PDF Mosbys Pharmacy Review for the NAPLEX , 1e 1 Csm Pap Edition PDF Download ISBN13: 9780323049108 ISBN10: 0323049109 Prepare for NAPLEX® success on your first attempt In this guide to the North American Pharmacy Licensure Examination, an outline format lets you review important test topics quickly and efficiently. Review questions cover areas such as the evaluation of patient conditions, communicating with the patient or healthcare professional, and preparing and dispensing medications safely and effectively. A companion CD lets you practice with two 185question exams that mirror the NAPLEX®. Protect your investment in the NAPLEX® by using this unique review Over 2,000 review questions are included in the book and on the companion CD, with each including answers and rationales. An outline format offers a focused, tothepoint yet comprehensive review. Organization by NAPLEX® content provides an effective review, with content proportional to the content on the actual exam. Patientprofile questions mirror those in the NAPLEX®, with each including a short scenario followed by multiplechoice questions. Preparing for the NAPLEX® chapter covers registration, fees, test and question structure, information on score results, and testtaking strategies. Uptodate review includes the newest topics introduced by the NABP, such as Dietary Supplements, OTC products, and patient communication. Convenient appendices summarize drug interactions, important in answering the exam’s patient education questions. Two practice exams on CD include 185 multiplechoice questions in each, with rationales for correct answers, and can be taken in exam or study mode. Flashcards on CD provide an easy way to identify and review genericbrandname drug products.
Trang 3Mosby’s Pharmacy Review for the NAPLEX ® ISBN: 978-0-323-04910-8
Copyright # 2011 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein.
In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety
of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mosby’s pharmacy review for the NAPLEX 1st ed.
p ; cm.
Other title: Pharmacy review for the NAPLEX
ISBN 978-0-323-04910-8 (pbk : alk paper) 1 Pharmacy Outlines, syllabi, etc 2 Examinations, questions, etc I Title: Pharmacy review for the NAPLEX.
Pharmacy [DNLM: 1 Pharmaceutical Preparations–Examination Questions 2 Pharmacy Examination Questions QV 18.2 M8935 2010]
RS98.M72 2010
6150.1076–dc22
2010003173
Vice President and Publisher: Linda Duncan
Senior Editor: Kellie White
Senior Developmental Editor: Jennifer Watrous
Publishing Services Manager: Pat Joiner-Myers
Project Manager: Melissa Lastarria
Design Direction: Jessica Williams
Printed in the United States of America.
Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Trang 4LEAD CONSULTANT
MaryAnne Hochadel, PharmD, BCPSEditor Emeritus,
ELSEVIER/Gold StandardClinical Assistant ProfessorUniversity of FloridaCollege of PharmacyTampa, Florida
CONTRIBUTORS
Catherine Ulbricht, PharmDMassachusetts General HospitalNatural Standard Research CollaborationSomerville, Massachusetts
Erica Rusie, PharmDNatural Standard Research CollaborationSomerville, Massachusetts
iii
Trang 5Atlanta, GeorgiaPaul Juang, PharmD, BCPSAssistant Professor
Department of Pharmacy Practice
St Louis College of Pharmacy
St Louis, MissouriJulie P Karpinski, PharmD, BCPSDirector, Drug InformationAssistant Professor, Pharmacy PracticeConcordia, University School of PharmacyMequon, Wisconsin
Trisha LaPointe, PharmD, BCPSAssistant Professor of Pharmacy PracticeMassachusetts College of Pharmacy and HealthSciences
Department of Pharmacy PracticeSchool of Pharmacy-BostonBoston, MassachusettsDonna Larson, EdD, MT(ASCP)DLMDean of Allied Health
Mt Hood Community CollegeGresham, Oregon
Terri L Levien, PharmDClinical Associate ProfessorPharmacotherapy DepartmentCollege of Pharmacy
Washington State University SpokaneSpokane, Washington
David Nissen, PharmDPharmacy InformaticsMissouri Baptist Medical Center
St Louis, MissouriLindsay B Palkovic, PharmD, BCPSAssistant Professor of Clinical PharmacyPhiladelphia College of PharmacyUniversity of the Sciences in PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania
Puja Patel, PharmDDrug Information Resident 2009-2010Mercer University and Solvay PharmaceuticalsAtlanta, Georgia
Karen J Tietze, BS, PharmDProfessor of Clinical PharmacyDepartment of Pharmacy Practice and PharmacyAdministration
Philadelphia College of PharmacyUniversity of the Sciences in PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania
Bradley M Wright, PharmD, BCPSAssistant Clinical Professor of Pharmacy PracticeHarrison School of Pharmacy
Auburn UniversityMobile, Alabama
iv
Trang 6Mosby’s Pharmacy Review for the NAPLEX®reflects the
unique attributes and dynamic role of the pharmacist
in healthcare The main objective of the text is to
provide a useful, current, and comprehensive review
of relevant pharmacy topics to the candidate in
preparation for the NAPLEX®
examination
Although this text is for use primarily by NAPLEX®
candidates, the concise format of the materials would
make an excellent review for pharmacy students,
pharmacy instructors, or for practicing pharmacists
Users of this guide will benefit from the review of a variety
of topics relating to the science and art of pharmacy
practice, including general reviews of medication
treatments for commonly encountered disease states and
therapeutic areas Candidates will benefit from keeping
this book handy as they enter practice to provide a quick
go-to reference regarding pharmaceutical calculation
methods, patient counseling, and more
Key features of this review include:
Over 1,600 NAPLEX®-oriented study questions
An easy to follow outline format for each chapter to
organize and quickly overview each area of importance
Pharmacist-oriented questions at the conclusion of each
chapter include thorough rationales at the end of the book
to aid in comprehensive review and study The rationales
help ensure comprehension and understanding of the
material, rather than focus on direct memorization or
rote review
Patient-based review questions within the therapeutic
review chapters are presented with an emphasis on
appropriate patient counseling by the pharmacist
Electronic flashcards and two mock timed examinations
on the enclosed CD-ROM allow the student to testcomprehension and to demonstrate competency undertesting conditions The NAPLEX®s focus on three areas
of pharmaceutical practice is accurately reflected in theCD-ROM content
How to Use This Book
It is best for a candidate to approach preparation forthe NAPLEX®in a logical and orderly manner, with time
given to consistent review of all areas of importance tothe examination The format of this text will help thestudent with his or her review and organization of study.The subject matter, including patient-based cases, willaddress all areas of the NAPLEX®competency statements,
in roughly the same proportion that they are represented
on the NAPLEX®examination The three main areas of
v
Trang 8
Contents
1 Preparing for the NAPLEX® 1
SECTION I: PHARMACEUTICAL PRACTICE 2 Pharmaceutical Calculations 3
3 Compounding 18
4 Drug Information Resources 27
5 Dispensing 37
6 Patient Education 56
7 Herbs and Dietary Supplements 67
8 Laboratory Tests 79
SECTION II: PHARMACOTHERAPY IN PRACTICE 9 Antiinfective Agents 87
10 Cardiovascular Disorders 103
11 Dermatologic Disorders 132
12 Common Endocrinologic Disorders 138
13 Gastrointestinal Disorders 150
14 Geriatrics 161
15 Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) 175
16 Kidney Disorders 180
17 Oncology 186
18 Pain Management 197
19 Psychiatric Disorders 209
20 Respiratory Disorders 223
21 Arthritis 231
22 Seizure Disorders 237
23 Women’s Health Issues 247
24 Immunology and Vaccines 258
25 Immunosuppressants 266
SECTION III: CONSUMER-DIRECTED HEALTHCARE 26 Nonprescription Products 271
27 Nutrition 284
SECTION IV: MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS IN PHARMACY PRACTICE AND SCIENCE 28 Basic Pharmacokinetics 289
29 Pharmacogenomics 294
30 Toxicology 299
Appendix A Drug Interactions 305
Appendix B Federal Pharmacy Law 308
Appendix C Foreign Pharmacy Graduate Equivalency Examination 311
Answers and Rationales 313
Index 385
vii
Trang 10The North American Pharmacy Licensure Exam (NAPLEX)
is the clinical aptitude test developed by the National
Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP) and
administered to pharmacy graduates to assess the
competency of candidates for pharmacy practice It is a
requirement to obtain pharmacy licensure in all 50 states
MPJE
The Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Examination
(MPJE) is the examination developed by the NABP to test
the candidate’s competency and knowledge of federal
and state pharmacy law The questions are customized to
the specific law in each state It is required for a pharmacy
license by 44 states and the District of Columbia
REGISTRATION
Candidates wishing to register for the NAPLEX with or
without the MPJE must contact the board of pharmacy in
the state they are seeking licensure or their school of
pharmacy and complete a paper examination registration
form for each examination Candidates may also
choose to register online for the NAPLEX or MPJE at
www.napb.net Candidates should check the website to
see if their state participates in online registration
Candidates may submit their registration, paper oronline, before graduation; however, the state board of
pharmacy will authorize eligibility only after all
graduation requirements have been met
The NAPLEX and MPJE may be taken on the same day,
if time permits; however, it may be beneficial to take the
examinations on separate days due to the diversity of the
material
FEES
Examination fees:
NAPLEX: $465 per examination
MPJE: $185 per examination
For those who wish to change their appointments, an
additional fee of $50 will be charged Candidates who
withdraw from taking the NAPLEX will receive a partial
refund of $140; those who withdraw from taking the MPJE
will receive a partial refund of $65 Cancellations or
rescheduling the exam must be done at least two businessdays before the scheduled appointment
Fees are payable to the National Association ofBoards of Pharmacy or NABP and submitted in the form
of a money order, bank draft, or certified check
Personal check or cash is not accepted
After registration, candidates will receive anauthorization to test (ATT) letter, which confirms thecandidate’s eligibility by the state board of pharmacy.Upon receipt, candidates can schedule their
appointments for examination and have one year to do so.The ATT and application expires after one year
The NABP website, www.nabp.net, can provide themost current information
ANSWER FORMAT OF THE NAPLEX
The computer-adaptive NAPLEX examination consists of
185 multiple-choice questions; however, only 150questions are scored The remaining 35 are consideredpretest questions, which have no impact on the finalscore These questions are used to help develop futuretests Because no indication is given to determine thescored questions versus the nonscored questions, it is totest-takers’ advantage to answer all questions to the best
of their knowledge
The test also uses case/scenario-based format (i.e.,patient profiles) and K-type multiple choice questions inwhich three choices are given and candidates select fromfive combinations of those three choices:
I Choice 1
II Choice 2III Choice 3
TEST STRUCTURE OF THE NAPLEX
The NAPLEX has three core areas:
1 Ensure safe and effective pharmacotherapy andoptimize therapeutic outcomes (approximately 54% ofthe exam)
2 Ensure safe and accurate preparation and dispensing
of medications (approximately 35% of the exam)
1
Trang 113 Provide health care information and promote public
health (approximately 11% of the exam)
Candidates may refer to the NAPLEX blueprint for more
detailed dissection of the topics covered on the
examination at www.nabp.net
If the candidate does not pass the exam, he/she may
retake the exam after 91 days for the NAPLEX and after
30 days for the MPJE
ADMINISTRATION PROCESS
NAPLEX
The NAPLEX has 185 questions to be taken in a 4 hour
and 15 minute time period There is an optional
10 minute break after approximately two hours of
testing time
The test is presented in a computer-adaptive testing
format, which means that each answered question will
determine the difficulty of the next A correctly answered
question in a series will be followed by a harder question
An incorrect response will be followed by an easier
question
Every question must be answered in the order it is
presented The test-taker cannot return to previous
questions and change answers, so all responses are final
Due to the adaptive nature of the exam, questions also
cannot be skipped because each response determines the
next question
MPJE
The test consists of 90 questions; only 60 are scored The
exam is to be taken in two hours with no break
TEST TAKING STRATEGY
Arrive to the testing center at least 30 minutes before
the examination to allow time to check-in
Take a snack for the 10-minute break during the
NAPLEX
Take proper identification (refer to candidate
bulletin)
Relax the night before the exam and eat a nutritious
breakfast the morning of the examination
Although there is no penalty for guessing, you still
want to make your best effort to choose a correct
response
Make educated guesses If you can rule out one or more
answer choices, you have a better chance of selecting
the right answer
Limit your time on any one question; as a general
rule of thumb, be halfway through the NAPLEX by the
10 minute break
Use various study guide materials, including text
books, flashcards, class notes, and practice tests
Take a full-length practice test before the
examination
Do not try to “cram” new material Create a studyschedule that allots adequate time for the varioussections of the NAPLEX
SCORE RESULTS
NAPLEXThe scaled NAPLEX scores range from 0 to 150 with aminimally acceptable level of performance on theexamination reflected by a score of 75 To obtain a score,the candidate has to complete at least 162 questions.Test scores are not given directly to the candidate;instead, they are forwarded by the NABP to the board ofpharmacy from which the candidate is seeking licensure.Depending on the state, candidates may transfertheir scores to more than one state Candidates shouldcheck the website (www.nabp.net) about the scoretransfer program The state to which they wish totransfer their scores should also be contacted for moreinformation
MPJEThe minimum acceptable passing score on the MPJEscale is 75 To obtain a score, the candidate has tocomplete at least 77 questions MPJE scores cannot betransferred between states Candidates must take the lawportion for each individual state in which they are seekinglicensure
THE PRE-NAPLEX
The NABP also offers the pre-NAPLEX It is designed tofamiliarize the test-taker with the testing experience.The pre-NAPLEX is the only practice exam written anddeveloped by the NABP
There are 50 questions on the pre-NAPLEX and twoforms are available The cost for each practiceexamination is $50 The candidate must register with thewebsite and set up a username and password Eachcandidate may take the pre-NAPLEX two times but mustcomplete the first test before starting another one andpay for each test The test may be taken with anycomputer with Internet access, including at home, aschool, a library, and at any time The scores are scaledand interpreted similar to the NAPLEX
NAPLEX AND MPJE REGISTRATION BULLETIN
A free bulletin regarding the NAPLEX and MPJE is offered
to all candidates Topics covered include registrationprocedures, testing appointment information, NAPLEXand MPJE administration, NAPLEX and MPJE scoreresults, the pre-NAPLEX, and NAPLEX score transferinformation It is available online at http://www.nabp.net/ftpfiles/bulletins/NAPLEXMPJE.pdf or through your stateboard of pharmacy
Trang 12Summary of conversion between metric, apothecaries’
and avoirdupois systems:
Note that in the apothecaries’ and avoirdupois systemsthere is only one common unit of measure, the grain The
other measurement units carry different values when
comparing the systems When converting between the two,
the pharmacist should convert the value down to the grain
amount in the one system, then convert to the other system
Per the United States Pharmacopeia, 1 grain¼ 64.8 mg
kilo- 103 1 thousand (1000) times the basic unit
hecto- 102 1 hundred (100) times the basic unit
deka- 10 1 ten (10) times the basic unit
deci- 101 1 tenth (0.1) times the basic unit
centi- 102 1 hundredth (0.01) times the basic unit
milli- 103 1 thousandth (0.001) times the basic unit
micro- 106 1 millionth times the basic unit
nano- 109 1 billionth times the basic unit
pico- 1012 1 trillionth times the basic unit
A system of masses based on a pound weighing 16 ouncesmostly commonly used in the United States for
1 Mole¼ Molecular Weight in grams or Relative MolecularMass in grams
1 Molar solution¼ Gram Molecular Weight or RelativeMolecular Mass in grams in 1 Liter
1 mol¼ 1000 millimols (normally written as 1000 mmol)
1 millimole¼ 1000 micromoles
1 micromole¼ 1000 nanomoles
1 mol / liter¼ 1 mmol / mL, 1 mmol / liter ¼ 1 micromole / mLMillimole (mmol): A millimole (mmol) is a molecularweight expressed in milligrams
The number of millimoles of a substance is calculated
by dividing the number of milligrams of a substance bythe molecular weight (MW) of the substance:
Example: A 1:25 solution of wintergreen oil means that
1 mL of wintergreen oil is contained in each 25 mL of solution
3
Trang 13A proportion represents the equality between two ratios
A proportion is an equation with a ratio on each side It is
a statement that two ratios are equal This mathematical
concept is often used in community pharmacy
Example:
If 5 tablets contain 1625 mg of acetaminophen, how many
tablets should contain 2925 mg?
Dimensional analysis is a method of manipulating units to
solve mathematical equations The process allows you to
cancel out unwanted units leaving only those units you
want your answer to be expressed as
Example:
A pharmacist wants to know how many inhalers should
be dispensed to a patient to provide a 60-day
supply of fluticasone The recommended daily dose
is 250 mcg twice daily The commercial inhaler delivers
220 mcg per metered dose and contains 60 metered
The pharmacist should dispense 2 inhalers for a 60-day
2 tablets three times daily the first day; 1 tablet three
times daily on the second day; 1 tablet twice daily for
7 days; and 1 tablet daily thereafter
How many tablets should be dispensed for a 30-day supply?
Solution: Dispense 44 tablets in total
Example 2:
A prescription is to be taken as follows: “1 tablespoon acand hs for 7 days.” What is the minimum volume thatshould be dispensed?
Solution:
achs¼ before meals and at bedtime
1 tablespoon¼ 15 mLPatient needs to receive four doses per day for 7 days
15 mL 4 doses 7 days ¼ 420 mL
DOSAGE BASED ON DROPSCertain medications that are administered or dispensed to
a patient come in the form of liquids and are administered
as drops This section provides practice for calculationsfor these types of prescriptions
If a pharmacist counted 30 drops of a drug in filling agraduated cylinder to the 1.5 mL mark, how many dropsper milliliter did the dropper deliver?
Solution:
30 dropsðgttÞ
X gtts ¼1:5 mL
1 mL
X ¼ 20 drops per mL; answer
PERCENTAGE AND RATIO STRENGTH CALCULATIONS
EXPRESSED AS V/V, W/W, AND W/V
Certain prescriptions are expressed in weight/weight(w/w), volume/volume (v/v), and weight/volume (w/v)percentages To properly process prescription orders ofthis nature, the pharmacist must be able to makeconversions and calculations with these units
Concentration¼ quantity of solute divided by the
quantity of preparation
V/V: If the solute and the preparation are expressed inthe same units, then concentration is dimensionless.For example, 10 mL of alcohol dissolved in a sufficientquantity of water to make 40 mL of solution is
dimensionless: 10 mL/40 mL¼ 0.250 (or 25% v/v)
W/W: If the quantity of solute and of the preparation areexpressed in the same units of weight, the concentration
is dimensionless If 10 g of charcoal are mixed with 65 g
of another powder to make a total of 75 g, the charcoalconcentration is 10 g/75 g¼ 0.133 by weight (or 13.3% w/w).W/V: When a solute is measured by weight and thesolution by volume, concentration is not dimensionless
If 1.25 g of NaCl is dissolved in sufficient water to make
55 mL of solution, the concentration is 1.25 g/55 mL¼0.0227 g/mL (w/v) The % w/v is expressed as #g/100 mL(e.g., 2.27% or 2.27 g/100 mL)
Trang 14Example 2:
What is the percentage strength (w/v) of a solution of
drug if 40 mL contain 5 grams?
When ppm or ppb is used as a designation for
concentration, some systems are w/w, some are v/v and
some are w/v Concentration is always a ratio or fraction
in w/w and v/v situations Weight by volume (w/v)
concentrations are always defined in terms of grams and
milliliters The same default rules are followed as for
percentage systems
Example:
Express 2 ppm of ferrous gluconate in water in percentage
strength and ratio strength
Solution:
2 ppm¼ 2 parts in 1,000,000 parts
¼ 1:500,000 ratio strength0.0002% percentage strength
DILUTION, CONCENTRATION, AND ALLIGATION
DILUTION OF AN INGREDIENT
Dilution is the addition of diluent to the ingredient or an
admixture of the ingredient with solutions to achieve a
lower concentration of solution
Example:
A 1:5000 dilution of drug A is requested If 1 mL of drug A
injection 1:200 is mixed with sterile water for injection,
how many mL of water will be needed?
Solution:
1
2001 mL¼ 1
5000ð ÞX0.005¼ 0.0002(X)
25 mL¼ X
25 mL 1 mL ¼ 24 mL, answer
CONCENTRATION OF AN INGREDIENT
Concentration is the addition of an active ingredient or
evaporation of the diluent from an active ingredient to
create a more concentrated solution
Example:
How many grams of coal tar containing 25% (w/w) should
be added to petrolatum to prepare 240 grams of coal tar
240 grams
X grams
X¼ 143.7 grams
144 grams of coal tar, answer
ALIQUOT METHOD (ALLIGATION)Alligation is a method that is particularly useful whenmixing two or more preparations of known strengths toprepare a mixture of an intermediate desired strength.The final mixture will be an average of the individualstrengths, which are calculated as proportional parts.Alligation Alternate and Alligation Medial are methodsthat can be used to solve any type of dilution or
concentration problem, including concentrationsexpressed in mg/mL, ratios, mixtures of liquids of knownspecific gravities, etc The strengths of all preparationsbeing mixed and the final mixture are expressed in acommon denomination (of weight, volume, percentage,etc.) when setting up the alligation equation Whendiluting a preparation, the strength of the diluent isconsidered to be 0% When increasing the strength of agiven mixture by adding more drug/active ingredient, thestrength of the active ingredient to be added is
considered to be 100% A final proportion allows acorrelation between the parts and any specificdenomination needed
Example 1:
A pharmacist has a 60% solution and a 15% solution.She needs a 40% solution to compound a medication.What is the proportion of the 60% and 15% solutions thatwould make a 40% solution? This example will use theprocess of Alligation Alternate to calculate the quantities
of each mixture needed to make the final mixture of thedesired strength:
A solution that exerts the same osmotic pressure
as a specific body fluid is known as isotonic If thesolution exerts an osmotic pressure lower than that ofspecific body fluid, the solution is hypotonic If the actualsolution exerts an osmotic pressure higher than that ofspecific body fluid, the solution is considered hypertonic
Trang 15How much sodium chloride is needed to adjust the
following prescription to isotonicity? (E value [sodium
chloride equivalents] for zinc sulfate is 0.15)
If sodium chloride is only being used to provide the 60 mL
isotonic solution: 60 mL 0.9% ¼ 0.54 g (or 540 mg)
Step 1: 60 mL 2% ¼ 1.2 g (or 1200 mg) of zinc sulfate
required to fill the prescription
Step 2: 1200 mg is equivalent to 1200 0.15 ¼ 180 mg
of sodium chloride
Step 3: 540 mg 180 mg ¼ 360 mg (or 0.36 g), answer
ELECTROLYTE SOLUTIONS
Electrolyte solutions are used to treat fluid and electrolyte
disturbances They may be prepared as oral solutions,
syrups, dry granules intended to be dissolved in water or
juice to make an oral solution, or oral tablets or capsules, and
they are also commonly prepared as intravenous infusions
To convert electrolytes in solution (expressed as
milliequivalents [mEq] per unit volume to weight per unit
volume or vice versa), the following calculation may be used:
Atomic; molecular; or formula weight
mg¼mEq Atomic; molecular; or formula weight
Valence
Example:
How much calcium chloride (CaCl22H2O) is required toprepare 100, 1 mL ampules containing 10 mEq per mL?(mw¼ 147)
Example:
A patient needs 1600 kcal/day The physician hasordered that the patient receive 65% of the daily calories(kcal) from carbohydrates, 10% from protein, and 25%from fat
Calculate the amount (volume) needed to supply thedextrose, protein, and fat calories from these pharmacystock solutions:
Dextrose 65%, amino acid 10%, fat 25%
First, determine how many kcal the patient needs fromeach component:
1600 kcal 65% ¼ 1040 kcal from dextrose
1600 kcal 10% ¼ 160 kcal from protein
1600 kcal 25% ¼ 400 kcal from fatNext, convert these kcals into grams:
1040 kcal 1 gram=3:4 kcal ¼ 305:9 grams dextrose
160 kcal 1 gram=4 kcal ¼ 40 grams protein
400 kcal 1 gram=9 kcal ¼ 44 grams fatThen, calculate how many milliliters are needed fromeach stock solution:
305.9 grams 100 mL/ 65 grams ¼ 470.6 mL from
CALCULATION OF DOSES
There are a variety of ways to determine doses of drugsincluding by age, body weight, surface area, creatinineclearance, and other pharmacokinetic parameters
Table 2-1 Valences and Atomic Weights of Select Ions
Ion Formula Atomic/FormulaWeight Valence
From Zatz J: Pharmaceutical Calculations, ed 4, Hoboken, NJ,
2005, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p 267.
Trang 16CREATININE CLEARANCE
When using the below equations, two factors to consider
are (1) the serum creatinine is at steady state and (2) the
weight, gender, and age of the individual reflect normal
muscle mass
Cockcroft-Gault equation
To estimate renal function for the purpose of drug
dosing, creatinine clearance should be measured or
estimated
For males:
CrCl¼ð140 Patient0s age in yearsÞ Body weight in kg
72 Serum creatinine in mg=dLFor females:
CrCl¼ 0:85 CrCl determined using formula for males
If the individual is obese or not within 30% of their ideal
body weight, other methods of calculating creatinine
clearance should be used Ideal body weight (IBW) or
adjusted body weight (ideal body weight plus 40% of
obese weight) instead of actual body weight in the
Cockcroft-Gault equation will provide a better estimate
of creatinine clearance
IBW for males in kg¼ 50 þ (2.3)(Height in inches > 60)
IBW for females in kg¼ 45 þ (2.3)(Height in inches > 60)
BODY SURFACE AREA
The practioner may need to take into account body
surface area as a possible variable when determining drug
dosage (e.g., chemotherapy)
Body Surface Area (BSA) – The Mosteller Formula:
BSAðm2Þ ¼
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiHeightðcmÞ Weight ðkgÞ
3600r
The average BSA of an adult is 1.73 m2
CALCULATIONS FOR PEDIATRIC DOSES
Various pediatric formulas have been used historically to
calculate APPROXIMATE pediatric dosages
Young’s rule, based on age:
Age
Ageþ 12 Adult dose ¼ Dose for child
Fried’s rule for infants:
Ageðin monthsÞ
150 Adult dose ¼ Approx: dose for infant
Clark’s rule, based on weight:
Weightðin lbÞ Adult dose
BSA approximation of child’s dose:
Pharmacists typically take stock solutions and use them
to prepare weaker solutions of medications or chemicalsfor laboratory or clinical use
to obtain the determined quantity (0.5% gentian violetsolution contains 0.5 grams in 100 mL of solution):
0:5 g
100 mL¼0:473 grams
X mL
X¼ 94:6 mL; estimate 95 mL
RECONSTITUTION OF DRY POWDERS
Many drugs (antibiotics, steroids, and biologics) that are notstable in solution are prepared as dry-filled solids orlyophilized powders Prior to use, these dry powders must
be reconstituted as a solution with a suitable diluent in theproper volume to give specified concentration (usuallyprovided in the package insert) Occasionally, the physicianmay prescribe a final concentration different from the oneprovided by the manufacturer Also, in some cases, thepharmacist needs to determine if the powdered drugcontributes to the final volume of the reconstituted solutionbefore modifying the label instructions
Example:
The package information of a vial containing 30 millionunits of penicillin G potassium specifies that when theappropriate amount of sterile solvent is added to drypowder, the resulting concentration is 500,000 units per
mL How many milliliters of sterile water for injectionare needed to prepare the following solution?
(Note: the powder accounts for 8 mL of the final volume)Penicillin G potassium 30,000,000 units
Sterile water for injectionProvide a solution containing 500,000 units per mL
500; 000 units30; 000; 000 units¼
1 mL
X mL
X¼ 60 mL
60 mL 8 mL ¼ 52 mL, answer
Trang 17INTRAVENOUS INFUSIONS, PARENTERAL
ADMIXTURES, AND FLOW RATES
Intravenous infusions are large volumes of sterile,
aqueous preparations administered intravenously
(through a vein) over an extended period of time
Example:
An order is written for 25,000 units of heparin in 250 mL of
D5W to infuse at 2000 units/hr What is the correct rate of
the infusion (in mL/hr)?
250 mL of D5WConcentration of IV¼ 100 units=mL of heparin
IV rate ¼2000 units=hr
100 units=mL
IV rate ¼ 20 mL=hr
Parenteral admixtures are a sterile preparation that involves
the combination of one or more drugs to large-volume
Example:
A patient weighs 170 pounds A pharmacist receives a
prescription order for 0.25 mg amphotericin B per
kilogram body weight How many milliliters of a 25 mg/
10 mL solution are needed to supply the dose, which will
then be diluted in 500 mL of 5% dextrose?
Calculating IV flow or drip rates are necessary to ensure
that the patient is receiving the desired amount of drug
that was ordered
Example:
If 20 mg of drug is added to a 750 mL parenteral fluid, what
flow rate, in millilters per hour, will deliver 2 mg of drug
Institute of the Certification of Pharmacy Technicians(ICPT): ExCPT Exam for the Certification of PharmacyTechnicians Available at http://www.nationaltechexam.org/pdf/math_questions-answers070618.pdf, AccessedDecember 24, 2008
London, Eastern and South East Specialist PharmacyServices Available at http://www.londonpharmacy.nhs.uk/educationandtraining/prereg/supportMaterial/calculations/download/Calculations%20WorkBook%202005.pdf, Accessed December 24, 2008
Pearson J, Powers M: Systematically Initiating Insulin TheStaged Diabetes Management Approach, Diabetes Educ32(Suppl 1):23s, 2006
Shargel L: Applied Biopharmaceutics & Pharmacokinetics,New York, 2005, McGraw-Hill Medical PublishingDivision, pp 43–46
Zatz J: Pharmaceutical Calculations, ed 4, Hoboken, NJ,
2005, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp 30–33
Mosteller RD: Simplified Calculation of Body Surface Area,
N Engl J Med 317:1098, (letter) 1987
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(Answers and Rationales on page 313.)
1 A patient is prescribed 10 mEq of potassium daily.The source of potassium chloride in the pharmacy
is 5 mEq/mL in 1 mL vials How many vials per day isneeded for the patient?
a 0.5 vial
b 1 vial
c 2 vials
d 1.5 vials
2 How much elemental iron is present in every
150 mg of ferrous sulfate (FeSO47H2O)?
(Atomic weights are iron¼ 55.9; sulfur ¼ 32.1;oxygen¼ 16.0; and hydrogen ¼ 1.0 Iron hasvalences ofþ2 and þ3)
3 A 130-lb patient has a creatinine clearance rate
of 40 mL/min Assuming Drug X is eliminatedexclusively by renal mechanisms, what maintenancedose should be administered if the normal
maintenance dose is 3 mg/lb of body weight?
Trang 184 An IV medication is available as 3.5 g/ 500 mL with
a strength calculation of 0.25 mg/kg/min is
prescribed to a 130-lb patient What is the infusion
e All of the above are valid
6 How many quarts are in two gallons?
9 A patient is prescribed 20 mEq of potassium
chloride daily The source of potassium chloride
in the pharmacy is 2 mEq/ mL in 20 mL vials
How many mL per day are needed for this patient?
a 1 mL
b 2 mL
c 10 mL
d 20 mL
10 A patient is prescribed 10 mEq of potassium
chloride daily The source of potassium chloride in
the pharmacy is 2 mEq/ mL in 20 mL vials How
many mL per day are needed for this patient?
12 What volume of diluent (assume sterile water) is
needed to make an isotonic solution from 0.45 g of
a 7 days
b 10 days
c 14 days
d 21 days
17 A medication is available in a 200 mg/5 mL vial An
Rx calls for 150 mg bid 10d
How many milliliters are needed for a single day?
How many vials are needed for the full course?
a 15 vials
b 30 vials
c 60 vials
d 75 vials
19 JK is a 42 year-old woman who has a prescription for
32 mEq of oral potassium chloride However, yourpharmacy only has 600 mg controlled-releasepotassium chloride tablets in stock How manytablets are required each day to provide this dose?(MW¼ 75)
Trang 1920 If a patient has a temperature of 102.2F, what is the
patient’s temperature in degrees Celsius?
a 37.6C
b 38.4C
c 39C
d 40.1C
21 If 500 mL of a 15% (v/v) solution of methyl salicylate
in alcohol is diluted to 1500 mL, what will be the
22 A medication is available in a 150 mg/5 mL vial
An Rx calls for 300 mg bid 10d
How many mL are needed for a single dose?
24 What is the percent weight by volume [%(w/v)] if
250 grams of dextrose is dissolved in 300 mL of
water to make a final volume of 500 mL?
a 4.5%
b 5%
c 45.45%
d 50%
25 If a prescription reads “Dispense: XVIII capsules,”
how many capsules should be dispensed?
a 12 tablets
b 18 tablets
c 22 tablets
d 30 tablets
26 What total quantity of tablets should be dispensed
for the following prescription?
1 tab bid 3 days
1 tab qd 3 days1/2 tab qd 3 days Then stop
Trang 2035 An order is written for 1 g of lidocaine in 250 mL of
D5W to infuse at 60 mg/hr What is the correct
36 An order is written for 25,000 units of heparin in
250 mL of D5W to infuse at 17 mL/hr How many
units of heparin will the patient receive in
37 An order calls for 2.5 million units of aqueous
penicillin How many milliliters are needed if the vial
38 How many milliliters are needed for 5 million units
of penicillin if the vial concentration is 1 million
39 Valproic acid syrup comes in a 250 mg/5 mL
concentration How many mg are present in 7.5 mL
40 How many milliliters of 250 mg/5 mL valproic acid
syrup are needed for a 0.5-g dose?
a 1 mL
b 5 mL
c 10 mL
d 15 mL
41 If a drug comes in a 250 mg/1.5 mL solution, how
many milliliters are required for a 2 g dose?
Trang 2151 In order to achieve better pain control, codeine
phosphate 0.7 mL SC 1 is ordered for a patient
The injectable form of codeine phosphate is
available in a concentration of 50 mg/mL How much
codeine will this patient receive in this dose?
52 Morphine is ordered for a patient, and the nurse
gives him 1.9 mL from a vial with a concentration of
40 mg/2.5 mL How much morphine was the patient
53 The vial of hydromorphone that you have in stock
has a concentration of 1.5 mg/0.5 mL If the patient is
given 0.7 mL, how much hydromorphone did she
54 What is the concentration (in percent) of a solution
containing 20 mEq of potassium chloride per 15 mL
55 Diazepam is to be administered by the IV route
to an adult patient It is given at a rate of 5 mg/min
over 90 seconds How much diazepam is given to this
56 How many milligrams of morphine were given to a
patient who received 6.2 mL of a 5 mg/mL solution?
57 A nurse wants to give 300 mcg of levothyroxine
IV to a patient, from a vial containing 0.4 mg/mL
How many milliliters should be given to
59 What is the percent weight=weight (%[w/w]) if
250 grams of dextrose is dissolved in 300 mL ofwater to make a final volume of 500 mL?
a 75%
b 82%
c 0.75%
d 7.5%
64 A TPN order requires 500 mL of D5W How many
mL of D50W should be used if the D5W is notavailable?
a 450 mL
b 550 mL
c 50 mL
d 25 mL
Trang 2265 How much sodium chloride is needed to make the
following prescription isotonic given E value for zinc
66 How much elemental iron is present in 500 mg
of ferrous sulfate (FeSO47H2O) with atomic
weights are Fe¼ 55.9; sulfur ¼ 32.1; oxygen ¼ 16.0;
and hydrogen¼ 1.0 Iron has valences of
67 What will be the final ratio strength of a solution if
one wishes to dilute 100 mL of 0.5% gentian violet
solution to 1250 mL with purified water?
a 1:500
b 1:1000
c 1:2500
d 1:5000
68 How many beclomethasone (Qvar) inhalers should
be dispensed to provide a 90-day supply? The
recommended dose is 168 mcg BID The commercial
inhaler delivers 42 mcg per metered dose and
69 If 6.25 g of boric acid are dissolved in sufficient
alcohol to make a total volume of 100 mL, what is the
strength of boric acid in the solution in mg/mL?
a 62.5 mg/mL
b 6.25 mg/mL
c 625 mg/mL
d 62.5 g/mL
70 If 50 mL of 4% (w/v) Xylocaine solution are added
to 100 mL bag of D5W injection, what is the
percentage strength (w/v) of Xylocaine in the final
71 A blood glucose reading shows 200 mg% of glucose
Express this value in mg/mL
77 How many milligrams of sodium chloride are there
in a 2 mmol solution? (MW of NaCl¼ 58.5)
Trang 2381 What is the percentage concentration of a 2:2000
solution of benzalkonium chloride?
a 0.01% w/v
b 1% w/v
c 0.1% w/v
d 10% w/v
82 To make 100 mL of 1:1000 w/v solution, how many
milligrams of NaHCO2are needed?
a 10 mg
b 100 mg
c 0.1 mg
d 1 mg
83 If the reorder point for simvastatin 40 mg is 2 and
the maximum is 5, how many bottles should be
ordered if there is 1 bottle of simvastatin 40 mg?
a 0
b 1
c 4
d 5
84 You have a bottle of 1 g amoxicillin powder for
oral suspension How many mL of purified water
are needed to prepare a 125 mg/5 mL suspension?
a 10 mL
b 1.0 mL
c 40 mL
d 4.0 mL
85 How much dilutant needs to be added to a 500 mg vial
of Merrem to obtain a concentration of 50 mg/mL?
86 A patient is to receive 1000 mL of solution over
8 hours If the administration set delivers 20 gtt/mL,
at how many gtt/min should the solution be
87 A solution is to be administered by IV infusion at a
rate of 100 mL/hr How many gtt/min should
be infused if the administration set delivers
88 A patient is to receive 1 L of a normal saline by IV
infusion over 12 hours What is the rate of infusion
expressed as gtt/min if the infusion set delivers 20
89 An IV infusion for a 22-lb child calls for 4 mcg/kg/min
at a rate of 1.2 mL/hr How many milligrams of a drugare required in a 100-mL infusion solution to supplythe required dose?
93 If a solution has a ratio strength of 1:10000 w/v, what
is the % w/v of the solution?
a 0.01% w/v
b 1.0% w/v
c 0.1% w/v
d 10% w/v
94 The required dose for a 110-lb patient is 0.5 mg/kg/min
If the concentration of the medication is 1 g/100 mL,what is the infusion rate in mL/hr?
Trang 2498 If the required dose is 1 tsp bid, how long will an
180-mL bottle of clemastine fumerate syrup
100 The recommended daily adult dose of a medication
is 2 mg/kg body weight in 4 divided doses What is
the daily dose for a person weighing 110 lb?
a 100 mg daily
b 25 mg daily
c 220 mg daily
d 10 mg daily
101 Kefzol is ordered at a dose of 30 mg/kg/day divided
three times daily for an elderly female patient who
weighs 88 lbs How much Kefzol will be given to her
102 How much Kefzol would have to be drawn up from
the vial and injected into an IV bag to make one dose
of Kefzol for the patient in question 101? The vial
you have on hand was compounded to a
103 A bag with 250 mL of NS will be infused over 2 hours
using a microdrip set (60 gtt/mL) What is the flow
rate in drops per minute?
106 A patient weighing 155 lbs is ordered dobutamine at
a rate of 5 mcg/kg/min When the drug is admixed,
200 mg of dobutamine was put into a 500 mL bag ofnormal saline (NS) What is the final concentration
107 The required dose of Drug X for a 150-lb patient is
1 mg/kg/min If the concentration of the medication
is 5 g/100 mL, what is the infusion rate in mL/hr?
109 If a solution contains 1 g of sodium chloride dissolved
in 100 mL of D5W, how many milliosmoles arepresent? (Na¼ 23; Cl ¼ 35.5; hydrous dextrose ¼ 198)
a 6.7
b 8.2
Trang 25c 9.6
d 10.8
e 12.3
111 One gram of a given chemical is soluble in 10 mL of
alcohol What is the specific gravity of alcohol if a
saturated solution is made with this chemical into
112 How many grams of iodine are consumed
daily from 0.3 mL tid of 5% w/v strong iodine
113 A technician is preparing a potassium chloride
infusion for a hypokalemic patient The IV bag
contains 250 mL of normal saline and 5.86 g of KCl
(KCl molecular weight¼ 74.6) In the final infusion
preparation, how many milliequivalents of
potassium chloride are present?
114 What is the volume of distribution of a drug with
a clearance of 9 L/hr, F¼ 50, and an elimination half
115 How many mL of tetracycline suspension 250 mg/
5 mL must be given in order for the patient to
116 An acidic drug has a pKa of 5.4 What percentage of
the drug is ionized in urine with a pH of 6.0?
a 25.1%
b 74.9%
c 20.1%
d 79.9%
117 A weakly basic drug has a pKa of 8.6 What percent
would be un-ionized in circulation?
200 mg of labetalol hydrochloride injection to 250 mL
of D5W to attain a final concentration of 2 mg/3 mL.How many milliliters per hour should the nurseinfuse?
122 The hydrogen ion concentration of a topical solution
is 1 108 What is the pH of this solution?
a 8
b 4
c 2
d 6
e None of the above
123 A 3-mEq/mL solution of KCl contains how manymilligrams per milliliter? (MW of KCl¼ 74.5)
a 3.73 mg
b 7.45 mg
Trang 26c 372.5 mg
d 745 mg
125 CH is a 72-year-old woman who requires empiric
vancomycin treatment for pneumonia She is 50
200and weighs 125 lbs Her SCr is 1.2 mg/dL What is
her calculated creatinine clearance?
a 33.5 mL/min
b 39.4 mL/min
c 38.0 mL/min
d 44.7 mL/min
126 JW is a 64-year-old man with a prior medical history
positive for hypertension and poorly controlled
diabetes He presents to the ED today complaining
of fever and chills that have progressively worsened
over the last 24 hours His physical exam is
unremarkable with the exception of an oozing foot
ulcer The medical team wants to begin empiric
antibiotic treatment including an aminoglycoside
What is his calculated creatinine clearance? (height
127 A patient’s labs show serum calcium of 8.7 mg/dL
and serum albumin of 3.2 g/dL What is her
corrected calcium concentration?
a 8.7 mg/dL
b 9.34 mg/dL
c 8.06 mg/dL
d 14.46 mg/dL
128 How many milliliters of water should be added to
100 mL of a 1:125 (w/v) solution to obtain a solution
such that 25 mL diluted to 100 mL will yield a 1:4000
129 Using the following WBC and differential, calculate
this patient’s absolute neutrophil count (ANC)
WBC: 2.0 103
/mm3Segs: 14.8%
130 What is the pH of a buffer solution containing 0.25 M
of acetic acid and 0.75 M of sodium acetate? (Ka¼1.75 10-5)
a 3.87
b 4.28
c 5.24
d 6.53
131 A drug is available as both a 150-mg tablet and
100 mg capsule The AUC for the tablet wascalculated to be 76.3 mg.hr/L and for the capsule84.2 mg.hr/L What is the relative bioavailability ofthe tablet with respect to the capsule?
continuous infusion of aminophylline at 40 mg/hour.The patient has not experienced any adverse effectsand is responding well to therapy Her steady-statetheophylline concentration is 12.6 mg/mL Whatdose of oral theophylline sustained-releaseformulation may she be converted to?
a 600 mg q12h
b 400 mg q12h
c 200 mg q12h
d 800 mg q12h
e None of the above
134 What statement is true regarding first orderkinetics?
I Drug is metabolized at a rate that is constantovertime
II Aspirin is metabolized through first orderkinetics
Trang 27The Federal Drug Administration (FDA) defines traditional
pharmacy compounding as “the combining, mixing, or
altering of ingredients to create a customized medication
for an individual patient in response to a licensed
practitioner’s prescription (www.fda.gov) Compounding
is often used when the patient is intolerant of a
manufactured drug It may also be needed when an
alternative route of administration is needed and not
available commercially It also allows physicians to
prescribe customized strengths and dosage systems
I Regulation
The FDA established current Good Manufacturing
Practices (cGMP) to ensure that minimum standards are
met for drug product quality The National Association of
Boards of Pharmacy (NABP) formulated “Good
Compounding Practices” that are used by many states
These can be found in the United States
Pharmacopeia-National Formulary (USP-NF) and establish standards for
extemporaneous compounding of nonsterile and sterile
preparations
II Quality assurance
A Nonsterile products1: The following questions are
to be considered carefully before compounding:
1 Have the physical and chemical properties andmedicinal, dietary, and pharmaceutical uses ofthe drug substances been reviewed?
2 The first time a product was compounded, wasdocumentation made of the materials andequipment used, method of mixing, labelingrequirements, and dating determination?
3 Are the quantity and quality of each activeingredient identifiable?
4 Will the active ingredients be effectivelyabsorbed, locally or systemically according tothe prescribed purpose, from the preparationand route of administration?
5 Are there added substances, confirmed orpotentially present from manufacturedproducts, that may be expected to cause anallergic reaction, irritation, toxicity, orundesirable organoleptic response from thepatient? Are there added substances, confirmed
or potentially present, that may be unfavorable(e.g., unsuitable pH or inadequate solubility)?
6 Were all calculations and measurementsconfirmed to ensure that the preparation will becompounded accurately?
7 Were expiration dates of all compoundingmaterials being used checked?
8 Are there clear labeling and directions?
9 Are there instructions regarding properhandling and storage of the medication?
10 Does it look or smell like it should?
3 All compounding materials should be checkedfor expiration date and proper function beforeuse
4 The solution should be clear, with all drugscompletely in dissolution
5 Final products should have seals or appropriateclosures to indicate that the product has notbeen contaminated or manipulated since it wascompounded and that it was checked andverified by the pharmacist so that nothing isadded to the final product
6 Clear labeling and directions should be present
7 Labeling and instructions for properhandling and storage of medication should bepresent
8 Logs/documentation/lot numbers should bepresent
III Requirements for Compounding
IV Achieving Stabilization of the Preparation
A Temperature18
Trang 28B pH
C Stability and degradation
D Shelf life
E Special handling of product while in transport/
delivery (e.g., do not shake)
F Precipitation
G Exposure to light and air
H Storage
1 Glass bottles for certain medications to avoid
adhesion to plastic, such as nitroglycerin in
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) bags, and to avoid the
release of plastic contaminants in the
medication
2 Refrigeration or freezing to prevent drug
degradation or microbial growth
3 Light-resistant container to prevent photo
degradation
V Compounded Preparations
A Solutions
A liquid preparation in which the ingredients
are completely soluble
B Suspensions
A liquid preparation in which the particles are
mixed with but remain undissolved in a fluid or
solid Note: contents generally settle to the
bottom of the bottle, so shake well before
dispensing, and the patient should shake the
item well prior to each use
C Emulsions
Emulsions are two-phase systems that consist of
two immiscible liquids, one of which is uniformly
dispersed throughout the other as fine droplets
They are classified as oil-in-water (o/w) or
water-in-oil (w/o).There may also be multiple emulsions
(e.g w/o/w emulsion where a water droplet
enclosed in an oil droplet is itself dispersed in
water) They may be used internally to mask the
bitter taste or odor of drugs or externally as
creams or lotions
D Capsules
Solid dosage forms in which medicinal and/or
inert substances are closed in a hard or soft
gelatin shell
E Molded Tablets
Also known as tablet triturates, the preparation
of tablets by molding has been replaced by
tablet compression Molded tablets dissolve
rapidly in the mouth and do not contain
disintegrants, lubricants, or any other
component that slows the rate of dissolution
F Wafers
An oral dosage form consisting of a case,
usually of rice-flour paste, containing the
medication
G Troches
A solid dosage form that is meant to be sucked,
not swallowed, for drug absorption; also known
as a lozenge
H Suppositories
A suppository is a medicine that melts after
insertion into the rectum (rectal suppository),
the vagina (vaginal suppository), or the
urethra (urethal insert)
I Parenteral preparations
Desired effect is systemic when substance isgiven by routes other than the digestive tract.Parenteral administration generally has thegreatest bioavailability because it avoids anabsorption phase and possible inactivation byfirst-pass metabolism by the liver It can befurther divided into two subgroups: parenteral
by injection or infusion and other nonoralparenteral administration (transdermal patch)
J Powders
Used internally or externally, powders are oftenmixed with water or other liquid solvent
K Creams, ointments, gels
Cream: A based preparation that is washable
water- Ointment: An oil-based preparation that is notwater-washable
Gel: Semisolid systems consisting ofsuspensions of small inorganic particles orlarge organic molecules interpenetrated by aliquid
in the United States
B Trissel’s Stability of Compounded Formulations:The handbook of stability and compatibility ofinjectable products
C International Journal of PharmaceuticalCompounding
D Drug Facts and Comparisons
E Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs)
F USP 797 Guidebook to PharmaceuticalCompounding: Sterile Preparations
Excipients
Binders Keep ingredients together,
particu-larly in tabletsExample: candelilla wax, corn starchBuffer Maintain the pH of a product
to prevent drug degradation andcan also protect the user from GIirritation
Example: disodium hydrogen phosphate,sodium bicarbonate
Coatings Can protect the drug product from
degradation from the environment
or from the GI tract for long-acting
or delayed-releaseExample: gelatin, ethyl celluloseColoring
agents
Generally used to match flavorExample: FD & C Red 40, tartrazine (FD&C
#5)Diluents/
Fillers
Allow for filling of a capsule orincrease the size of a tablet forgreater ease in handling; also usedfor creating aliquots or dissolvingmedications
Trang 29Example: magnesium stearate, drous calcium phosphateEmulsifiers Promote solubility of one liquid into
anhy-anotherExample: methyl cellulose, glycerylmonostearate
Example: ascorbic acid, sodiummetabisulfite
Alcohols Used as solubilizing agent or
preser-vative (not for use in infants orepidurals)
Example: benzyl alcoholParabens Type of preservative
Example: methlparaben, propylparabenChelators Complex heavy metals, can improve
efficacy of antioxidants orpreservatives
Examples: citric acid, tartaric acid,ethylenediamine-tetraaceticacid sodium (EDTA)Sweeteners Offset the poor taste of a product
Example: sorbitol, simple syrup
Compounding Terms
Aliquot A stock product made for a quantity
below the least measurablequantity; see also leastmeasurable quantityAseptic
technique
The process of making a sterileproduct while reducingcontamination of any particles,pathogens, or pyrogens;
particularly important forparenteral, ophthalmic, andinhaled preparationsBiologic safety
cabinet
A work area designed toaseptically prepare sterilemedications; the vertical flowhood is ideal for preparingchemotherapeutic drugs,volatile substances, andother cytotoxic medications;
the horizontal flowprovides no protection tothe user
Eutectic mixture The combination of two solid
substances at roomtemperature, which becomeliquid when combinedGeometric
dilution
Mixing two powders of unequal size
Infusion (herbalmedicine)
The steeping of a medicine inwater; making a teaInfusion
(modernmedicine)
Continuous delivery of a solutionover a prolonged period of timeLeast
measurablequantity
The smallest amount that can bequantified by a scale or othermeasuring device; if a quantitymust be used for which thedevice cannot measure, analiquot must be madeLevigate To make into a smooth, fine
powder or paste, as by grindingwhen moist
Liniment A liquid or semifluid preparation
that is applied to the skin as acounterirritant
Mortar A bowl for grinding and mixing
ingredientsMuddle The process of grinding a solid in a
mortar with a pestle into a finepowder
Pestle A rod used to grind and mix
ingredientsSpatulation Blending small amounts of powder
by movement of a spatula on apaper or tile
Topical A dosage form meant to treat an
affected area without systemiceffects
Transdermal A medicated adhesive patch that is
placed on the skin to deliver atime-released dose of medicationthrough the skin and into thebloodstream; not to be confusedwith a topical medicationTriturate To rub, crush, grind, or pound into
fine particles or a powder;
pulverize; also known asmuddling
Reference
1 Schnatz RG: Pharmaceutical Compounding NonsterileDrug Products, USP33-NF28 Online Chapter 795,Proposed 2010 revision
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(Answers and Rationales on page 317.)
1 What is the percent weight/weight (w/w) if 250 grams
of dextrose is dissolved in 300 mL of water to make afinal volume of 500 mL?
a 4.5%
b 5%
c 45.45%
d 50%
Trang 302 How many day’s worth of medication is provided by
the following prescription?
3 What volume was dispensed by the pharmacist if the
percent concentration (weight/volume) of cefaclor
4 To prepare a 2% w/w hydrocortisone cream,
how many grams of pure hydrocortisone
powder must be mixed with 30 g of 1%
5 What is the final concentration (w/w) of zinc
oxide ointment when 200 g of a 5% zinc oxide
ointment and 400 g of a 10% zinc oxide ointment
6 A pharmacist is asked to compound a 200 mL
mixture containing maldroxyl 50 mL,
diphenhydramine elixir 50 mL, and viscous lidocaine
2% How much viscous lidocaine 2% is needed to
prepare the order?
a 200 mL
b 4 mL
c 100 mL
d 60 mL
7 A pharmacist is trying to make 10% w/w sodium
chloride solution and has 1 lb of 28% w/w sodium
chloride solution on hand How many grams of 10%
w/w sodium chloride solution can be made from the
8 A pharmacist is to prepare 500 g of an ointment
containing 5% w/w glycerin The density of glycerin is
1.25 g/mL How many milliliters of glycerin areneeded to prepare this formulation?
to prepare the final 10% w/v hydrochloric acidsolution?
in order to prepare this order?
How many grams of sodium fluoride are required toprepare the prescription?
How many milligrams of sodium fluoride are required
to prepare the prescription?
Trang 3114 What problem(s) should the pharmacist anticipate in
preparing this prescription?
I Caustic nature of sodium fluoride
II Poor water solubility of sodium fluoride
III Difficulty in weighing small quantity of powder
a I only
b III only
c I and II only
d II and III only
e I, II, and III
15 For a 23-year-old female patient:
Diphenhydramine 50 mg
Acetaminophen 325 mg
M & Ft cap DTD # XXX
Sig 1 qhs
Lactose will be the preferred filler agent because of
its solubility The appropriate capsule size for the
above prescription will be capsule size #1 with an
approximate capacity of 0.5 mL The tapped density
of the ingredients are as follows: diphenhydramine
800 mg/mL, acetaminophen 850 mg/mL, and lactose
950 mg/mL Determine the amount of lactose needed
to prepare this prescription
II May be used internally or externally
III May be classified as oil-in-water or water-in-oil
a I only
b III only
c I and II only
d II and III only
e I, II, and III
17 Which of the following statements about laminar flow
hoods are FALSE?
I Laminar flow hoods provide clean air to the
working area
II Laminar flow hoods provide a constant flow of air out
of the work area to prevent room air from entering
III The air flowing out from the hood suspends and
removes contaminants introduced into the work
area by personnel
IV The room air is taken into the HEPA filter and
is then passed through a different filter to remove
gross contaminants, such as lint or dust
a I only
b III only
c II and III only
d I, II, and III
e IV only
18 Objects in the hood are arranged in a manner to get
full benefit of the laminar flow of air In a horizontal
hood, the items should be placed:
a individually left to right, equidistance fromthe front and back of the laminar airflowhood working space as well as from eachother
b grouped left to right, equidistance from thefront and back of the laminar airflow hoodworking space
c individually back to front, equidistance fromeach other
d grouped on only one side of the hood
19 Which of the following is NOT available as volume parenterals (LVP)?
large-a Dextrose and sodium chloride injection USP
b Mannitol injection USP
c Lactated Ringer’s injection USP
d Sodium chloride injection USP
e None of the above
20 Which of the following statements about laminar flowhoods are FALSE?
I Laminar flow hoods provide clean air to theworking area
II Laminar flow hoods provide a constant flow of airout of the work area to prevent room air fromentering
III The room air is taken into the HEPA filter and isthen passed through a different filter to removegross contaminants such as lint or dust
a I only
b III only
c I and II only
d II and III only
e I, II, and III
21 To remove 5 mL of solution from a 30-mL multidosevial, what is the correct order of steps?
I Place point of syringe needle onto the vial’srubber closure at a 45angle with the bevelopening facing upwards
II Inject the air
III Draw 5 mL of air into the syringe
IV Raise the needle angle to 90and insert needlethrough the rubber closure
V Remove 5 mL of solution
a I, II, III, IV, V
b III, I, IV, II, V
c III, IV, I, II, V
d I, III, IV, II, V
e I, III, II, IV, V
22 To maintain sterility, what part(s) of the syringeshould never be touched?
I Luer-lok tip
II PlungerIII Barrel
a I only
b III only
c I and II only
d II and III only
e I, II, and III
Trang 3223 Needle size is determined by the gauge and the
length Which of the following statements are correct?
I The larger the gauge number, the larger the
diameter of the needle’s bore
II The larger the gauge number, the finer the
diameter of the needle’s bore
III Needle length is measured in inches
IV Needle length is measured in centimeters
V Needle length is measured in millimeters
24 A concentrated vancomycin solution of 10 mL is
added to a 100 mL piggyback bag of normal saline
The solution is to be infused over one hour What is
the infusion rate?
25 How many milliliters of water should be mixed with
120 mL of syrup containing 75% w/v sucrose to make
a syrup containing 50% w/v sucrose?
26 Which of the following statements is INCORRECT?
a To prevent contamination, swab rubber closure
of the vial with 70% alcohol using firm strokes in
any direction or manner
b To prevent core formation, insert needle to
penetrate the rubber closure at same point with
both tip and heel of bevel
c To prevent vacuum formation, inject an
equal amount of air for the volume of fluid to be
removed
d When reconstituting drug powder, remove an
equal amount of air for the volume of diluent
added
e None of the above
27 Which of the following statements about pyrogens is/
are CORRECT?
I Pyrogens are bacterial endotoxins
II Pyrogens are metabolic products of living
d II and III only
e I, II, and III
28 Which of the following is NOT a method used tosterilize pharmaceutical products?
a Steam
b Dry heat
c Filtration
d Gas
e All of the above are used to sterilize products
29 True or False: When preparing a dose from anampule, one should use a 0.22-mm inline filter ratherthan the 5-mm filter straw
a True
b False
30 True or False: Nitroglycerin should always beprepared in glass because it is adsorbed to polyvinylchloride (PVC), the plastic in the bags, and
intravenous (IV) tubing
a I only
b II only
c I and II
d III only
e I, II, and III
32 Which of the following is not an example of anirrigation solution?
a Neomycin and polymyxin B sulfates
e All of the above
34 Answer the question based on the followingprescription:
For a 7-year-old patient:
Omeprazole 10 mg/tspSig 1 tsp q day, dispense 200 mLRecipe:
Dissolve omeprazole in sodium bicarbonate 8.4%
200 mLWhen preparing the above recipe, the pharmacistshould be concerned with which of the following?
I The purpose of sodium bicarbonate 8.4%
II The absence of alcoholIII The acid-base reaction between sodiumbicarbonate 8.4% and gastric acid
Trang 33a I and II only
b III only
c II and III only
d I, II, and III
e None of the above
35 Answer the question based on the following
Using the information given in the prescription and
the recipe above, what is the final concentration for
this oral suspension?
37 Medicinal agents can either be weak acids or weak
bases Weak bases include the following EXCEPT:
Sig Apply bidAMand hs
The “% w/v” expression is commonly used as an
abbreviation for percent weight in volume for
solutions or suspensions of solids in liquids What is
40 Which of the following statements is FALSE?
a Water for injection, USP, is purified by distillation
or by reverse osmosis
b Water for injection, USP, meets the samestandards for the presence of total solids aspurified water, USP
c Water for injection, USP, may not contain addedsubstances
d Water for injection, USP, must be both sterile andpyrogen free
e Sterile water for injection, USP, is used forreconstitution of antibiotics
41 Limewater is commonly used interchangeably for:
c Emulsion (water-in-oil [w/o] type)
d Emulsion (oil-in-water [o/w] type)
c Emulsion (W/O type)
d Emulsion (O/W type)
c Emulsion (W/O type)
d Emulsion (O/W type)
c Emulsion (W/O type)
d Emulsion (O/W type)
e Water soluble
Trang 3446 For an 8-year-old female patient:
Rx
Sodium fluoride 250 mcg
M & Ft cap DTD # XC
Sig 1 qd
How many milligrams of sodium fluoride are required
to prepare this prescription?
47 Needle size is determined by the gauge and the length
Which of the following statements is/are correct?
I The larger the gauge number, the larger the
diameter of the needle’s bore
II The larger the gauge number, the finer the
diameter of the needle’s bore
III Needle length is measured in inches
a I only
b III only
c I and II only
d II and III
e I, II, and III
48 When obtaining a 3-mL dose from a 5-mL ampule,
which one of the following steps is INCORRECT?
a Disinfect the neck of the ampule using an alcohol
swab
b Leave the swab in place
c Break ampule neck by snapping neck toward the
back wall of the laminar flow hood and away from
you
d Place needle tip into solution while holding the
ampule almost horizontally
e After drawing approximately 4 mL of solution,
aspirate excess into alcohol swab
49 If the infusion rate for drug X is 120 mL/hr, what is the
infusion rate in drops (gtt) per minute if drug X is
administered using an infusion set that delivers
50 The pharmacist needs to prepare 100 capsules, each
containing 4 mg of estriol and 0.5 mg of estradiol
A size 3 capsule is chosen for the prescription and
separate capsules are filled with drug and lactose
Weights of contents are as follows: estriol¼ 250 mg,
estradiol¼ 180 mg, lactose ¼ 300 mg
How much of each ingredient are needed to prepare
this prescription
a 100 mg estriol; 50 mg estradiol; 32.54 g lactose
b 200 mg estriol; 50 mg estradiol; 20.7 g lactose
c 300 mg estriol; 100 mg estradiol; 63.7 g lactose
d 400 mg estriol; 50 mg estradiol; 29.637 g lactose
e 500 mg estriol; 100 mg estradiol; 15.2 g lactose
51 Which of the following statements is/are true for avertical flow hood?
I Air blows towards worker
II Air blows from top down to maintain sterility andprotect the worker
III It is used to make chemotherapy
a I only
b III only
c I and II only
d II and III
e I, II, and III
52 Lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, and starch arecommonly used:
I as a diluent or filler
II to provide bulk
III to provide cohesion to the powder blend ofactive and inactive components for transfer intocapsule shells
a I only
b III only
c I and II only
d II and III only
e I, II, and III
53 The total fill weight (drug plus excipients) for onecapsule of a prescription was determined to be
280 mg Which of the following choices is/areappropriate?
54 Question refers to the following prescription:
An 18-year-old female patientRoom No 1827
Theophylline 200 mgPotassium chloride 10 mEqD5W 250 mL
Infuse over 4 h at 0800, 1400, 2000 for 4 daysHow many vials of theophylline injection (25 mg/mL,
20 mL per vial) are needed to complete this order for
55 Question refers to the following prescription:
An 18-year-old female patientRoom No 1827
Theophylline 200 mgPotassium chloride 10 mEqD5W 250 mL
Infuse over 4 h at 0800, 1400, 2000 for 4 days
A pharmacist reviewing this order should:
a call the prescriber to inform of a drug interactionbetween theophylline and potassium chloride
Trang 35b call the prescriber because the dose of
theophylline is too low
c talk to the IV room technician to make sure the IV
is put in a light-blocking bag
d call the prescriber and inform that potassium
chloride is not compatible in D5W
e fill the prescription as is
56 Sintering is:
a a method of mixing in a mortar and pestle
b a process of steeping and soaking a substance
c a method of extraction by boiling disolved
chemicals
d a process in which powdered materials are
heated to form a coherent mass
57 Which of the following is/are considered by USP-NF to
be tablet and/or capsule lubricants?
I Magnesium stearate
II Sodium benzoate
III Sodium lauryl sulfate
a I only
b II only
c III only
d I and III
e All of the above
58 Which of the following are considered by USP-NF to
e All of the above
59 How many grams of coal tar must be incorporatedinto 450 grams of zinc oxide paste to prepare a 10%coal tar ointment?
a I only
b II only
c I and II
d II and III
e All of the above
61 An order is written for 60 mL of 0.5% (w/v) lidocainehydrochloride solution The pharmacy has 2% (w/v)lidocaine hydrochloride solution in stock To fill thisorder, how many milliliters of normal saline (NS)should the pharmacist mix with what volume oflidocaine stock solution?
a 5 mL 2% solution and 55 mL NS
b 15 mL 2% solution and 45 mL NS
c 55 mL 2% solution and 5 mL NS
d 45 mL 2% solution and 15 mL NS
Trang 36The pharmacist is the healthcare professional who is the
point-person for all drug information Because it is
impossible for any one person to know everything, the
pharmacist should be able to know where to get
information In addition to locating the information, the
pharmacist must be able to interpret, evaluate, and apply it
Equally important is communication of this information
If a physician asks for information, the pharmacist can
likely share the information with the language in which it
was discovered However, if the information is intended
to be passed along to a patient, the pharmacist may
need to explain it in a way that reflects the patient’s health
literacy (explained in further detail in Chapter 6,
c) Annals of Internal Medicine
7 Non–peer-reviewed journalsa) Supplements
b) “Throw away” journals
8 Advantagesa) Most timelyb) Provides vital information on whichtherapeutic decisions are based
9 Disadvantagesa) Cost (e.g., cost of journal subscriptions)b) Access
c) Inconsistencies (e.g., conflicting journalarticles)
d) Requires basic statistic knowledge tointerpret study design and results
b) Versatilec) IPA is a more pharmacy-specific database
6 Disadvantagesa) Cost (e.g., EMBASE is more than
$40,000/year)b) Accessc) Scope (some systems may search more ordifferent journals so not always
comprehensive)
7 Medlinea) Abstracting service created by NationalLibrary of Medicine
b) Uses MeSH (Medical Subject Headings)terms
c) PubMed is a free search engine for accessingMedline
6 Internet sources of various levels of reliability:
It is critical to educate patients about websources that provide misinformation
7 Advantagesa) Accessb) Compactnessc) Concisenessd) Coste) Ease of use/easy to read
8 Disadvantagesa) Timelinessb) Errors in transcriptionc) Incomplete detail
II Components of a Clinical Trial
A Population
1 Sample: subset of the populationa) Individuals from whom data are collected forthe study
2 Sample size/power analysisa) Determination of the number of patientsrequired to adequately power a study(1) A large sample size can detect a smalldifference
(2) A small sample size can detect a largedifference
27
Trang 372 Double blind: patient and investigator masked
3 Open label: no masking; all patients andinvestigators aware of treatment
E Controls
1 Placebo controlled: administration of aninactive substance for a control
Table 4-1 Common Examples of Tertiary Literature (NOTE: lists are not comprehensive)
Drug-Induced Diseases
Extemporaneous FormulationsConsumer health information USP DI Vol II: Advice for the Patient (obsolete)
Clinical PharmacologyLexi-Comp
MicromedexWebsites:
www.drugdigest.orgwww.webmd.com
Harrison’s Principles of Internal MedicineDosing
Dosing: Special populations
AHFS Drug InformationClinical PharmacologyDrug Facts and ComparisonsMicromedex
Harriet Lane Handbook (pediatric)Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation (Briggs)Drug Prescribing in Renal Failure
Clinical PharmacologyDrug Facts and ComparisonsMicromedex
Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference
King’s Guide to Parenteral Admixtures
Natural Medicines Comprehensive DatabasePharmacology/Pharmacokinetics Goodman and Gilman’s The Pharmacologic Basis of Therapeutics
Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach (DePiro)Applied Therapeutics: The Clinical Use of Drugs (Koda-Kimble)
IDENT-A-DRUGWebMDClinical Pharmacology’s Drug Identifier
MicromedexUSP DI Volume 1 (obsolete)AHFS Drug InformationClinical Pharmacology
Trang 382 Double dummy: use of multiple controls to
maintain blinding
a) Example: To compare two medicines, one
presented as blue tablets and one as red
capsules, researchers could also supply blue
placebo tablets and red placebo capsules so
that both groups of patients would take one
blue tablet and one red capsule
3 Active control: use of an established therapy as
the comparative group
4 Crossover: patients serve as their own control
by receiving multiple interventions
F Methods
G Institutional review board (IRB), ethics committees
H Intervention, duration of treatment
2 Surrogate endpoints: easily measured
substitute markers in place of more clinically
meaningful endpoints (e.g., CD4 count used as a
surrogate endpoint for a trial regarding HIV
infection)
M Statistics
1 Goal: to be confident that the probability
statement (p value) is valid and to maximize the
possibility of detecting a difference when one
actually exists1
N Results
O Reporting adverse effects (MedWatch)
III Assessing Trial Results
A Findings related to primary outcomes
1 What type of data are presented?
a) Categorical (qualitative data)
(1) Nominal: named categories (e.g., blood
type, gender, race)(a) Mutually exclusive(2) Ordinal: ordered categories of data; often
sequenced (e.g., poor, good, excellent)(a) Mutually exclusive
b) Numerical (quantitative data)
(1) Continuous: ordered, sequenced, and has
a set of distance or values between rank(e.g., blood pressure, glucose levels)
B Were the findings statistically significant?
1 Hypothesis testing
a) Tests against the null hypothesis
(1) Null hypothesis (Ho): states that the
variable of interest is equal to a givenvalue or that no relationship existsbetween various variables
2 Statistical and clinical significance
a) Statistical: probability that the results are due
to chance or due to a true effect of treatment
b) Clinical: importance of the practical relevance
or variation of a difference in outcomes
(1) A statistically significant outcome may
not be clinically significant
3 P value
a) The probability of the observed result or a
more extreme result occurring by chance alone
b) The probability of the observed differenceoccurring if the null hypothesis is true
4 Types of errora) Type I error (false-positive error)(1) Rejecting the null hypothesis when itshould be accepted
(2) Relates to validity(3) Alpha level(a) It is the risk of finding a differencewhen there is not one (risk ofexperiencing a type I error)(b) Usually 5% by designation,indicating there is a less than 5%possibility that a finding is due tochance (does not really exist)b) Type II error (false-negative error)(1) Accepting the null hypothesis when itshould have been rejected (there was adifference that was not detected)(2) Relates to power
(3) Beta level(a) The chance researchers are willing
to risk that a difference will not bedetected
(b) The probability of committing aType II error
(c) Type II error (or beta)(d) Usually 20% by designation
5 Confidence interval (CI)a) The range of values in which researchers can
be certain that the true point estimate willfall
b) 95% CI most commonly reported(1) 95% probability that the true result lieswithin the range of results found, andthere is a 5% probability that the truerange lies outside the interval
c) CI is calculated by subtracting from andadding to the sample mean the appropriatenumber of standard errors of the meand) The narrower the CI, the greater thereliability and more precise the data
C How large is the treatment effect (when theprimary outcome shows a statistically significantdifference)?
1 Relative risk (RR)a) The reduction in the risk from one therapyrelative to another (RR¼ events in treatmentgroup events in placebo group)
(1) A RR of 1 means that there is nodifference
(2) A RR that is<1 (e.g., 0.75) means thatrisk is decreased
(3) A RR that is>1 (e.g., 1.15) means thatrisk is increased
b) Commonly used to express the therapeuticbenefit of a drug
2 Absolute reduction risk (ARR)a) The absolute difference between theprobabilities of the treatment event rate andcontrol event rate (ARR¼ Probability ofevents in placebo group [PB] Probability
of events in the active treatment group [PA])b) Expressed as a percentage
Trang 393 Number needed to treat (NNT)
a) Number of subjects needed to treat over a
defined period of time to experience one
benefit of therapy
b) NNT¼ 1/ARR
IV Evaluating Clinical Trials
A Questions to consider
1 Why was this study conducted?
2 Were previous trials conducted?
B Consider the power/significance of the study
a) Consider the appropriateness of each
statistical test and result
D Can the findings from this study be extrapolated to
patient/consumer?
V Study Types in Clinical Research
A Randomized controlled trial
1 An experiment in which investigators assign, by
random allocation, eligible subjects into
intervention groups to receive or not to receive
one or more interventions that are being
compared
2 Gold standard: Randomized controlled trials are
considered to have the highest validity and
reliability of various research designs, as they
eliminate causes of bias and provide a high
level of experimental control
3 Necessary for Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) approval
B Cohort studies
1 Group of subjects who have not yet
experienced the outcome of interest
2 Subjects exposed to a factor of interest are
compared to a group not exposed and followed
prospectively over time
C Case-control studies
1 Subjects with a particular characteristic are
compared to a similar group without the
characteristic to determine the cause
1 A method of combining results of previous and
similar research to determine a single estimate
of treatment
F Cross-sectional studies
1 Measurements taken at a single point in time
G Survey
1 Research used to study the incidence,
distribution, and relationship
H “N-of-1” trials
1 Randomized controlled study involving a single
subject
2 Crossover design
3 Lack of generalizability to a population
VI Research involved in the FDA Drug Approval Process
A Preclinical research
1 Goal: assess potential therapeutic effects
2 Does not predict human response
B Phase I
1 Initial study, usually in healthy human volunteers
2 Small number of subjects (fewer than 100subjects); brief length of study (less than 1 year
3 Determines toxicology, metabolism, andpharmacologic activities; early evidence ofeffectiveness
C Phase II
1 Expanded drug study to obtain preliminaryefficacy data and safety in humans
2 Small and highly homogeneous population
of patients for whom the drug is intended(N¼ several hundred participants)
D Phase III
1 Pivotal trials
2 Larger study (N¼ hundreds to thousands ofparticipants)
3 Long-term (up to several years)
4 Semidiverse population (representing targetpopulation)
5 Establishes final formulation, marketing claims,product stability, packaging, and storage concerns
6 Successful completion may mean ready tosubmit compound to FDA for approval
E Phase IV (postmarketing surveillance)
F New Drug Application (NDA) form
G Abbreviated NDA (aNDA) form: generic drugapproval
H Supplemental NDA (sNDA): approval for newindication
Reference
Haney MS, Meek PD: Essential clinical concepts ofbiostatistics, Kansas City, 1999, ACCP
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(Answers and Rationales on page 320.)
1 A customer requests a recommendation for a
“reliable brand” for ginseng To ensure that she gets aginseng product that has been tested for quality,what website(s) should a pharmacist consult?
I ConsumerLab.com
II ConsumerReports.orgIII American Society of Health-System Pharmacists(ASHP) Essentials
a I only
b III only
c I and II only
d II and III only
e I, II, and III
2 A customer requests a recommendation for a
“reliable brand” for honeysuckle To ensure that shegets a honeysuckle product that has been tested forquality, a pharmacist should NOT consult which ofthe following websites?
a ConsumerLab.com
b ConsumerReports.org
Trang 40c www.USP.org
d www.nsf.org
e www.fda.gov
3 How is Drug Facts and Comparisons organized?
a Alphabetically by generic name
b Alphabetically by manufacturer name
c By imprint code
d By therapeutic use
e None of the above
4 How is Trissel’s Handbook of Injectable Drugs organized?
a Alphabetically by generic name
b Alphabetically by manufacturer name
c By imprint code
d By therapeutic use
e None of the above
5 In which of the following resources could you have
found information on unlabeled uses for a drug?
I Lexi-Comp
II Drug Facts and Comparisons
III United States Pharmacopeia (USP) Volume 1
(obsolete)
a I only
b II only
c I and II only
d II and III only
e I, II, and III
6 Which of the following resources would you NOT use
7 In which resource would you find separate age,
height, and weight charts for boys and girls?
I Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation (Briggs)
II Harriet Lane Handbook
e I, II, and III
8 The FDA’s MedWatch is a service through which one
can report:
I product quality problems
II product use errors
III adverse reactions
a I only
b III only
c I and II only
d II and III only
e I, II, and III
9 Any original published research in regards to a
medication is considered to be:
e Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP)
11 True or False: PubMed requires the use of MeSH terms
c Patients are poorly monitored while on therapy
d Patients are hesitant to report an ADR
14 True or False: Because MedWatch is an FDA programand not a manufacturer, MedWatch does not publishsafety-related drug labeling changes
a True
b False
15 What do P and T in “P & T Committee” stand for?
a Pharmacy and Therapeutics
b Pharmacology and Therapeutics
c Pharmacy and Times
d Pharmacy and Toxicology
16 True or False: The P & T Committee, like the IRB,reviews, monitors, and has the authority to approve