Level of autonomy on the management of vocatinal schools in ha noi city, viet nam

ii The Dissertation of PHAM QUANG VINH entitled LEVEL OF AUTONOMY ON THE MANAGEMENT OF VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS IN HANOI CITY, VIETNAM Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements fo

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A DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School Southern Luzon State University, Lucban, Quezon, Philippines

in Collaboration with Thai Nguyen University, Socialist Republic of Vietnam

ii

The Dissertation of

PHAM QUANG VINH

entitled

LEVEL OF AUTONOMY ON THE MANAGEMENT OF VOCATIONAL

SCHOOLS IN HANOI CITY, VIETNAM

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree

DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

A program offered by Southern Luzon State University,

Republic of the Philippines in collaboration with

Thai Nguyen University, Socialist Republic of Vietnam

has been approved by Oral Examination Committee

WALBERTO A MACARAAN, EdD EDWIN P BERNAL, DBA

MELCHOR MELO O PLACINO, PhD ALICE T VALERIO, PhD

CECILIA N GASCON, PhD

Chairman

DO ANH TAI, PhD APOLONIA A ESPINOSA, PhD

Accepted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Business Administration

iii

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In grateful recognition and sincerest thanks for the encouragement,

guidance and unselfish sharing of their knowledge, time, effort and skills, and

for the untiring motivation that leads to the completion of this study, the

researcher acknowledges the following:

DR CECILIA N GASCON, Ph.D., President of the Southern Luzon

State University in the Republic of the Philippines, for her untiring effort and

belief that this collaboration is possible thus enabling us to pursue the DBA

degree;

DR DANG XUAN BINH, Ph.D., Director of the International Training

Center, Thai Nguyen University of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, for his

enormous pursuit to provide the Vietnamese people an opportunity to grow

through education;

DR DO ANH TAI, Ph.D., his adviser, for guidance and endless support

for the improvement of this study

ITC STAFF, for providing the necessary research materials;

MANAGERS and STAFF of Vocational Schools in Hanoi City, my

Respondents, for their patience and cooperation in answering the

questionnaire and for other data given;

MY FAMILY and FRIENDS, for the love and support in one way or the

other and TO ALL who have contributed to make this study a success

Phạ m Quang Vinh (Stone)

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This research is heartily dedicated

To my family and to all my relatives, my colleagues,

friends, classmates, administrators, staffs and employees

of Vocational Schools in Hanoi city

PQV

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TITLE PAGE ……… i

APPROVAL SHEET ……… ii

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY ……… iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……… iv

DEDICATION ……… v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ……… vi

LIST OF TABLES ……… viii

LIST OF FIGURES ……… xii

ABBREVIATIONS ……… xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES ……… xiv

ABSTRACT ……… xvi

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ……… 1

Background of the Study ……… 3

Statement of the Problem ……… 6

Objectives of the Study ……… 7

Hypothesis of the Study ……… 8

Significance of the Study ……… 8

Scope and Limitations of the Study ……… 8

Definition of Terms ……… 9

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ……… 11

Conceptual Framework ……….… 72

III METHODOLOGY Locale of the Study ……… 74

Research Design ……… 74

Determination of Sample Size ……… 75

Sampling Designs and Techniques ……… 76

Subject of the Study ……… 76

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Data Gathering Procedure ……… 78

Statistical Treatment ……… …….…… 79

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ……… 80

4.1 Profile of the Respondents ……… 80

4.2 Assessment of the Respondents on the Existing Level of Autonomy on Management of Vocational Schools in Hanoi City with Regards to Identifying Organizational Autonomy, Financial Autonomy, Staffing Autonomy and Academic Autonomy……… 83

4.3 Determining the Importance of Autonomy in Vocational Schools as Perceived by the Respondents ……… 132

4.4 Factors Affecting the Extent of Autonomy on the Given Indicators that may be Spelled Out by Private and Public Vocational Schools ……… 143

4.5 Testing a Significant Difference between the Profile of Respondents and their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on Management of Vocational Schools in Hanoi City, Vietnam ……… 145

V SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary of Findings ……… 158

Conclusions ……… 164

Recommendations ……… 166

REFERENCES ……… ……… 171

APPENDICES ……… 177

CURRICULUM VITAE ……… 209

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2.1 Requirements for Implementing Autonomy, Assessment

3.2 Rating Scale for Respondents’ Perception on Contents in

Autonomy Actives of Vocational Schools in Hanoi City 77

3.3 Type of Data and Methods of Gathering and Processing 79

4.1.1 Frequency Distribution of Respondents’ Profile as

4.1.2 Frequency Distribution of Respondents’ Profile as

Indicated by the Length of Service in the Department and

4.2.1 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Existing Level of

Autonomy on Management of Public Vocational Schools in

Hanoi City in terms of Identifying Organizational Autonomy 84 4.2.2 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Existing Level of

Autonomy on Management of Private Vocational Schools

in Hanoi City In Terms of Identifying Organizational

4.2.3 Composite of Mean Distribution of Responses on the

Existing Level of Autonomy on Management of Vocational

Schools in Hanoi City in terms of Identifying Organizational

4.2.4 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Existing Level of

Autonomy on Management of Public Vocational Schools in

Hanoi City in Terms of Identifying Financial Autonomy 99

4.2.5 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Existing Level of

Autonomy on Management of Private Vocational Schools

in Hanoi City in Terms of Identifying Financial Autonomy 102

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4.2.6 Composite of Mean Distribution of Responses on the

Existing Level of Autonomy on Management of Vocational

Schools in Hanoi City in Terms of Identifying Financial

4.2.7 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Existing Level of

Autonomy on Management of Public Vocational Schools in

Hanoi City in Terms of Identifying Staffing Autonomy 111

4.2.8 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Existing Level of

Autonomy on Management of Private Vocational Schools

in Hanoi City In Terms of Identifying Staffing Autonomy 115

4.2.9 Composite of Mean Distribution of Responses on the

Existing Level of Autonomy on Management of Vocational

Schools in Hanoi City in Terms of Identifying Staffing

4.2.10 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Existing Level of

Autonomy on Management of Public Vocational Schools in

Hanoi City in Terms of Identifying Academic Autonomy 122

4.2.11 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Existing Level of

Autonomy on Management of Private Vocational Schools

in Hanoi City In terms of Identifying Academic Autonomy 125

4.2.12 Composite of Mean Distribution of Responses on the

Existing Level of Autonomy on Management of Vocational

Schools in Hanoi City in Terms of Identifying Academic

4.3.1 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Importance of

Organization Autonomy Vocational schools in Hanoi city 133

4.3.2 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Importance of

Financial Autonomy of Vocational Schools in Hanoi City 135 4.3.3 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Importance of

Staffing Autonomy in Vocational Schools in Hanoi City 138

4.3.4 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Importance of

Academic Autonomy in Vocational Schools in Hanoi City 140

4.3.5 Composite of Mean Distribution of Responses on the

Importance of Autonomy Factors in Vocational Schools in

x

4.4.1 Mean Distribution of Responses on the Factors should be

the Extent of Autonomy on the Given Indicators that may

be Spelled Out by Private and Public Vocational Schools in

4.5.1a Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Position and

their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on Management of

4.5.1b Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Position and

their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on Management of

4.5.2a Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Age Bracket

and their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on

Management of Public Vocational Schools in Hanoi City,

4.5.2b Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Age bracket

and their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on

Management of Private Vocational Schools in Hanoi City,

4.5.3a Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Education

and their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on

Management of Public Vocational Schools in Hanoi City,

4.5.3b Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Education

and their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on

Management of Private Vocational Schools in Hanoi City,

4.5.4a Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Gender and

their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on Management of

4.5.4b Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Gender and

their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on Management of

4.5.5a Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Experience

and their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on

Management of Public Vocational Schools in Hanoi City,

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4.5.5b Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Experience

and their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on

Management of Private Vocational Schools in Hanoi City,

4.5.6a Significant Difference between the Respondents’ Working

Division and their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on

Management of Public Vocational Schools in Hanoi City,

4.5.6b Significant Difference Between the Respondents’ Working

Division and their Perception on the Level of Autonomy on

Management of Private Vocational Schools in Hanoi City,

4.5.7 Significant Difference Between the Public and Private

School’s Evaluation on the Level of Autonomy on

Management of Vocational Schools in Hanoi City, Vietnam 157

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5 Research Model for Assessment of the Level of Autonomy

on the Management of Vocational Schools in Hanoi,

MOLISA Ministry of Labour - Invalids - Social Affairs

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xvi

MANAGEMENT OF VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS

IN HANOI CITY, VIETNAM

Name and Address

of Institution

: Southern Luzon State University, Lucban, Quezon, Philippines and Thai Nguyen University, Socialist Republic of Vietnam

This dissertation with the title "Level of Autonomy on the

Management of Vocational Schools in Hanoi City, Vietnam ", has for its

objective the evaluation of the actual operation of autonomous vocational

schools in Hanoi, as well as the review of literature about the autonomy of

schools in general and of vocational schools in particular This study reviews

the operational status of autonomy in vocational schools in Hanoi based on

certain criteria to determine the actual circumstances obtaining in these

institutions and the key element for autonomy in vocational schools in Hanoi

This study uses the method of descriptive statistics, comparison

statistics and analysis of variance through the selection of two types of

vocational schools in Hanoi, both public and private Two groups of

respondents are chosen in each type of school to measure their perceptions

about managing the operational autonomy in schools

Research has shown the operational autonomy of vocational schools in

Hanoi at the outset The concept, content and the policy on school autonomy

xvii

much difference in the perception of the respondent group about the status of

content management autonomy in vocational schools in Hanoi The study

likewise shows that there is no difference in terms of autonomy between the

two types of vocational schools Private schools have a higher degree of

autonomy than public schools However the operation of autonomous school

in Vietnam is strictly controlled by the government

The main research results show that school autonomy in Vietnam has

not been taken seriously There is actually an unfair treatment in the

government's implementation policy in favor of private schools with respect to

infrastructure and training programs Therefore, the government needs to be

aware of the school’s right to self-determination specifically in matters

pertinent to organization, finances, human resources and academics The

government should not discriminate the type of school in the implementation

of its educational policy and grant of autonomy

Chapter I INTRODUCTION

Autonomy is a topic of great interest, which is often mentioned in the

forums of education - training in Vietnam It is the primary concern of the

school as well as the state management agencies in the midst of varying

opinions and conflicting viewpoints Although the general direction is bold

autonomy and self-responsibility of the schools to increase their flexibility,

many specific issues that are given out to discuss such as licensing and how

to license, the mechanism of state control to let off without relinquishing

management while enhancing the effective operation of the school, etc have

of late become a matter of primary concern

Autonomy of institutions in the field of education is understood as

self-determination and self-responsibility under the laws and the requirements of

society for all its activities such as finance, personnel and organizational

structure, training programs, strategic planning, etc

Under the provisions of Vietnam laws, the level of autonomy of the

education and training institutions (collectively, the schools) depends on the

type of school Currently in Vietnam, the system of Occupational Education

includes the professional intermediate schools, vocational schools, vocational

colleges, and some colleges and universities, which have Vocational

Education models (after here, referred to as Vocational School) under two

different types (Nguyen Duc Toan, 2010):

- Private Schools: all of them are full autonomy

- Public Schools: three kinds that are non-autonomy, partial

autonomy, and full autonomy

Each type of school is influenced by the different legal documents and

regulations regarding its autonomy

Autonomy does not mean relinquishing management from the state In

contrast, autonomy given to schools is considered as one of the most

important solutions to motivate and bring a new life into these training

institutions to improve their efficiency, educational quality and social

responsibility

Vietnam is in the process of institutional transformation from the

planning - bureaucracy - subsidy economy to complete market economy

Accordingly, education and training is not only seen as a public utility sector,

but also considered an important service sector that has been contributing

significantly to the sustainable development of market economy Ensuring

autonomy for training institutions is a prerequisite for these institutions to

adjust their activities in accordance with market mechanism, which requires

the dynamic, creation, activeness and accepts the changes frequently

The scope of this study will try to approach a relative full autonomy of

the occupational educational institutions and its impact on the activities of

these schools This study will also try to compare the existing legal provisions

with some experiences of developed countries to put forward some

recommendations to improve and enhance the effectiveness of the policy

framework for Occupational Education field as well as the advancement of

each school

Background of the Study

The developments towards a different model of governance in many

advanced societies have been characterized with the phrase “regulatory

state” (Moran 2002), i.e a state where direct public ownership is replaced by

regulating more autonomous units Higher education is subject to similar

changes and is waiting for a systematic analysis from a regulatory approach

(King 2007) As a general rule, vocational schools have become more

autonomous – free from line-itemized budgets, input control, and detailed

prescriptions on curricula (Santiago et al 2008) The greater autonomy is at

the same time balanced by new accountability mechanisms (Santiago et al

2008) Therefore, the autonomy of the schools is limited to make the selection

of the training majors as well as to determine the suitable training model upon

requests of the labour markets and training capacities of schools actively

According to Circular No115/2010/ND-CP dated 24/12/2010 of the

Government, this responsibility has been transferred to the local Education &

Training departments However, these departments are continuously

encountering difficulties in dealing with this new task leading to the delays,

lack of the uniformity in approving the procedures to open new majors and

giving the annual recruitment quantity, GOV (2010)

At present, Vietnam does not have sufficient legislation to encourage

the enterprises and schools in launching a national ,cooperative effort for

students to meet the demands of the labour market Schools still train

students with their own programs without being concerned much about what

the labour market requires The stagnation and the inactivity of the schools

are affected directly by the management methods which are heavily

influenced by the bureaucracy

The Vietnam Educational Law still remains the classification of the

state management function in the area of occupational education for the

MOET (manage the intermediate professional schools) and MOLISA (manage

the vocational schools, vocational colleges) This separation has caused the

inequality, dispersion and reduced effectiveness of the resources invested in

the occupational education area Moreover, it also limits the autonomy of the

occupational education institutions to diversify the training programs, levels of

training, and the links among the training programs and levels of training

Besides, the lack of the financial resources is one of the main reasons

causing limitations on the autonomy of the occupational education institutions

with quality training as its focus

In addition, the effectiveness of the financial investments for occupational

education area is not high, not focused, and has not encouraged the schools to

improve the quality The private occupational education institutions will

encounter a lot of difficulties in dealing with the procedures to ask for

permission to open new schools, being provided with lands to build

school,and launching training programs They are not behaved as equally as

the public schools and it is difficult for them to approach supported policies for

the development of occupational education from the Government Therefore,

the autonomy of the private schools in Vietnam lacks the backing and support

that it really needs Some major problems exist in occupational education

policy in Vietnam at present: the classification and allocation of the state

management in the occupational education are inappropriate There are many

different points between the MOET and MOLISA on the development policy of

the occupational education system that has not been solved properly (Nguyen

Van Khoi, 2012)

There is an unbalanced allocation of investment projects to develop the

vocational capacity among vocational schools and intermediate professional

schools It appears that MOET is not paying enough attention to the development

of the intermediate professional education system There is also a lack of

transparency and consistency in the decentralized management of the

occupational education sector and the state management agencies which

normally hamper the autonomous, speedy and smooth operation of the

occupational educational institutions

The coexistence of these two systems of state management in

occupational education leads to inconsistencies and inequalities among different

school models

It does not only create legal barriers in the National Education System, but

also limits the autonomy of the schools in building their training programs that

can meet the requirements of the labour market

Besides the challenges and difficulties mentioned above, there are,

however, some basic advantages, which are the Government's policies on

enhancing the autonomy and self-responsibility of the educational organizations,

including occupational education establishments

Currently, autonomy is an inevitable trend in the development of the

occupational and educational system in Vietnam

This research will study the current status of the autonomy of the

occupational educational institutions to point out the existing critical issues along

this line.Recommendations are given to improve the legal framework towards

increasing autonomy and social responsibility of the occupational educational

institutions Based on that, this study hopefully will be able to help develop the

policy framework of the occupational education sector in Vietnam

Statement of the Problem

This study aimed to improve the the problems of managing autonomy

of vocational schools in Hanoi City.Particularly, it sought to determine the

e) Work Experiences in Education & Training Fields

2 What is the perceived autonomy level of public and private schools’

operation in Hanoi City in terms of:

a) Organizational Autonomy

b) Financial Autonomy

c) Staffing Autonomy

d) Academic Autonomy

3 How do you compare the level of autonomy between the public and

private vocational schools in terms of selected indicators?

4 How do you compare the level of autonomy of private and public

schools as perceived by the managers, teachers, and lecturers?

5 What should be the extent of autonomy on the given indicators that

may be spelled out by private and public vocational schools?

6 What plan program can be developed to support the autonomy to

develop the vocational schools?

Objectives of the Study

The goal of this study is to focus on the evaluation of the status of

management autonomy of vocational schools in Hanoi City, Vietnam and

consequently, this study will try to recommend solutions to existing problems

regarding management autonomy of vocational schools in Hanoi City

Specifically, it sought to:

1 Determine the respondents’ perception on autonomy in the operation of

public and private vocational schools in Hanoi City

2 Determine and compare the level of autonomy between the public and

private vocational schools

3 Determine which of the areas is perceived as the top priority for

autonomy between public and private vocational schools in Hanoi City

Hypotheses

There is no significant difference on the perceived autonomy by a group of

respondents and their profiles

Significance of the Study

For the research organization: Autonomy for Education and Training

institutions will be an opportunity to make their own orientation in accordance

with the characteristics and circumstances of each school

For the managers: There are helpful hints in the use of effective

autonomy as a tool to improve the quality of the schools and the effectiveness

of the state management in the occupational education system

For the researcher: Apply obtained knowledge to do research and the

researcher is also the leader of a professional secondary school, therefore the

school will also get the benefits from the results of this study

For the other researchers: Results of this study can be made as a

useful reference for the other researchers to study similar problems in

the future

Scope and Limitations of the Study

This study is a descriptive research to assess the status of school

autonomy of various vocational schools in Hanoi City Autonomy actives in

vocational schools in Hanoi will be evaluated based on the following variables

such as academic autonomy, financial autonomy, organizational

autonomy, and staffing autonomy

The respondents come from multisectors: the managers, teachers, and

lecturers who have been working at vocational schools in Hanoi city and

subject to the use of questionnaires, checklists and interviews Previous

studies on autonomy in schools will also be used for check and balance

purposes

Due to limited time and other resources, the researcher just collected a

total of 539 respondents from public and private vocational schools in Hanoi

City based on a formula for calculating total sample

A five-point scale was used to determine the perception of respondents

on the existing level of autonomy on management of vocational schools

Definition of Terms

Autonomy is as old as the tradition of higher education Complete autonomy

implies that the higher education institutions concerned are

self-governing communities with no control from governments or other

outside bodies on their internal activities

Academic autonomy refers to a school’s ability to decide on various

academic issues, such as student admissions, academic content,

quality assurance, the introduction of degree programmers and the

language of instruction

Financial autonomy refers to a school’s ability to decide freely on its internal

financial affairs The ability to manage its funds independently enables

an institution to set and realize its strategic aims

Organizational autonomy is an art practice as a Not For Profit Organization,

whose projects are subject to the oversight of a board of directors It is

a device for fragmenting the authoritarian vision of the artist through a

collective process, and aligning with and redefining what it means to

work in the public interest

Staffing autonomy refers to a school’s ability to decide freely on issues

related to human resources management, including recruitments,

salaries, dismissals and promotions

Chapter II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter will present concepts and theories that have significant

effects on the conduct of the study The review of related literature and study

would present what had been written about the subject Finally a conceptual

framework that will aid the conduct of this research work will be established

Related Concepts and Review of School Autonomy

Concept on Education and Vocational School

Education

According to Maarja Beerkens (2006), education is the very nature of

life to strive to continue in being Since this continuance can be secured only

by constant renewal, life is a self-renewing process What nutrition and

reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life This education

consists primarily in transmission through communication Communication is

a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession It

modifies the disposition of both the parties who partake in it That the ulterior

significance of every mode of human association lies in the contribution,

which it makes to the improvement of the quality of experience is a fact most

easily recognized in dealing with the immature That is to say, while every

social arrangement is educative in effect, the educative effect first becomes

an important part of the purpose of the association in connection with the

association of the older with the younger As societies become more complex

in structure and resources, the need of formal or intentional teaching and

learning increases As formal teaching and training grow in extent, there is the

danger of creating an undesirable split between the experience gained in

more direct associations and what is acquired in school This danger was

never greater than at the present time, on account of the rapid growth in the

last few centuries of knowledge and technical modes of skill

Education Being National and Social

As soon as the first enthusiasm for freedom waned, the weakness of

the theory upon the constructive side became obvious Merely to leave

everything to nature was, after all, but to negate the very idea of education; it

was to trust to the accidents of circumstance Not only was some method

required but also some positive organ, some administrative agency for

carrying on the process of instruction The "complete and harmonious

development of all powers," having as its social counterpart an enlightened

and progressive humanity, required definite organization for its realization

Private individuals here and there could proclaim the gospel; they could not

execute the work A Pestalozzi could try experiments and exhort

philanthropically inclined persons having wealth and power to follow his

example But even Pestalozzi saw that any effective pursuit of the new

educational ideal required the support of the state The realization of the new

education destined to produce a new society was, after all, dependent upon

the activities of existing states The movement for the democratic idea

inevitably became a movement for publicly conducted and administered

schools (Teresa Garciaa, Paul R Pintrichb, 2002)

So far as Europe was concerned, the historic situation identified the

movement for a state-supported education with the nationalistic movement in

political life a fact of incalculable significance for subsequent movements

Under the influence of German thought in particular, education became a civic

function and the civic function was identified with the realization of the ideal of

the national state The "state" was substituted for humanity; cosmopolitanism

gave way to nationalism To form the citizen, not the "man," became the aim

of education (Anderson, D & Johnson, R 2003) The historic situation to

which reference is made is the after-effects of the Napoleonic conquests,

especially in Germany The German states felt (and subsequent events

demonstrate the correctness of the belief) that systematic attention to

education was the best means of recovering and maintaining their political

integrity and power Externally they were weak and divided Under the

leadership of Prussian statesmen they made this condition a stimulus to the

development of an extensive and thoroughly grounded system of public

education

This change in practice necessarily brought about a change in theory

The individualistic theory receded into the background The state furnished

not only the instrumentalities of public education but also its goal When the

actual practice was such that the school system, from the elementary grades

through the school faculties, supplied the patriotic citizen and soldier and the

future state official and administrator and furnished the means for military,

industrial, and political defense and expansion, it was impossible for theory

not to emphasize the aim of social efficiency And with the immense

importance attached to the nationalistic state, surrounded by other competing

and more or less hostile states, it was equally impossible to interpret social

efficiency in terms of a vague cosmopolitan humanitarianism Since the

maintenance of a particular national sovereignty required subordination of

individuals to the superior interests of the state both in military defense and in

struggles for international supremacy in commerce, social efficiency was

understood to imply a like subordination The educational process was taken

to be one of disciplinary training rather than of personal development Since,

however, the ideal of culture as complete development of personality

persisted, educational philosophy attempted a reconciliation of the two ideas

The reconciliation took the form of the conception of the "organic" character of

the state The individual in his isolation is nothing; only in and through

absorption of the aims and meaning of organized institutions does he attain

true personality What appears to be his subordination to political authority

and the demand for sacrifice of himself to the commands of his superiors is in

reality but making his own the objective reason manifested in the state - the

only way in which he can become truly rational The notion of development,

which we have seen to be characteristic of institutional idealism (as in the

Hegelian philosophy) was just such a deliberate effort to combine the two

ideas of complete realization of personality and thoroughgoing "disciplinary"

subordination to existing institutions (Teresa Garcia, Paul R Pintrichb (2002)

The extent of the transformation of educational philosophy, which

occurred in Germany in the generation occupied by the struggle against

Napoleon for national independence, may be gathered from Kant, who well

expresses the earlier individual-cosmopolitan ideal In his treatise on

Pedagogies, consisting of lectures given in the later years of the eighteenth

century, he defines education as the process by which man becomes man

Mankind begins its history submerged in nature - not as Man who is a

creature of reason, while nature furnishes only instinct and appetite Nature

offers simply the germs which education is to develop and perfect The

peculiarity of truly human life is that man has to create himself by his own

voluntary efforts; he has to make himself a truly moral, rational, and free

being This creative effort is carried on by the educational activities of slow

generations Its acceleration depends upon men consciously striving to

educate their successors not for the existing state of affairs but so as to make

possible a future better humanity But there is the great difficulty Each

generation is inclined to educate its young so as to get along in the present

world instead of with a view to the proper end of education: the promotion of

the best possible realization of humanity as humanity Parents educate their

children so that they may get on; princes educate their subjects as

instruments of their own purposes

Who, then, shall conduct education so that humanity may improve? We

must depend upon the efforts of enlightened men in their private capacity "All

culture begins with private men and spreads outward from them Simply

through the efforts of persons of enlarged inclinations, who are capable of

grasping the ideal of a future better condition, is the gradual approximation of

human nature to its end possible Rulers are simply interested in such

training as will make their subjects better tools for their own intentions." Even

the subsidy by rulers of privately conducted schools must be carefully

safeguarded For the rulers' interest in the welfare of their own nation instead

of in what is best for humanity, will make them, if they give money for the

schools, wish to draw their plans We have in this view an express statement

of the point’s characteristic of the eighteenth century individualistic

cosmopolitanism The full development of private personality is identified with

the aims of humanity as a whole and with the idea of progress In addition we

have an explicit fear of the hampering influence of a state-conducted and

state-regulated education upon the attainment of these ideas But in less than

two decades after this time, Kant's philosophic successors, Fichte and Hegel,

elaborated the idea that the chief function of the state is educational; that in

particular the regeneration of Germany is to be accomplished by an education

carried on in the interests of the state, and that the private individual is of

necessity an egoistic, irrational being, enslaved to his appetites and to

circumstances unless he submits voluntarily to the educative discipline of

state institutions and laws In this spirit, Germany was the first country to

undertake a public, universal, and compulsory system of education extending

from the primary school through the school, and to submit to jealous state

regulation and supervision all private educational enterprises (EU, 2011)

Two results should stand out from this brief historical survey, the first is

that such terms as the individual and the social conceptions of education are

quite meaningless taken at large, or apart from their context Plato had the

ideal of an education which should equate individual realization and social

coherency and stability His situation forced his ideal into the notion of a

society organized in stratified classes, losing the individual in the class The

eighteenth century educational philosophy was highly individualistic in form,

but this form was inspired by a noble and generous social ideal: that of a

society organized to include humanity, and providing for the indefinite

perfectibility of mankind The idealistic philosophy of Germany in the early

nineteenth century endeavored again to equate the ideals of a free and

complete development of cultured personality with social discipline and

political subordination It made the national state an intermediary between the

realization of private personality on one side and of humanity on the other

Consequently, it is equally possible to state its animating principle with equal

truth either in the classic terms of "harmonious development of all the powers

of personality" or in the more recent terminology of "social efficiency." All this

reinforces the statement, which opens this chapter: The conception of

education as a social process and function has no definite meaning until we

define the kind of society we have in mind

These considerations pave the way for our second conclusion One of

the fundamental problems of education in and for a democratic society is set

by the conflict of a nationalistic and a wider social aim The earlier

cosmopolitan and "humanitarian" conception suffered both from vagueness

and from lack of definite organs of execution and agencies of administration

In Europe, in the Continental states particularly, the new idea of the

importance of education for human welfare and progress was captured by

national interests and harnessed to do a work whose social aim was definitely

narrow and exclusive The social aim of education and its national aim were

identified, and the result was a marked obscuring of the meaning of a social

aim

This confusion corresponds to the existing situation of human

intercourse On the one hand, science, commerce, and art transcend national

boundaries They are largely international in quality and method They involve

interdependencies and cooperation among the peoples inhabiting different

countries At the same time, the idea of national sovereignty has never been

as accentuated in politics as it is at the present time Each nation lives in a

state of suppressed hostility and incipient war with its neighbors Each is

supposed to be the supreme judge of its own interests, and it is assumed as

matter of course that each has interests which are exclusively its own To

question this is to question the very idea of national sovereignty, which is

assumed to be basic to political practice and political science This

contradiction (for it is nothing less) between the wider sphere of associated

and mutually helpful social life and the narrower sphere of exclusive and

hence potentially hostile pursuits and purposes, exacts of educational theory

a clearer conception of the meaning of "social" as a function and test of

education than has yet been attained

Is it possible for an educational system to be conducted by a national

state and yet the full social ends of the educative process not be restricted,

constrained, and corrupted? Internally, the question has to face the

tendencies, due to present economic conditions, which split society into

classes some of which are made merely tools for the higher culture of others

Externally, the question is concerned with the reconciliation of national loyalty,

of patriotism, with superior devotion to the things, which unite men in common

ends, irrespective of national political boundaries Neither phase of the

problem can be worked out by merely negative means It is not enough to see

to it that education is not actively used as an instrument to make easier the

exploitation of one class by another School facilities must be secured of such

amplitude and efficiency as will in fact and not simply in name discount the

effects of economic inequalities, and secure to all the wards of the nation

equality of equipment for their future careers Accomplishment of this end

demands not only adequate administrative provision of school facilities, and

such supplementation of family resources as will enable youth to take

advantage of them, but also such modification of traditional ideals of culture,

traditional subjects of study and traditional methods of teaching and discipline

as will retain all the youth under educational influences until they are equipped

to be masters of their own economic and social careers The ideal may seem

remote of execution, but the democratic ideal of education is a farcical yet

tragic delusion except as the ideal more and more dominates our public

system of education

The same principle has application on the side of the considerations,

which concern the relations of one nation to another It is not enough to teach

the horrors of war and to avoid everything, which would stimulate international

jealousy and animosity The emphasis must be put upon whatever binds

people together in cooperative human pursuits and results, apart from

geographical limitations The secondary and provisional character of national

sovereignty in respect to the fuller, freer, and more fruitful association and

intercourse of all human beings with one another must be instilled as a

working disposition of mind If these applications seem to be remote from a

consideration of the philosophy of education, the impression shows that the

meaning of the idea of education previously developed has not been

adequately grasped This conclusion is bound up with the very idea of

education as a freeing of individual capacity in a progressive growth directed

to social aims Otherwise a democratic criterion of education can only be

inconsistently applied

Vocational Education

Vocational education (education based on occupation or employment)

(also known as vocational education and training or VET) is education that

prepares people for specific trades, crafts and careers at various levels from

a trade, a craft, technician, or a professional position in engineering,

accountancy, nursing, medicine, architecture, pharmacy, law etc Craft

vocations are usually based on manual or practical activities, traditionally

non-academic, related to a specific trade, occupation, or vocation It is sometimes

referred to as technical education as the trainee directly develops expertise in

a particular group of techniques In the UK some higher technician

engineering positions that require 4-5 year apprenticeship require academic

study to higher City and Guilds level (Breda Zupanc and Metka Zevnik, 2009)

Vocational education may be classified as teaching procedural

knowledge This can be contrasted with declarative knowledge, as used in

education in a usually broader scientific field, which might concentrate

on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge, characteristic of tertiary

education Vocational education can be at the secondary,

post-secondary level, further education level and can interact with

the apprenticeship system Increasingly, vocational education can be

recognized in terms of recognition of prior learning and partial academic

credit towards tertiary education (e.g., at school) as credit; however, it is rarely

considered in its own form to fall under the traditional definition of higher

education Vocational education is related to the

age-old apprenticeship system of learning Apprenticeships are designed for many

levels of work from manual trades to high knowledge work

However, as the labor market becomes more specialized and

economies demand higher levels of skill, governments and businesses are

increasingly investing in the future of vocational education through publicly

funded training organizations and subsidized apprenticeship or traineeship

initiatives for businesses At the post-secondary level vocational education is

typically provided by an institute of technology, school, or by a

local community college

Vocational education has diversified over the 20th century and now

exists in industries such as retail, tourism, information technology, funeral

services and cosmetics, as well as in the traditional crafts and cottage

industries (Breda Zupanc and Metka Zevnik, 2009)

A vocational school (or trade school or career school), providing

providing vocational education, is a school in which students are taught the

skills needed to perform a particular job Traditionally, vocational schools have

not existed to further education in the area of liberal arts, but rather to teach

only job-specific skills, and as such have been better considered to be

institutions devoted to training, and not liberal arts education That purely

vocational focus began changing in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation

that develops the academic", and technical skills of students, as well as the

vocation Typically, most career colleges specifically design their curricula for

fields that have the best current and future growth potential (Breda Zupanc

and Metka Zevnik, 2009)

The Meaning of Vocation

According to Huisman, J (2007), at the present time the conflict of

philosophic theories focuses in discussion of the proper place and function of

vocational factors in education The bald statement that significant differences

in fundamental philosophical conceptions find their chief issue in connection

with this point may arouse incredulity: there seems to be too great a gap

between the remote and general terms in which philosophic ideas are

formulated and the practical and concrete details of vocational education But

a mental review of the intellectual presuppositions underlying the oppositions

in education of labor and leisure, theory and practice, body and mind, mental

states and the world, will show that they culminate in the antithesis of

vocational and cultural education Traditionally, liberal culture has been linked

to the notions of leisure, purely contemplative knowledge and a spiritual

activity not involving the active use of bodily organs Culture has also tended,

latterly, to be associated with a purely private refinement, a cultivation of

certain states and attitudes of consciousness, separate from either social

direction or service It has been an escape from the former, and a solace for

the necessity of the latter

So deeply entangled are these philosophic dualisms with the whole

subject of vocational education, that it is necessary to define the meaning of

vocation with some fullness in order to avoid the impression that an

education, which centers about it is narrowly practical, if not merely pecuniary

A vocation means nothing but such a direction of life activities as renders

them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they

accomplish, and also useful to his associates The opposite of a career is

neither leisure nor culture, but aimlessness, capriciousness, the absence of

cumulative achievement in experience, on the personal side, and idle display,

parasitic dependence upon the others, on the social side Occupation is a

concrete term for continuity It includes the development of artistic capacity of

any kind, of special scientific ability, of effective citizenship, as well as

professional and business occupations, to say nothing of mechanical labor or

engagement in gainful pursuits

We must avoid not only limitation of conception of vocation to the

occupations where immediately tangible commodities are produced, but also

the notion that vocations are distributed in an exclusive way, one and only one

to each person Such restricted specialism is impossible; nothing could be

more absurd than to try to educate individuals with an eye to only one line of

activity In the first place, each individual has of necessity a variety of callings,

in each of which he should be intelligently effective; and in the second place

any one occupation loses its meaning and becomes a routine keeping busy at

something in the degree in which it is isolated from other interests (see

Huisman, J (2007))

(i) No one is just an artist and nothing else, and in so far as one

approximates that condition, he is so much the less developed human being;

he is a kind of monstrosity He must, at some period of his life, be a member

of a family; he must have friends and companions; he must either support

himself or be supported by others, and thus he has a business career He is a