United States, it does provide somefood for thought on a wider scale because it points out the need for analysingdemographic forecasts Some of the more interesting facts contained in theWhite Paper are listed below

· Eight out of ten sporting goods executives expect joint ventures and alliances

to be important growth engines for the future

· Consolidation in the sporting goods industry will continue to be a significantforce throughout the first decade of the 21st century

· The population growth of children, aged 5 to 19, will increase only slightlybetween 2005 and 2010, which is the mainstay of the sports-playing,equipment-buying, sports-apparel and athletic footwear-wearing group

· At retail, there will be an emergence of sporting goods stores keyed tospecific sports/lifestyles

· Power will continue to shift to the retailer from the supplier The retailer willutilise that strength by demanding more services and concessions from thesuppliers

· The supercentre concept is expected to expand, causing manufacturers to cutcosts

· Private label brands are going to become more prevalent

· Success, for retailers and suppliers, will require continuous improvements inthe use of information technology, especially in the area of compiling/utilising data about customers and their preferences

· Successful suppliers will have to master all aspects of brand management

· As private labelling grows in popularity, suppliers must learn that retailers areboth their customers and their competition.

· Successful suppliers will be efficient channel managers, providing powerfulretailers with exclusive products

· Sports/fitness companies, government bodies, health care organisations,insurance companies and community-minded groups will work together topromote physical activity

It is this last point, and the demographic predictions relating to children andbirth rates, which will have great significance on the future development of theoverall market, not only in the United States but also throughout Europe Thereappears to be little doubt that society is becoming obese and that has serioushealth implications Years of denigrating the competitive spirit among schoolpupils in certain countries is now being reversed at a high political level.Governments are urging a return to sport and it is hoped that populations willbecome leaner and fitter Future generations will understand the value ofstaying fit

The great outdoors should again take on a much broader appeal All of thesepolitical, environmental and social trends will have a bearing on the size andimportance of the textile market, and business managers will need to watch themclosely in order to develop sales opportunities along the way

Whilst the United States may have fragmented sports sectors, it remains thelargest market Europe, on the other hand, is fragmented by both individualnational attitudes and sports sectors Football or soccer might be considered thegame that crosses all boundaries and cultures It does represent an enormousmarket, not only in terms of players, coaches, referees and linesmen, but, moreimportantly, in terms of spectators In recent years, the major clubs in Europehave realised the potential of the non-football-playing public There is anoverwhelming passion among many to support a specific club or a specificplayer, or both The `Beckham effect' has had a major impact on the fortunes ofthe top clubs It is also what every fabric producer targeting the replica shirtbusiness yearns for When a top player catches the imagination of fansworldwide, the replica shirt with the player's name or number on it can move invast quantities When England's David Beckham started playing for RealMadrid in 2003 it was said that sales of his replica shirt hit the 1 million figure,more than the combined total of all the other replica shirts for the rest of histeammates The same phenomenon ± possibly not in quite the same numbers ±can be seen coming out of Formula 1 motor racing

As long as there are sporting heroes, the consumers will oblige with theirdesire to emulate them ± and the only way is often through wearing matchingclothing So it is fair to assume that the fortunes of the sports textile industry will

be linked to the attitudes of fans towards their favourite stars

2.6 The market potential in China

The question, however, which will exercise the best minds in the industry is:China ± what if? It is probably more accurate to postulate `when' and `how big'rather than `what if'? The giant brands are already entrenching themselves inChina and Nike is said to be opening a further 500 or more stores in 2005, inaddition to the 1,200 it already has in the country The 2008 Olympics ± whereAdidas is the `Official Sportswear Partner' ± could be the catalyst for sport toreally burgeon across the world's most populous nation There are precedents to

be seen At the Los Angeles Olympic Games in 1984, a 21-year-old Chinesegymnast, Li Ning, won six medals, three of them gold Twenty years later LiNing is chairman of a sporting goods firm, selling footwear and sportswear, withannual sales in excess of US$250 million in his home country and the company

is planning to expand its retail outlets from its present 2,354 to 3,500 by 2006.The mainland sports goods retailer is also planning a listing in Hong Kong toraise up to HK$600 million to upgrade product design and marketing, ahead ofthe 2008 Olympics If he is seen as a role model by other successful athletes,who would not be prepared to forecast a growth pattern for China? There is nodoubt that liberalisation in China is opening up the market for sports business,creating opportunities for both domestic and international companies

Whilst Li Ning's company may seem small by comparison with the ¨7.15billion turnover in 2003 of Intersport International, considered the world'slargest sports retail organisation with some 4,700 stores in 27 countries affiliated

to its logo, who is to say that such giants will not emerge in China? If the sportsmarket in Europe was estimated to be worth some ¨35 billion in 2003 (it isclaimed that Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Italy and Spain account for80% of the sports goods market in Europe), what worth does one place on theglobal market if the world's developing countries begin to appreciate the value

of sport and leisure as their living standards rise? A foretaste of this probableexpansion could be seen by the fact that 202 countries were represented at the

2004 Olympics in Athens Intersport claims to serve 45 million customers a year

in the 27 countries in which it operates A customer base of 45 million could beseen as miniscule in a country the size of China

Happily for the textile industry, whatever the future brings, sport shouldalways remain one of the growth markets for its products ± as long as theindustry retains its ability to innovate and stimulate the dreams of those whoparticipate in sport, even if it is only getting hold of the coconut in a friendlygame of Yubee-Lakpee

1 Artificial grass has developed strongly as a textile market in recent years and, withthe greater emphasis being placed on health and safety, this sector should grow For

instance, schools in the UK wishing to provide hockey pitches that will be used byboth boys and girls must use artificial surfaces on which to play The Olympic 2004hockey centre relied on artificial grass Artificial playing surfaces are becomingmore popular as they are largely immune to weather problems and can be used allyear round In 2003, more than 20 companies in the United States were competingfor synthetic-turf contracts, compared with just a few in 1999 There is now aSynthetic Turf Council in the United States to establish guidelines for the industry It

is estimated that an average US football pitch uses approximately 13,600 kg of yarn

In order not to lose the lush feel of real grass, some companies have developedhybrid technologies with real grass growing within textile structures

2 World Federation of the Sporting Goods Industry

3.1 Introduction

This chapter will look at how advances in fiber and textile engineering offer aconstant flow of new creative directions to garment design and wearer comfort.Innovation in textiles influences sportswear design at two basic levels: from atechnical perspective, new textiles enable enhanced performance regardingprotection as well as athletic achievement, and at an aesthetic level, theyintroduce new styling options

The study of the history of synthetic fibers1has shown that new fibers are atthe basis of most textile innovation, but they do not always lead to evolutions ingarment design All too often, new materials are simply copied and pasted totraditional garment shapes and assembled using conventional manufacturingtechniques Yet though there are plenty of so-called smart textiles, there are not

so many smart garments

Admittedly, fiber producers benefit from large-scale research and ment funding, whereas garment manufacturing evolves at a slower pace.However, the situation is changing, and this is the main topic developed in thischapter Recent advances made in both textile and garment manufacturing havebrought a new generation of smart garments to the market

develop-When compared with other clothing categories, sportswear design evolves at

a faster pace than ready-to-wear, for instance It is a highly innovative fieldinvesting heavily in research and development, pioneering new technologies andconcepts, and furthering performance and comfort This overview of key trends

in sportswear design will study both the performance and aesthetic evolution ofsportswear from second skin clothing to outerwear Starting with first-layergarments, it will look at how seamless and stitchless garment constructiontechniques are introducing enhanced performance and ergonomic designs.Moving on to the outerwear categories of sportswear, the chapter will investi-gate how the gradual shift in focus from protection to performance and the rise

of soft shells are dramatically changing the organization of traditional layer garment systems The emphasis on multifunctional soft shell garments is

three-3 Key trends in sportswear design

S B R A M E L , Sport PremieÁre Magazine, France